Capt. B.

Vranic, Master mariner

HANDLING OF
REFRIGERATED CARGOES
 CONTENTS
Chapter
I .......................................................................................................................................
GENERAL

Chapter
II ......................................................................................................................................
CLEANING AND VENTILATING CARGO HOLDS
a) general
b) sweeping
c) washing
d) disinfecting / deodorizing
e) ventilating and equipment

Chapter
III .....................................................................................................................................
VARIOUS BEFORE LOADING
a) cargo hold inspection
b) testing of refrigeration machinery
c) pre-cooling
d) cargo gear inspection
e) shippers / charterers instructions
f) stowage plan

Chapter
IV .....................................................................................................................................
LOADING
a) general
b) visual control and pulp temperature
c) stowage of cargo
d) securing and lashing

Chapter
V ......................................................................................................................................
CARGO CARE
a) temperatures
b) reduction period
c) ventilation of refrigerated compartments
d) CO2 concentration
e) relative humidity
f) heating of cargo holds
g) engine room bulkheads
h) cargo inspection during the voyage
i) compatibility of cargoes

Chapter
VI .....................................................................................................................................
FRUIT CARGOES
a) citrus fruits
 b) deciduous fruits
c) tropical fruits

Chapter
VII ...................................................................................................................................
VEGETABLES

Chapter VIII
..................................................................................................................................
FROZEN CARGOES
a) frozen meat
b) frozen fish

Chapter
IX .....................................................................................................................................
"USDA" REGULATIONS
a) general
b) instructions
c) cold treatment
d) abstract

Chapter
X ......................................................................................................................................
DAMAGES AND CLAIMS

CONVERSION
TABLES ..........................................................................................................
 Chapter I
GENERAL
Owing to their delicate nature frozen cargoes and cooled cargoes require much more care
than most of the other goods transported by sea. For whole products which have been
preserved by refrigeration while in a fresh state it is essential to maintain the quality at a
high standard. These products can be divided into two basic groups:
a) live products
b) dead products
The live products include fruits and vegetables, while the dead products comprise frozen
fish and meat. A large majority of fruits continue to live even after they have been harvested,
i.e. the fruit breathes, absorbs oxygen, and emits carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide (CO 2)
does not affect all products in the same way: in some instances it may prolong their storage
life, while in others it may have an adverse effect.
The process of life goes on up to the moment of complete maturity, or up to the beginning
of decay.
Fruit is to a large extent liable to deterioration as it is exposed to the influence of
microorganisms found in it and surrounding it, causing decay and fermentation.
The most frequent agents of fruit decay are bacteria and mould. By storing the fruit in
cooled spaces any chemical processes are retarded and the fruit is protected from being
attacked by a number of microorganisms. This means that by cooling the product, the
metabolism is maintained, thereby prolonging its lifetime. By lowering the temperature the
microorganisms are not destroyed, their breeding only is hindered. Their presence in the
product remains, and by an increase in the temperature their activities will be resumed.
With fish and meat the cooling, i.e. the freezing, is intended to arrest any further
multiplication of the microorganisms present in the product.
For this reason an atmosphere has to be created in the cooled spaces which will reduce
the growth of microorganisms to the minimum.
The basic difference between the live and the dead products is that in the former the
process of ripening is being stopped, while in the latter the breeding of the microorganisms is
prevented.
The speed of freezing the food is an important factor contributing to the preservation of
its quality. The food, either of vegetable or of animal provenance, consists of cells.
If the process of freezing the food proceeds at a slow rate, large crystals of ice are formed
between the cells, causing the destruction of the cell walls. During the process of defrosting
the food loses its moisture, which is an important element having a share in preserving the
quality and appearance of the article of food.
By rapid freezing of the article small crystals of ice are being formed between the cells,
whose influence is negligible and they do not destroy the walls of the cells, so that the quality
of the food is preserved also after defrosting.
Freezing protects the quality of the product, but does not improve it.
The difference between normal and deep freezing is in the temperature: the former is
-10C, and the latter is - 18C or lower.
When transporting fresh fruits and vegetables we have to preserve them at a given
temperature, but by no means freeze them.
As certain kinds of fruit are carried at a temperature of a mere 0.5C above their freezing
point, great care has to be taken that the appropriate temperature is maintained and thereby
freezing prevented.
In conclusion we can say that the best way to keep the fruits and vegetables alive is to
maintain the temperature of the surrounding air just a little above their freezing point.
This, however, is not always the rule for all fruit. With some kinds of fruit a temperature
considerably above their freezing point may cause damage to the product.
 The rate of respiration varies depending on the surrounding temperature, as well as on
the kind of the fruit.
The greater the temperature of the surrounding air, the greater will be its rate of
respiration.
The loss of water by evaporation is a normal occurrence during transportation.
The amount of the loss depends on a number of factors, such as: the temperature of the
ambient, the temperature of the product, relative humidity, and air velocity.
The loss of the liquid is undesirable for a number of reasons: loss of weight of the
product, decreased resistance to microorganisms, and the appearance of the product.
Thus we can say that the basics of effective storage of the product are: the delay of the
respiratory process, prevention of excessive water loss, and retardation of the propagation of
microorganisms.
 Chapter II
CLEANING AND VENTILATING CARGO
HOLDS
a) GENERAL
If we bear in mind that refrigerated cargoes transported by reefer vessel are almost
exclusively intended for human consumption, we must pay full attention to the preparation of
the holds where these cargoes are to be placed. It means that all compartments are to be
thoroughly cleaned, dry and odor free.
The basic conditions for the appropriate preparation of the holds are, as follows:
a) knowledge of which cargo had been transported previous to this voyage
b) knowledge of what cargo is to be loaded
According to that appropriate attention will be paid to the preparation of the holds. They
should be appropriately prepared even if homogeneous cargoes are to be transported.
As there are many sub-conditions which are to be taken care of and can be seen from the
sub-text, we can clearly state that the care of the cargo starts a few days before the loading
itself.
It makes no difference whether preparing cargo holds for the carriage of cooled, chilled or
frozen cargoes.

