Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CERAMIC
INDUSTRY
Submitted by:
BS ChE 3 Group 2
Garcia, Ann Clarisse M.
Santos, Amabelle C.
Sison, Bren A.
Torres, Clark Ivan V.
Submitted to:
Engr. Milagros R. Cabangon
Instructor
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Ceramic Industry
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Objectives ....................................................................................................... 3
Introduction .................................................................................................... 4
Brief History ................................................................................................... 5
Raw Materials ................................................................................................. 6
Ceramic Tiles .................................................................................................. 7
Types..................................................................................................... 8
Manufacturing Process .......................................................................... 9
Manufacturing Companies ................................................................... 14
Whitewares ................................................................................................... 15
Types................................................................................................... 16
Raw Materials ...................................................................................... 18
Manufacturing Process ........................................................................ 19
Manufacturing Companies ................................................................... 23
Plant Layout ........................................................................................ 24
Process Layout .................................................................................... 24
Structural Clay Products ............................................................................... 25
Raw Materials ...................................................................................... 25
Manufacturing Process ........................................................................ 27
Manufacturing Companies ................................................................... 28
Process Layout .................................................................................... 29
Refractories................................................................................................... 30
Classifications ..................................................................................... 30
Varieties .............................................................................................. 33
Uses and Applications ......................................................................... 36
Manufacturing Companies ................................................................... 39
Manufacturing Process ........................................................................ 40
Specialized Ceramic Product ......................................................................... 47
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Ceramic Industry
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
OBJECTIVES
General Objective:
To identify and enumerate the raw materials, unit operations and
equipment involved in the manufacturing process of ceramics.
Specific Objectives:
• To identify the major and minor raw materials in the production of
ceramics.
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Ceramic Industry
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
INTRODUCTION
Porcelain Containers
Whitewares
Industrial Ceramics
Pottery
Refractories
The word ceramics, that was first used in 1890, came from the Greek word
keramikos. The coined term came from the popular keramos potter’s clay.
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Ceramic Industry
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
BRIEF HISTORY
YEAR DEVELOPMENT
26,000 Early man discovers that the clay or the mud combined with
BC the mammoth fat and bone that is composed of bone ash and
loess is moldable, thus, created the first ceramic art.
1960 A new field called fiber optics opens with the discovery of the
laser and the observation that its light will travel through glass.
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Ceramic Industry
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
RAW MATERIALS
Because of the large volumes of product involved, traditional
ceramics tend to be manufactured from naturally occurring raw materials. In
most cases these materials are silicates—that is, compounds based on silica
(SiO2), an oxide form of the element silicon. In fact, so common is the use of
silicate minerals that traditional ceramics are often referred to as silicate
ceramics, and their manufacture is often called the silicate industry. Many of
the silicate materials are actually unmodified or chemically modified
aluminosilicates (alumina [Al2O3] plus silica), although silica is also used in its
pure form. Altogether, the raw materials employed in traditional ceramics fall
into three commonly recognized groups: clay, silica, and feldspar. These groups
are described below.
Clay
Clay minerals such as kaolinite
(Al2[Si2O5][OH]4) are secondary geologic
deposits, having been formed by the weathering
of igneous rocks under the influence of water,
dissolved carbon dioxide, and organic acids. The
largest deposits are believed to have formed
when feldspar (KAlSi3O8) was eroded from rocks
such as granite and was deposited in lake beds,
where it was subsequently transformed into clay.
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Ceramic Industry
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
Silica
Other constituents of traditional ceramics are
silica and feldspar. Silica is a major ingredient in
refractories and whitewares. It is usually added as
quartz sand, sandstone, or flint pebbles. The role of
silica is that of a filler, used to impart “green” (that is,
unfired) strength to the shaped object and to maintain
that shape during firing. It also improves final
properties.
Feldspar
Feldspars are aluminosilicates that contain
sodium (Na), potassium (K), or calcium (Ca). They range
in composition from NaAlSi3O8 and KAlSi3O8 to
CaAl2Si2O8. Feldspars act as fluxing agents to reduce
the melting temperatures of the aluminosilicate phases.
