Radiology Physics Just take a deep breath…

OR: “I DIDN’T SIGN

UP TO LEARN
THIS STUFF”

• Chris Ober, DVM,

PhD, DACVR

• 7 February 2011

Why worry about physics? Books to Consider

• Know what the system can give you
• Know what the system CAN’T give you
• Recognize errors and know how to correct
them
• Understand the importance of radiation
safety
• It’s on the test, so I might as well teach it
• Thrall. Textbook of Veterinary Diagnostic
Radiology. 4th or 5th ed. 2002 or 2007.
• Morgan & Silverman. Techniques of
Veterinary Radiography. 4th ed. 1984.
• *Bushberg, Seibert, et al. The Essential
Physics of Medical Imaging. 2nd ed. 2002.

* Masochists only

The Game Plan 1st Period

• X-rays • X-rays
• Generation of X-rays • Generation of X-rays
• Interaction of X-rays • Interaction of X-rays
with matter with matter
• Accessory equipment • Accessory equipment
 What are X-rays? What are X-rays?
• Type of electromagnetic radiation • Shorter wavelength than visible light
– Can act as wave or particle (photon) • Higher energy than visible light
– No mass, no charge • High energy makes them Ionizing Radiation
– Travel at speed of light

Ionizing Radiation 2nd Period

• Radiation that is • Note: X-rays and
capable of generating gamma rays are
ions different only in • X-rays
• Can cause disruption source • Generation of X-rays
of molecular bonds – X: outside nucleus, • Interaction of X-rays
interaction of high-
• Thus important in speed particles
with matter
radiation safety and – Gamma: within • Accessory equipment
radiation therapy nucleus due to
spontaneous decay

What We Need The X-ray Tube

• Interaction of high-speed charged particles

• Particles: electron source

• High speed: method of accelerating
electrons
• Interaction: target for electrons to crash
into
 The X-ray Tube The X-ray Tube
• Cathode
– Negatively charged
– Filament made of
tungsten
– Set into focusing cup
• Thermionic Emission
– Current thru filament
– Heat generated
– Electrons released
(boiled off) in cloud
around filament

Cathode
• Number of electrons released is directly
proportional to:
– Current across filament (milliamperes = mA)
– Exposure time (seconds = s)
• mAs = mA x s
– 10 mAs = 600 mA x 1/60 s
– 10 mAs = 100 mA x 1/10 s
Cathode
• Number of X-rays produced is directly
proportional to electron number & mAs
• Operator selects mAs (or mA and s
separately)
Time selector (s)

mA selector

Cathode Cathode
• Number of X-rays produced is directly • Focal Spot size • Small focal spot:
proportional to mAs determined by greater detail (spatial
filament size & resolution)
• Operator selects mAs (or mA and s focusing cup • Large focal spot:
separately) • Most machines have routine work (higher
mA selector 2 filaments output capability)

Time (s) or
mAs selector
 Cathode Cathode

Larger penumbra = more unsharpness

The X-ray Tube Anode

• Anode • Stationary Anode • Rotating Anode
– Positively charged – Fixed target at end of – High speed rotating
– Target made of X-ray tube disc – interactions
tungsten (mostly) – Lightweight with fewer spread over larger
moving parts – good area
• Focal Spot
for portables – Good heat dissipation
– Small area where means higher X-ray
interaction with – Limited heat
dissipation means output
electrons occurs
limited X-ray
– Actual site of X-ray production
production

Stationary Anode Rotating Anode

 Anode Focal Spot The X-ray Tube
• Target surface angled • Envelope
relative to the path of – Pyrex container
the electron beam holding cathode &
anode
• Larger actual focal – Vacuum inside
spot (interaction area)
for better heat • Housing
– Lead shielding
dissipation
enclosing envelope
• Smaller effective focal – Window to let X-rays
spot for better image out in the desired
detail direction

X-ray Production X-ray Production

• High potential
difference (voltage)
applied to X-ray tube
– Generally 40-140 kV • Electrons collide with
• Electrons (-) pulled target, interacting with
toward anode (+) tungsten atoms
• Value set for kVp
determines • X-rays are produced
– electron energy
– photon energy

X-ray Generation X-ray Production

• Electrons interacting with target produce • Electrons with more • Operator selects kVp
X-rays in 2 possible ways kinetic energy will
produce X-rays with • Maximum X-ray
greater energy energy will be equal
• Characteristic radiation: Photons of • Electron energy to kVp, though
specific energies / wavelengths determined by average X-ray energy
• Bremsstrahlung: Photons of broad energy potential across tube is only about 1/3-1/2
– kilovolt peak (kVp) kVp
range (photons of many wavelengths)
 X-Ray Generation X-ray Generation
• Only 1% of electrons’ energy  X-rays
• Wide range of X-ray energies are
produced (the kVp is the PEAK energy)
– Very low energy photons can’t get out of tube
kVp
– Moderately low energy photons can get out,
but are diagnostically worthless, so filters are
used to absorb them just outside the window
• Energy not used in primary X-ray beam is
converted to heat in tube

X-ray Generation X-ray technique

• Heat can kill the tube • Technique = combination of kVp and mAs
– Oil housing helps dissipate heat used to make a radiograph
– Rotating anode helps dissipate heat
– Two-step exposure
• Values determine overall blackness as
– Warm up high-output tubes well as overall contrast of image
• Overheating will
– Burn out filament • We’ll get to this in more detail in a couple
– Pit anode of lectures
– Cause metal deposits on envelope
– Cost $$$