b) SWEEPING
Sweeping is something that should be done every time regardless of any subsequent
undertaking, in short, it should be performed with full care. Sweeping is the first step to be
taken in cargo hold preparation.
In this process we must take into consideration left-over cargoes after each discharge
operation.
The cargo holds are often built with many places difficult to access under the gratings
that may provide spaces for any remnants to get into.
Special attention should be paid to the corners, scuppers, bulkheads, and all less
accessible places where the sweepings and dust may stick.
Such places, when not swept, are the ideal positions for mould growth, breeding of
bacteria and unpleasant smell thought the hold.
Leaving this left-over material untended may be disastrous for the next cargo.
Dust, while sweeping, easily accumulates on every surface inside the holds. It is also
advisable to use dry rugs (cotton waste) to wipe out dust if time permits, and if washing can't
be done for any reason.
The dust with ship's sweat forms into mould that can contaminate the cargo.
In short, inappropriate or insufficient sweeping may cause more harm than good.
As all gratings are full of small holes for free air circulation, they should be lifted up
while sweeping, and the space beneath should be swept thoroughly.
If it is not done as described above, the whole cargo will be covered with dust once the
ventilators in the holds are switched on.
From the above example it can be seen that it is just a waste of one’s time to sweep the
gratings from above only, as such sweeping gives us only a visual effect of clean holds.
Of course, we will not lift the gratings every voyage (especially when the same cargo is
transported). We can say: gratings must be lifted when necessary.
In some books you may find that the gratings should be removed to the deck, washed, dried
in the sun, and put back again. It really sounds fine, but in everyday life on board ship it is
almost impossible, especially in large reefer vessels.
 Some of the reasons are the short period of navigation between the discharging and next
loading port, insufficient crew, as well as the weather conditions on the sea which prevent it
most of the time.

c) WASHING
If the holds are very dirty, they have to be washed after sweeping.
Therefore the second preparatory step is the washing of the holds.
Water used for washing should be limited to the minimum. There a several reasons for
this. Too much water may damage the insulation which in some cases may absorb moisture,
and as a result it requires a longer period of time for drying.
As a rule the holds should never be washed with salt water.
It is best to use the high pressure machine, which enables the regulation of water as well
as its dispersion.
Depending on the accumulation of dust, debris and odors, if any, certain detergents
should be taken into consideration.
It is advisable to use liquid soap or chemicals which are to be mixed with water and are
specially produced for this purpose.
A small quantity of detergent should be used as it makes rinsing much easier.
The procedure should be repeated twice if necessary.
Using a high concentration of detergent needs a great amount of water to rinse, and a
large amount of water used needs more time for drying and ventilating.
Every time when chemicals are used it is obligatory to rinse with fresh water, if not
mentioned otherwise in the instructions.
Without using chemicals it is not always sufficient to remove the mould, dirt and grease.
As the relative humidity in the holds is predominantly high, the dust raised up during the
sweeping will collect on the walls of the hold.
If the holds are not washed we can observe after a number of voyages the formation of
mould, first on the bulkheads near the battery room, and on the sides of the battery room.
The mould will be seen first on the lower decks where the concentration of humidity is
bigger and ventilation is less effective.
In no way must we allow the mould to develop, because this is the beginning of the
growth of fungi.
The surface polluted with mould must be washed well and sprinkled with chemical
means against the formation of mould, in most cases the chemicals simultaneously being both
a disinfectant and deodorizer.
Besides, the scuppers and all water drains in the hold should always be inspected during
the washing procedure.
They should always be free of debris to keep the free flow of waste water.
Neglecting to do this will result in flooding certain sections and corners of the holds.
This is one factor that may result in a failure to prepare the holds for new cargoes.