CERAMIC TILES
Wall and floor tile used for interior and
exterior decoration belongs to a class of ceramics
known as whitewares. The production of tile dates
back to ancient times and peoples, including the
Egyptians, the Babylonians, and the Assyrians.
For instance, the Step Pyramid for the Pharoah
Djoser, built in ancient Egypt around 2600 B.C. ,
contained colorful glazed tile. Later, ceramic tile
was manufactured in virtually every major
European country and in the United States. By
the beginning of the twentieth century, tile was manufactured on an industrial
scale. The invention of the tunnel kiln around 1910 increased the automation of
tile manufacture. Today, tile manufacture is highly automated.
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Ceramic Industry
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
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Ceramic Industry
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
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Ceramic Industry
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
BATCHING
For many ceramic products,
including tile, the body composition is
determined by the amount and type of
raw materials. The raw materials also
determine the color of the tile body,
which can be red or white in color,
depending on the amount of iron-
containing raw materials used.
Therefore, it is important to mix the
right amounts together to achieve the desired properties. Batch calculations are
thus required, which must take into consideration both physical properties and
chemical compositions of the raw materials. Once the appropriate weight of each
raw material is determined, the raw materials must be mixed together.
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rapidly revolving plows. This step further grinds the ingredients, resulting in a
finer particle size that improves the subsequent forming process (see step #4
below).
Sometimes it is necessary to add water to improve the mixing of a multiple-
ingredient batch as well as to achieve fine grinding. This process is called wet
milling and is often performed using a ball mill. The resulting water-filled mixture
is called a slurry or slip. The water is then removed from the slurry by filter
pressing (which removes 40-50 percent of the moisture), followed by dry milling.
SPRAY DRYING
If wet milling is first used, the
excess water is usually removed via spray
drying. This involves pumping the slurry
to an atomizer consisting of a rapidly
rotating disk or nozzle. Droplets of the slip
are dried as they are heated by a rising hot
air column, forming small, free flowing
granules that result in a powder suitable
for forming.
Tile bodies can also be prepared by dry grinding followed by granulation.
Granulation uses a machine in which the mixture of previously dry-ground
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material is mixed with water in order to form the particles into granules, which
again form a powder ready for forming.
FORMING
Most tile is formed by dry pressing.
In this method, the free flowing powder—
containing organic binder or a low
percentage of moisture—flows from a
hopper into the forming die. The material
is compressed in a steel cavity by steel
plungers and is then ejected by the
bottom plunger. Automated presses are
used with operating pressures as high as
2,500 tons.
Several other methods are also used
where the tile body is in a wetter, more moldable form. Extrusion plus punching
is used to produce irregularly shaped tile and thinner tile faster and more
economically. This involves compacting a plastic mass in a high-pressure
cylinder and forcing the material to flow out of the cylinder into short slugs.
These slugs are then punched into one or more tiles using hydraulic or
pneumatic punching presses.
DRYING
Ceramic tile usually must be dried (at high relative humidity) after forming,
especially if a wet method is used. Drying, which can take several days, removes
the water at a slow enough rate to prevent shrinkage cracks. Continuous or
tunnel driers are used that are heated using gas or oil, infrared lamps, or
microwave energy. Infrared drying is better suited for thin tile, whereas
microwave drying works better for thicker tile. Another method, impulse drying,
uses pulses of hot air flowing in the transverse direction instead of continuously
in the material flow direction.
GLAZING
A glaze is a glass material designed to melt onto the surface of the tile
during firing, and which then adheres to the tile surface during cooling. Glazes
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are used to provide moisture resistance and decoration, as they can be colored
or can produce special textures.