3rd Period Interaction with Matter

• Photons have 3
choices:
• X-rays
• Generation of X-rays • Pass through
• Interaction of X-rays (Transmission)
with matter • Deposit all of their
• Accessory equipment energy (Absorption)
• Be deflected (Scatter)
 Interaction with Matter Interaction with Matter
• Photons have 3 • Photons have 3
choices: choices:

• Pass through • Pass through

(Transmission) (Transmission)
• Deposit all of their • Deposit all of their
energy (Absorption) energy (Absorption)
• Be deflected (Scatter) • Be deflected (Scatter)

Photoelectric effect Compton scatter

Interaction with Matter The Noble Step Wedge

• Determinants of Transmission
– High energy photon  more transmission
– Dense material  less transmission
– High atomic number (Z) material  less
transmission
– Thicker material  less transmission
• Transmitted photons result in image
formation
– Transmitted photons turn film black

High Energy Low Energy Atomic Number and Density

• Basis of 5 basic
radiopacities
(remember those?)

• Air
• Fat
• Fluid / Soft Tissue
• Bone / Mineral
• Metal
 Atomic Number and Density
Gas
Low Z High Z

Mineral

ST

Fat Metal

Thin vs. Thick Material Thick Thin

Interaction with Matter Scatter Radiation

• Absorption of X-ray photons = radiation • Degrades image
exposure (important for radiation safety) (photons don’t convey
info, as we don’t know
• Absorption  generation of small amount where they came
of heat from)
• Differential photon absorption/transmission • Adds to personnel
of various structures is what produces the exposure
diagnostic image • Unavoidable
 Scatter Radiation Minimizing Scatter

• Make radiographed
part thinner
• Collimate
• Use (antiscatter) grid
• Use air gap technique

Lots of it Not very much of it

Making Part Thinner Making Part Thinner

• Less material for photons to pass through
= fewer opportunities for ricochet
• Commonly used in mammography
• Radiolucent “paddle” used to displace
other structures
– e.g. squish abdomen, get intestine out of way
• Must decrease mAs to account for
decreased thickness

Making Part Thinner Air Gap Technique

• Space between
patient and film
• Scatter photons more
likely to miss the film
– Extra point try vs.
50-yd. field goal
• Rare in vet med
– Distance between tube
and patient must also
be large
 Air Gap Technique The OT
• Space between
patient and film
• Scatter photons more • X-rays
likely to miss the film • Generation of X-rays
– Extra point try vs. • Interaction of X-rays
50-yd. field goal with matter
• Rare in vet med • Accessory equipment
– Distance between tube
and patient must also
be large

Collimators Collimators
• X-rays are emitted from target in all
directions
– Lead housing blocks most photons
– Remainder go thru window, but even this
small beam is wider than is needed for most
purposes
• Use a collimator
– Restrict X-ray beam to area of interest

Collimators Collimators
• Original collimators were lead cones
– We still use the phrase “cone down” when
referring to collimation
• Now sets of lead shutters – variable
aperture – much more versatile
• Required by OSHA for radiation safety
• Improves image quality by reducing
scatter radiation
 Collimators Collimators
Cone Collimator – Lead Shutters –
Fixed Aperture Variable Aperture

Collimators Collimators
• Used to minimize scatter
– Fewer photons passing through material at
the edges means less opportunity to deflect No Collimation
into the area of interest +
No Patient ID
• Must walk fine line Label
– Only include what you need in the field, but =
make sure the study is complete 
• Always collimate at least a little bit

Grids
• Plates with thin lead strips alternating with
radiolucent material
• Placed between patient and film
– Decreases scatter reaching film
– DOES NOT decrease scatter reaching staff
• Generally located in table or Bucky tray, but
can have loose varieties
• Grid absorbs many of the scatter photons,
but also some primary photons
– Exposure technique must be increased
 Grids
• Focused grids most common
– Lead strips angled to match X-ray beam
divergence
– Distance from tube to grid must match grid’s
focal distance
• Grids can be unfocused (parallel strips)

Grids
• Grids generally not used if part thickness
<10cm
– Not enough scatter produced to be worth it

• Grid Ratio = Height of strips divided by

distance between them

Grids
• High grid ratio
– Remove more scatter photons
– Also remove more primary photons
– Thus require higher exposure technique
• Low grid ratio
– Less elimination of scatter
– Exposure technique doesn’t have to be
increased as much
• Common grid ratio is 8:1 or 10:1
 Trouble with Grids Trouble with Grids
• Need to increase exposure technique • Damaged grid strips will be visible on
– Often 3-5x higher than without grid image
• Grid lines visible on image • Poor alignment of grid and X-ray beam will
– Distracting cause various types of grid cutoff artifact
– Use Potter-Bucky mechanism (tray in table) to
oscillate grid during exposure and blur lines
– DR systems may have software-based grid
line suppression

Grid Artifacts What Have We Learned?

Upside-Down Focused Grid Off-Level Focused Grid • You don’t have to be Einstein to
understand how X-rays are produced

• Scatter is not our friend

• The collimator and grid, however, ARE our

friends