d) DISINFECTING / DEODORIZING
Whether a disinfectant or a deodorant is used depends on what we wish to get rid of:
germs, mould and bacteria, or odd smells. Of course, it mainly depends on the cargo
previously transported, as well as the condition of the hold before the last transported cargo
had been loaded.
Sometimes there can be such a strong and persistent smell in the holds that it is difficult
to eliminate it by washing, ventilating or even ozoning.
Then the only way left to get rid of odd smells is deodorizing, as happens, for example,
after discharging salt fish.
Of all reefer cargoes apples, pears, oranges, grapefruit, mandarins, lemons and fish let
out their smell, while on the other hand, butter and eggs are the most easily affected and
absorb most of the smell.
 Today, the market offers some deodorants which are to be mixed with water, so they can
be used immediately after washing, but in most cases better effect is achieved if a surface is
deodorized.
Using the spray gun, we can spray this solution on and under the gratings and bulkheads
paying special attention to the battery room and all less accessible places.
Some solutions have a limited effect lasting between one and two hours. For some of
them no potable water rinse is necessary (therefore always read the instructions carefully).
If the result is not satisfactory, that is, if there is any odd smell left, the procedure should
be repeated.
Some ship owners will not consider undertaking the above mentioned procedures as they
require some additional costs, but in certain cases they are not only necessary but even
indispensable.
All chemicals have a limited storage time, mostly a few months if stored in a cool and dry
space. For this reason it is not advisable to have larger quantities in stock.
Most of those chemicals produce their optimal effect if used at a temperature 20-25C.
Always prepare a fresh solution, never use one from the day before.
In one word, disinfecting and deodorizing are carried out in the same way, except if it is
within our own discretion which chemical to use and when.
The best and easiest way is to use those chemicals which are specified for both purposes.
The recommended disinfectant and deodorizer is the below specified.
AMERSAN 20 and F/H.
While using disinfectant or deodorant you should be very cautious and choose the right
one (as today's market offers an increasing number of such products), and strictly follow the
instructions prescribed by the producer in order not to cause unnecessary problems.
Whenever you work with chemicals use goggles and rubber gloves: protect the skin.
Ships with aluminum gratings have less difficulty with mould and bacteria than those
with wooden gratings, and at the same time, it is easier to keep the holds tidy and clean.
If we are not in possession of any disinfectant or deodorant chemical, a solution of
commercial vinegar could be sprayed into all surfaces in the cargo holds.
Fumigation is another method of disinfecting producing the same effect as above
mentioned procedures.

e) VENTILATION AND EQUIPMENT

As we have performed all necessary tasks described here, and have done it with utmost
care, it is time to pay attention to the ventilating of the holds.
The best way is to open up hatch covers, as well as all tweendecks. That is, of course, if
the weather permits it. If the weather conditions are poor or there is any kind of cargo placed
on the hatch coamings so that the hatches can’t be opened, artificial ventilation should be
performed in the way that the fresh air system is operated at maximum capacity.
Ventilation is needed even when there are no odd smells, in order to eliminate too much
moisture in the holds, as well as stale air.

The air renewal system

Fruits and vegetables require that fresh air is supplied to the cargo hold in order to ensure
the necessary oxygen supply.
For this application an air renewal system is used, divided into one or several systems per
cargo hold.
An air renewal system can be provided with:
a) mechanical supply with natural exhaust
b) natural supply with mechanical exhaust
c) mechanical supply with mechanical exhaust
The capacity of the air renewal system corresponds to 2-4 air changes per hour.
 The fans are usually provided with two-speed motors. Full r.p.m. is used when the ship
carries bananas where the fresh air change is between 2 and 4 times per hour.
When carrying other fruits, the fans are operating at half speed and thus the fresh air
change is less than 2 times per hour.

Air renewal unit .

The air renewal unit is equipped with manual dampers to enable fine adjustment of fresh
air. The supply and exhaust fans are equipped with two speed motors, to supply the cargo
holds with an amount of fresh air corresponding to 4 air renewals per hour (for banana
carriage) or, at half speed, an amount corresponding to two air renewals per hour (for fruit
carriage).