To prepare the glaze, similar methods are used as for the tile body. After a batch
formulation is calculated, the raw materials are weighed, mixed and dry or wet
milled. The milled glazes are then applied using one of the many methods
available. In centrifugal glazing or discing, the glaze is fed through a rotating disc
that flings or throws the glaze onto the tile. In the bell/waterfall method, a stream
of glaze falls onto the tile as it passes on a conveyor underneath. Sometimes, the
glaze is simply sprayed on. For multiple glaze applications, screen printing on,
under, or between tile that have been wet glazed is used. In this process, glaze
is forced through a screen by a rubber squeegee or other device.
Dry glazing is also being used. This involves the application of powders, crushed
frits (glass materials), and granulated glazes onto a wet-glazed tile surface. After
firing, the glaze particles melt into each other to produce a surface like granite.
FIRING
After glazing, the tile must be heated intensely to strengthen it and give it
the desired porosity. Two types of ovens, or kilns, are used for firing tile. Wall
tile, or tile that is prepared by dry grinding instead of wet milling), usually
requires a two-step process. In this process, the tile goes through a low-
temperature firing called bisque firing before glazing. This step removes the
volatiles from the material and most or all of the shrinkage. The body and glaze
are then fired together in a process called glost firing. Both firing processes take
place in a tunnel or continuous kiln, which consists of a chamber through which
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For tile that only requires a single firing—usually tile that is prepared by wet
milling—roller kilns are generally used. These kilns move the wares on a roller
conveyor and do not require kiln furnitures such as batts or saggers. Firing times
in roller kilns can be as low as 60 minutes, with firing temperatures around
2,102 degrees Fahrenheit (1,150 degrees Celsius) or more.
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Porous – having minute spaces or holes through which liquid or air may
pass.
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has been fused to a ceramic body through firing. Glaze can serve to color,
decorate or waterproof an item.
TYPES OF WHITEWARE
1. Earthenware
Earthenware is a semi-vitreous dinnerware
which is porous and non-translucent with a
soft laze
2. Chinaware
Chinaware is a vitrified translucent ware
with a medium glaze which resists abrasion
to a degree. It is used for non-technical
purposes.
3. Porcelain
Porcelain is a vitrified translucent ware
with a hard glaze which resists abrasion to
the maximum degree. It includes chemical
insulating and dental porcelain.
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4. Sanitary ware
Sanitary ware, formerly made from clay, was
usually porous, hence a vitreous
composition is presently used. Prefired and
sized vitreous grog is sometimes included
with the triaxial composition.
5. Stoneware
Stoneware, one of the oldest of ceramic
wares, was in use long before porcelain was
developed. In fact, it may be regarded as
crude porcelain not so carefully fabricated
from raw material of a poorer grade.
6. Whiteware tiles
Whiteware tiles, available in a number of
special types, are generally classified as floor
tiles, which are resistant to abrasion and
impervious to stain penetration and may be
glazed or unglazed, and as wall tiles which also
have a hard, permanent surface and come in a
variety of colors and textures.
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Ceramic Industry
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
RAW MATERIALS
1. Flint - (SiO2)
It is also known as Silica Sand or Quartz. It
provides an aggregate framework for the
fired matrix. A major raw material in
ceramics and refractories.
2. China Clay - (Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O)
It is also called as Kaolinite or Kaolin Clay.
Secondary geologic deposits. Primary source of
alumino silicates. Imparts plasticity and drying
hardness to the wet materials and transforms
into a mesh of crystals during firing
3. Feldspar - (K2O.Al2O3.6SiO2)
It acts as the fluxing agent to reduce melting
temperatures of alumino silicate phases.
The melting of the feldspar fills the voids
between the silica and clay particles and
cements them into a strong mass.
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Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
1. Wet-Process Porcelain
Used for the production of fine-grained, highly glazed insulators for high-
voltage service.
2. Dry- Process Porcelain
Employed for rapid production of more open-textured, low voltage pieces
3. Cast Porcelain
Necessary for the making of pieces which are too large, too intricate or too
detailed for the other two methods.
These three processes are based on the same raw material. The difference
between the processes is in the manufacturing being largely in drying and
forming steps.