Cargo hold fans .

The cargo hold fans are usually dimensioned to give about 90 air changes per hour at full
speed calculated in empty holds. The 90 air changes per hour is required for the carriage of
banana cargoes, when the cargo hold fans operate at full speed for the whole voyage.

Arrangement for recirculation of the air in the compartment

The arrangement can be worked in
different ways, as shown on sketch 1, 2,
and 3.

(Sketch 1.)

Sketch 1 shows 3 fans, which press the air vertically down through an air cooler. From
here the air flows longitudinally below the gratings, vertically up through the cargo, and back
longitudinally above the cargo to the fans.

(Sketch 2.)

Sketch 2 shows a fan, which presses the air through an air cooler to several ducts, which
are placed longitudinally at the shipside.
 From the longitudinal ducts the air flows transversely below and up through the gratings
and the cargo, and flows back longitudinally above the cargo to the fan.

(Sketch 3.)

Sketch 3 shows same as sketch 2 but instead of one common fan each duct can be
mounted with a separate fan.
 Chapter III
VARIOUS BEFORE LOADING
a) CARGO HOLD INSPECTION
As on many ships today hydraulics serve for opening of hatches and tweendecks. It is of
great importance to check whether there is any leakage or dripping of hydraulic oil.
Hydraulic oil has a strong and unpleasant smell which may be absorbed by easily effected
cargo.
All fresh air inlet and outlet dampers must be examined, lights controlled, drain and
sounding pipes examined and cleaned if necessary, bilge checked, as well as any possible
damage to insulation (bulk-heads). The same goes for gratings which must be in good
condition. Check all delivery and return air ducts.
It is obvious that team work on the ship is extremely important, as the responsibility lies
on deck and engine crew.
It is very important to check if any damage exists to the insulation and on the gratings
before loading begins.

a1) INSULATION
Great demands are made on the lining materials in refrigerated cargo holds. The material
must be hygienic, lightweight, strong and easy to clean.
Plywood has considerable advantages over metal in linings.
Plywood deck needs no extra reinforcement where panels are fixed directly to supports,
in contrast to steel and aluminum top plating.
Insulated tank top covers of plywood are able to withstand the heavy weight without any
permanent deformation.
Should,
however,
mechanical or
other damage
occur, the panels
are easily
repaired or
replaced using
common hand
tools. These
repairs can be
performed by the
ship's crew. Air
humidity
condenses far
less on the
surface of a
plywood panel
than on a metal
panel.
(Sketch 4.)
Insulation of tank top and lower part of hull side

(Sketch 5.)
Part of insulation under weatherdeck towards hull side

Plywood installed on top of an insulation keeps the temperature inside the hold stable
and forms a thermal and impact barrier.

(Sketch 6.)
Part of insulation of hull side with cargo battens and ribbon insulation with grating on non-
insulated tweendeck.

a2) GRATINGS
There is great competition between aluminum and plywood grating producers. Each
material has some advantages.

b) TESTING OF REFRIGERATION MACHINERY

To be absolutely sure that the ship is ready for loading in every way, refrigeration
machinery must be tested. In other words, before carrying a reefer cargo it is necessary to
ensure a plentiful supply of the following:
1. liquid refrigerant (min 1 complete re-charge)
2. calcium chloride (min 1 complete re-charge but usually more is carried)
3. drive belts for cargo/fresh air fans
4. spare fan motors
5. spare fan impellers
6. various spare parts, filters etc. for system.
The refrigeration machinery should be tested to ensure everything is in proper order prior
to the pre-cooling .
The following are some of the checks that should be carried out:
1. carry out a leakage test on the complete refrigeration system
2. check quantity of liquid in system and re-charge if necessary
3. sea water suction strainers should be checked and cleaned, pumps run and checked for
SW leaks
4. on brine system, the brine pumps must be run and checks made for brine leaks,
especially in cargo hold areas and in air coolers
5. check all cargo fan belts for wear and correct tension and run fans.
Approximately 12-24 hours prior to the loading, it is usual to commence cooling of the
empty cargo spaces.
This period is used:
A) to pre-cool cargo space in preparation for receiving cargo
B) to test effectiveness of refrigeration machinery
C) to test the operation of control equipment
D) to test the function of monitoring equipment
Any defective sensors should be replaced at this time as it may be difficult when cargo is
on board.