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Department of Chemical Engineering
Primary Crushing
- Preliminary crushing of the raw
materials, mainly, feldspar, flint
and china clay.
Equipment Used: Jaw Crusher
Secondary Crushing
- For reduction of particles to 0.1
inch (.25 centimeter) or less in
diameter.
Equipment Used: Hammer Mill
Blunging
- Water is added to the mixture of
raw materials to form a slurry.
Equipment Used: Blunger
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Department of Chemical Engineering
Magnetic Filtration
- is performed to remove iron
from the slurries because iron
occurs so pervasively in most
clays. Iron must be removed
because it will leave a reddish
hue when it oxidizes.
Equipment Used: Magnetic Separator
Pressing
- Water is removed from the
slurry to produce a clay mass.
Equipment Used: Filter Press
De-airing
- All the air is taken out to
produce a denser, more uniform
and stronger porcelain.
Equipment Used: Vacuum Pug Mill
Jiggering
- it is a term used for
mechanical way of forming of
clay mass into different molds.
Equipment Used: Jiggering Machine
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Drying
- The molded clay is preliminarily
dried, trimmed before glazing.
- They are heated at a relatively
low temperature
Equipment Used: Tunnel Dryer
Glazing
- The procedure to add gloss to the porcelain.
- Applied to the ware by means of painting, spraying, dipping or pouring.
- Usually contains alumina, silica and calcia
Vitrification
- The heart of the process which
will heat the glazed wares into
a 1500 degrees Celsius.
- The formation of glass,
accomplished in this case
through the melting of
crystalline silicate compounds
into the amorphous,
noncrystalline atomic structure
associated with glass.
Equipment Used: Tunnel Kiln or
Electric Kiln
Decorating and Packaging
- Designing the surface of the porcelain. This process is optional since
not all of the porcelain products have decoration.
- The porcelain is now packed and ready to be transported.
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Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
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Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
PLANT LAYOUT
PROCESS LAYOUT
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WHAT IS A BRICK?
The raw materials for building bricks is almost the same with a whiteware.
Building bricks comprises of clay, feldspar and flint as well. However, the clay
used for the manufacturing process is different with that of a whiteware. There
are three kinds of clay used for the manufacturing of building bricks.
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Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
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College of Engineering and Technology
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Firing
- The kiln is basically a giant oven. It fires
the bricks at 1040°C or 2000°F.
- This is where the bricks got its reddish
color
Equipment Used: Tunnel Kiln
Setting and Packaging
- After the brick is fired and cooled, it is unloaded from the kiln
- The packaged brick is then shipped to the job site, where it is typically
unloaded using boom trucks.
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PROCESS LAYOUT
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College of Engineering and Technology
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REFRACTORIES
What is a refractory?
Classifications of Refractories:
acids and bases. The main raw materials belong to, but are not confined
to, the R2O3 group. Common examples of these materials
are alumina (Al2O3), chromia (Cr2O3) and carbon.
3. Basic refractories - These are used in areas where slags and atmosphere
are basic; they are stable to alkaline materials but could react with acids.
The main raw materials belong to the RO group to which magnesia (MgO)
is a very common example. Other examples include dolomite and chrome-
magnesia. For the first half of the twentieth century, the steel making
process used artificial periclase (roasted magnesite) as a lining material for
the furnace.
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College of Engineering and Technology
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College of Engineering and Technology
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Varieties of Refractories
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service at the highest temperatures and in contact with the most basic slags used
in steel melting. Magnesite-chromite usually has a better spalling resistance than
chrome-magnesite.
6. Zirconia refractories - Zirconia refractories have a very high strength at room
temperature which is maintained up to
temperatures as high as 15000C. Its thermal
conductivity is found to be much lower than that
of most other refractories. Zirconia also does not
react readily with liquid metals and molten
glasses. They are, therefore, useful as high
temperature constructional materials for
metallurgical furnaces and glass furnaces.