c) PRE-COOLING
When to start with pre-cooling depends on how low a temperature is required, which
refrigeration system the ship is equipped with, and in what condition it is at present.
Usually pre-cooling time, and if required, pre-cooling temperature, will be given by
charterer.
Engineers already know from their experience how long it takes to reach the desired
temperature. It is important to know that if there is any dunnage to be used while loading, it
has to be in the holds while pre-cooling takes place.
Of course, for the frozen cargo, pre-cooling should be performed earlier than for the
cooled cargoes. If possible, avoid the loading of pre-cooled and non-precooled cargoes in the
same compartment. One thing should never slip our minds: pre-cooling for frozen cargoes
must never be performed before the holds are completely dry.
Charterers demand that all the compartments are pre-cooled from 4-12 hours before
loading (for banana cargo), but not all shippers require pre-cooling before loading.
Practical experience has shown that it is better to start pre-cooling earlier, for the very simple
reason that there is enough time to repair any possible mechanical problem with the
refrigeration machinery.
In other words, by pre-cooling you would at the same time remove a big part of warmth
concentrated in the cooling compartments, and check the accuracy of the refrigeration plant.
By all means, the most important duty of pre-cooling includes the time of the reduction
period, which is always shorter if pre-cooling is undertaken.
During the pre-cooling period be sure that the hold temperature does not go below the
prescribed carrying temperature.
If the pre-cooling is performed for the frozen cargo then it is advisable to grease all
rubbers with Vaseline, all drains to be filled with a 26% calcium chloride brine solution (if
there is no electrical heating on drip tray scuppers), and all parts that can freeze which serve
to open tweendecks be protected with some anti-freezing device.
With cooled cargoes all the above mentioned tasks are useless, so it is not a problem to
just reduce a too high temperature.
You may run into a notice "pre-cooling is not necessary unless specific instructions
received by charterer". Naturally, you will do as instructed, but note that the refrigeration
machinery can be tested without performing the pre-cooling in holds.
The basic reason of pre-cooled treatment is to prolong the durability of the fruits.
If possible, avoid the loading of pre-cooled and non-pre-cooled cargoes in the same
compartment.

d) CARGO GEAR INSPECTION

Once the cargo holds are ready for loading, the cargo gear has to be examined and tested
in order to avoid any delay prior to loading.
It means the derricks or cranes must be topped and rigged, the hatches and side doors
prepared for immediate opening and the gangway lowered when the vessel is to arrive
alongside.
If the loading has to commence through side doors, insulation has to be removed.
All hydraulic systems for opening the hatches must be tested, too.
If the vessel is to load in Australian or New Zealand ports, the cargo gear to be prepared
according to the Australian or New Zealand safety measure regulations.
Check if all Cargo Gear Certificates and Cargo Gear Book are validated by the competent
Classification Society.

e) SHIPPERS / CHARTERERS INSTRUCTIONS

The Master must be acquainted with all the necessary instructions (all of them in written
form) by shippers or charterers before the loading begins.
In case of any exceptions from the given instructions regarding the usual way of
transportation, it is advisable to ask for additional explanation.
It is essential to understand all the instructions to the last detail, to avoid different
interpretation of some clauses later on.
In case of any misunderstanding or lack in precision, additional instructions in written
form only should be asked for.
The rule that loading should not commence until the instructions have been delivered to
the ship should be followed.
All deck officers, as well as Chief Engineer and Reefer Engineer must be acquainted with
those parts of the instructions which refer to their work.
 f) STOWAGE PLAN
Ships operating on certain lines, transporting bananas, citrus fruit, meat etc., when
arriving at the port the shippers will be handed a preliminary stowage plan.
Stevedores are so qualified that actual quantities will vary little from the preliminary
plan.
If the vessel has to make her own cargo plan it is important to adhere to some rules
regarding the compatibility of the cargoes, carrying temperatures and unloading operations
customs in certain ports.
However, one should always bear in mind that the Master of the vessel is always
responsible for the loading operations to be properly performed as well as the stowage and
securing of the cargo.
Now, after having described all that is needed for preparing the holds for loading, it is
necessary for all the performed tasks to be entered into the log-book, and/or deck
maintenance book.
In case there are any difficulties with the cargo the surveyors will later on check all
previously mentioned procedures, so it is important that the crew has done everything for
appropriate loading.
The checking will show that no crew negligence was present.
Before the loading starts and when all preparatory steps have been taken, it is necessary
for all holds to be examined.
Some charterers have a special form which should be signed by the Captain and Chief
Engineer.
In case of some special circumstances, a certificate of survey could be issued by an
independent surveyor.
The surveyor will not only inspect the clean holds, all drain bilges, insulation and
gratings, find out whether there is any odd smell etc. but will, just the same, measure the
temperature in the compartments before the loading begins, if precooling has been required
by the shipper or charterer.
If all the necessary operations have been performed and the holds have been prepared on
time, this inspection would be just routine.
It is the owner's duty to ensure that the vessel is fit in any respect to load the cargo.
It is a well known fact that if the cargo is properly stowed the risk of cargo damage is
negligible.
If any compartment is partially loaded, adequate care must be taken for proper
lashing/securing of the cargo.
 Chapter IV
LOADING
a) GENERAL
Loading should not commence until the temperature and stowage instructions have been
delivered to the ship.
As a rule different commodities should be stowed in different compartments.
Whenever possible, do not load sea food products in the same compartment with meat
and meat products.
Occasionally, two different temperatures may be required, even if only an uninsulated
deck is separating the decks. In this case, this deck must have its own cooling system. The
maximum allowable difference is 5C.
If fruit is to be loaded in a separate cooling unit in the same hold where frozen
commodities are stowed, it is very important that the insulation between the compartments is
absolutely tight. In this case it is good to use plastic tape to ensure impenetrability between
the compartments.
When loading different kinds of cargo we know that the temperature is the most
important factor. When we have non-pre-cooled fruit and a parcel of pre-cooled fruit in the
same compartment we must always load the warm fruit first. While loading is taking place,
the refrigeration machinery must be run and the cargo fans operated at minimum speed. The
delivery air temperature must never be lower than the delivery temperature required during
the forthcoming voyage.