7. Monolithic refractory - Monolithic refractory, the
name generally given to all unshaped refractory
products, are materials installed as some form of
suspension that ultimately harden to form a solid
mass. Monolithic refractories are replacing the
conventional type fired refractories at a much faster
rate in many applications including those of
industrial furnaces.
8. Insulating materials - Insulating materials are high
porosity refractories with low thermal conductivity
used in order to reduce the heat losses. Insulating
materials has a lower density and offers higher
thermal resistance compared to firebricks. In all
cases, thermal conductivity of the insulation
increases significantly as temperature increases. A
wide range of insulating refractories with wide combinations of properties are
now available. It is likewise cheaper in contrast to the high duty bricks.
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Used in furnaces such as blast furnace and kilns such as coke oven.
Used in boilers.
Properties
Fusion Points. Fusion points are found by the use of pyrometric cones of
predetermined softening points. Most commercial refractories soften
gradually over a wide range and do not have sharp melting points because
they are composed of several different minerals, both amorphous and
crystalline. The fusing points of these pyrometric cones are available in the
literature.
Thermal Conductivity. The densest and least porous bricks have the
lightest thermal conductivity. Though heat conductivity is wanted in some
furnace constructions, as in muffle walls, it is not so desirable as some
other properties of refractories, such as resistance to firing conditions.
Insulation is desired in special refractories.
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B. Chemical
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4. Refracore Corporation
Unit 205 Philam Life Bldg. J. Luna cor Lluch Sts.
Iligan City
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The most common refractory is the fire brick that can be found usually
at fireplaces at home or in other industry that requires too much heat in the
production. Dense firebricks are the ones that are used with extreme
mechanical, chemical or thermal stresses.
A. Plant Layout
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College of Engineering and Technology
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B. Equipment Layout
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College of Engineering and Technology
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College of Engineering and Technology
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College of Engineering and Technology
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CERAMIC COMPOSITES
Cermets
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for optimum strength the two materials are usually kept hot for several hours
while clamped together. This bonding can occur between all metals and most
ceramics, but the strongest bonds are formed between the:
Magnesia Zirconia
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The most common ceramic type in this class is barium titanate (BaTiO3).
Titania and its compounds exhibit unusual properties useful in electrical
applications, the most important of which involves high capacity at various
frequencies.
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HIGH-ALUMINA CERAMICS
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VITREOUS ENAMEL
Raw Materials
The raw materials used in the enamel industry may be divided into six
different groups: refractories, fluxes, opacifiers, colors, floating agents, and
electrolytes.
Refractories- contribute to the acidic part of the melt and give body to the
glass. These include materials such as quartz, feldspar, and clay.
Fluxes- basic in character and react with the acidic refractories to form
the glass. These include such products as borax, soda ash, cryolite, and
fluorspar.
Opacifiers- compound added to the glass to give it the white opaque
appearance so characteristic of vitreous enamels. There are two principal
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The preparation of the enamel glass, or frit, is similar to the first stages of
the manufacture of ordinary glass. The raw materials are mixed in the proper
proportions and charged into a melting furnace maintained near 1370°C, from 1
to 3 h. After the batch has been uniformly melted, it is allowed to pour from the
furnace into a quenching tank of cold water, shattering the melt into millions of
friable pieces. This material is called frit. Enamel is normally made in a wet
process by grinding the ingredients, principally a mixture of frit and clay.
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metal, the surface must be thoroughly cleaned of all foreign matter. Sheet metal
is cleaned by pickling inn dilute hydrochloric or sulfuric acid at 60°C after the
iron has been annealed.
The advent of the powder application has brought with it the pickle-free
metal preparation. Efforts are being made to perfect a no-pickle wet process.
Dipping
Slushing
Spraying
Firing
All enamels must be fired on the ware to melt them into a smooth,
continuous, glassy layer. The requirements for successful firing of a good
enamel:
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REFERENCES
http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Brick.html
http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Porcelain.html
http://forest.mtu.edu/pcforestry/resources/studentprojects/bricks/pro
cess.htm
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