BANANAS
As regards the loading operations particular attention should be given to break-bulk and
palletized bananas as one of the most delicate cargoes transported by reefer vessels and
requiring the utmost care.
This is a fruit which is transported in the greatest quantities as a refrigerated cargo.
Once the compartment is 50% full or more, refrigerant or brine circulation should be
increased, as well as the fan speed.
If some of the compartments are not completely full, or if there is a reason why the ship
can't continue loading for a long period of time, the loaded and partly loaded compartments
should be insulated and full refrigeration should be applied.
Once the compartment is completely full, refrigeration should start as soon as possible, in
order to reduce the air delivery temperature to the required level.
When the cargo is loaded in two ports and the compartment was not fully loaded in the
first port under shock-treatment, then after complement of the compartment in the next port
shock-treatment should by no means be repeated.
The carrying temperatures for bananas are not the same with all shippers. They depend
on many factors, according to the shipper's request.
During the whole loading operation the officer on duty must be present on deck and in
the holds and inspect the appropriate procedure of loading and, of course, correct all
negligence which might occur during the loading operations.
Bananas are exported from tropical or subtropical zones. The major exporters are:
Ecuador, Columbia, Panama, Honduras, Guatemala, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, the
Philippines and Mexico.
The main markets are: Europe, the USA and Japan.

1.GROWING CONDITIONS
 Bananas require plenty of sunshine, good soil fertilization and water supply. They also
require aeration, drainage, spraying against insects and diseases, fumigation and sanitation.
The normal harvesting age of bananas varies, depending on the sort of bananas, but
generally for the "cavendish" variety bananas 10-16 weeks.
Harvesting time depends on the market distance from the plantation or the port of
shipment.
Depending on the vessel’s ETA, the exporter issues a cut order to each of the individual
farms involved.
The cut order specifies the date on which the bananas should be cut, the number to be
cut, and the correct stage of maturity for the particular voyage involved.
The greater the distance, the earlier the maturity at which banana must be cut.
Upon receiving the cut order, the farmers will cut the bananas and process them for
transportation to the port. This process includes cutting, washing and packing the bananas
into boxes for trucking to the loading wharf.

WEATHER EFFECTS ON BANANA GROWTH

Bananas in general thrive best at 27C at the daytime and 21C at night time. When the
weather condition is chilly, the banana growth slows down.

AFTER EFFECTS OF SUNLIGHT

When bananas are exposed to extremely hot sun, the growth and development of the fruit
are affected to a certain extent. Sunburn may occur. There is a possible rapid ripening
outcome while in transit or when stored in a warehouse.

DROUGHT CONDITIONS
When there is an insufficient amount of water during the process of banana growth,
retardation will result and the projected harvest outrun will be low. The fruit does not appear
full and healthy.

FLOODING PROBLEMS / OVER-IRRIGATION

Too much water on the farm that stays over a long period of time is not advisable. The
fruit if exposed to this condition can be soft and spongy and there is more possibility for
ripening while transporting the fruit. Water should not sit steady for over 72 hours. The soil
requires aeration to prevent being compact and thereby a contributing factor in the overall
growth of the banana plant. Most banana farms observe and measure the amount of water
requirement per acre.

The bananas are fruits requiring special attention if they are to reach the destination in a
satisfactory condition. Here are some defects to which the bananas are exposed:
1. SCARING: Brown and black areas on the banana peel. It is caused by rubbing, pressure
and friction. The pulp is not affected but the consumer judges " scar-free” appearance
when buying bananas. Excessive handling contributes toward this defect.
2. SPLIT PEEL: The peel of the banana (ripe or green) splits usually along the ridges due
to heat and/or high humidity. It occurs in over-grade fruit also.
3. SPECKLING: Fine brown and black dots on the peel of green clusters. It is a fungus
infection. Some people in the tropic consider dry weather conditions or insect damage as
causes. It affects the appearance but not the pulp.
4. NECK INJURY: A mechanical injury of the neck (pedicle) of the banana finger caused
during packing and handling.
5. MATURITY INJURY. It is associated with the overall grade or age of fruit. The bigger
the grade, the higher prevalence of brownish-orange pigmentation of the peel which is
more pronounced on ripe than green bananas.
6. BANANA BRUISING: When the pulp is injured or affected due to handling and
mechanical damage, the banana peel is depressed. There is abnormal softness of the
pulp on ripe bananas.
7. CROWN MOLD: This defect occurs on both green and ripe bananas. The crown is
somewhat whitish-gray and black. It is caused by fungi. It could be caused by other
factors such as extremely high humidity or some indications of old fruit, held for a long
period of time from harvest to the customer.
8. CROWN ROT: A more advanced stage of crown mold. There is complete softening and
rotting of the crown. In some cases the fingers fall apart. There is shrinking; softening of
the crown.
9. TIP CONSTRICTION: This defect can be detected at the blossom end or tip of banana
(finger-pointed and sharp appearance). When cut crosswise, there is an indicator of
brownish-reddish discolored strand in the pulp. This is caused by bacterial infection.
10. SCRATCH: It is an irregular brown or black scratch forming lines or marks on the peel
of the banana caused by mechanical injury and damage by bats, birds and other animals.
11. WITHERED PEDICEL: Shrinking of the neck and accompanied by darkening of the
tissues and turns to brown color in advanced cases.
12. BANANA FINGER ROT: The peel and pulps are rotting, described as dark brown or
black color in the area affected.
13. CHEMICAL INJURY. It appears as depressed scars starting from the outside of the peel
and penetrate into the pulp. Usually reddish or orange, when fruit in contact with
corrosive chemicals, fungicides, acid etc.
14. RESIDUE: After packing the fruit there are powdery like deposits from chemicals like
fungicides and insecticides remaining on the surface of the peel after spraying on the
farm or in the packing station.
15. DRAY ROT: Is a decayed and desiccated condition mainly in the pulp of the fruit. It is
caused by bacterial infection while the bunch/stem is hanging on the mother plant. The
pulp is generally sunken. The color of the pulp is ash-gray and chalky white. The cream
like consistency in the pulp is lacking as compared to a normal banana which is moist in
nature.
16. LEAF SCAR: Brown or reddish-brown scab, like patches on the surface of banana
fingers. There is an indication of shallow cracking caused by rubbing of wind-blown
leaves against the surface of the fruit. A cork-like tissue appearance on the injured areas
of the peel.
17. MUTILATED FINGER: Broken, smashed and punctured finger due to physical damage.
18. RED RUST: It is a blemish on bananas due to insects called trips, which can have a
major impact on crops. The adult females lay their eggs in the peel where fingers rub
each other. Because of red rust, hundreds of thousands of banana stems are sometimes
rejected in the tropics. This defect prevails during late fall and winter months.
Insecticide sprays now control red rust trips. A good degree of protection can be made by
placing plastic bag on, prior to harvest to deter insects causing this defect.
19. CATERPILLAR SCRAB: The larvae of moths and butterflies bring about this deformity
by chewing the outer tissue of the peel. This defect is now seldom found as insecticide
technology has advanced in recent years.
20. CIGAR END: Affects the blossom end of the fingers. It is characterized exactly like an
ash of the cigar caused by fungus.
21. BLACK TIP: It is a fungus which attacks the base of the banana flower and then
affecting gradually, works its way down to the tip of young finger. The damaged area has
a lighter colored margin where it meets the healthy peel tissue. This disease spreads first
on the side of the finger.
22. COOKED FRUIT: When the fruit has been ripened at excessively high temperatures it
will become soft, with weak peel and poor flavor. It shows a dull color and unattractive
color characteristics. It is usually encountered at whole-seller's ripening warehouse as a
 consequence of poor ripening practices and can happen in transit when pre-cooling is
improperly done in the farms after harvesting.
23. BANANA YELLOW BLOSSOM END: It is a superficial fading or bleaching of the
terminal ends of the fingers to a pale yellow color without softening or ripening of the
pulp beneath it. This is merely a temporary condition due to the breakdown of the
chlorophyll under the influence of sunlight. Yellow blossom end is most prevalent where
there are not sufficient shaded areas.
24. SUN-BURN: When bananas are exposed to direct sunlight after cutting it may result in
sunburn. Sunburn is also likely to occur in any variety when the fruit is improperly
shaded after harvesting. An extensive brown to black discoloration will follow in later
stages.
25. BANANA TRIPS: It is like a pimple found on peel of the banana which usually occurs
between the fingers where insects deposit their eggs.
26. LATEX: This is the juice that leaks from the crown of bananas after cutting from the
stem. It accumulates on the peel of the banana and usually takes place at the bottom
rows of the banana box. The newly cut fruit should be soaked in water tanks for at least
20 minutes or more to allow total bleeding of latex before shipment. This defect does
not affect the taste of the pulp. It only affects the appearance for marketing purposes. It
appears brown and black in color in most instances.

CUSTOMER COMPLAINTS ON BANANAS

During summer months, customers usually file claims. The overall market conditions are
soft and sluggish. This is the time when other produce like grapes, apples, strawberries,
water melons, etc. are readily available to compete against the banana market. However, if
there are very significant fruit problems such as wet boxes, chilling, ripe and turnings, the
customer will file complaints in the same manner any season of the year. Upon receipt of the
fruit in the wholesale market, the receiving clerks perform quality inspections as they unload
bananas in their respective warehouse. Immediate notification is made to the distributor
regarding the problems on the fruit for credit purposes.

HANDLING OF FRUIT
Great care is required in handling boxed bananas. Careless handling will result in
bruising, scarring, mutilated fingers which will lead to poor appearance at the market place.
While scarring and bruising are not noticeable at green stage, they will eventually be more
pronounced at ripe stage.

MOISTURE ON FRUIT UPON ARRIVAL AT DISCHARGING PORT

Moisture of fruit is important. The plastic lining inside the box helps a great deal in
maintaining freshness and preventing weight loss of the fruit.
The wetness extends shelf life. Hence banana suppliers frequently use polypack sheets with a
few perforations on the plastic. Also, the plastic prevents excessive scarring due to friction.
However, heat build up may be a problem. With careful refrigeration and knowledge of
ripening; polypack type is recommended.

ETHYLENE GAS
To ripen bananas effectively, ethylene gas has been introduced in the markets. It triggers
the fruit into ripening evenly. This liquid turns into vapors through an ethylene catalytic
generator under controlled temperature 13.3 - 14.0C. If the fruit is to be ripened fast, room
temperature can be adjusted to 15.0C or higher depending upon the acceptable color
desired. The warmer the temperature setting is, the quicker the ripening. Routine inspection
of the fruit color ranges on a daily basis is recommended for good ripening outcomes.
 The relative humidity factors should also be considered. Aeration of rooms is needed after
rooms are empty, ready for next fruit.
The critical concentration of ethylene for start of ripening is 0.8 ppm (parts per million);
a normal/usual concentration is 0.5 ppm.
The concentration of carbon dioxide (CO 2) must not be above 2%. The most ideal
concentration of CO2 for bananas is 0.l% as mentioned before.
The creation of higher concentration of ethylene in the vessel's hold can be prevented by
the addition of fresh air.

2. PROBLEMS IN TRANSPORTATION

A) RIPENING OF THE FRUIT

There is a tendency of the fruit to ripen earlier when there is inadequate refrigeration
aboard ship. The pulp temperature should be ideally 13.6 - 15.6 C. Anything over 15.6C
should be watched carefully, otherwise it triggers the fruit to ripen prematurely.
When one box starts to turn yellow, it produces ethylene gas from the fruit itself and
thereby affects the rest of the boxes in the hatch.
Loading bananas in too mature condition and/or overgrade from the plantations will
contribute to the ripening of fruit in most instances. The bigger the fruit, the faster the
ripening cycle.
In the tropics suspected mature or overgrade fruit basically is usually reject prior to
packing to avoid occurrence of ripe and turnings.
The characteristics can be determined by fullness of grade and presence of maturity stain
on the outside peel manifested by red-orange color.

B) CHILLING OF FRUIT
Chilling damage normally occurs when refrigeration becomes too low. The outside
appearance of the fruit is dull grayish instead of bright green on the peel.
When the fruit is peeled, under peel discoloration, presence of brown to black specks or
strands appear. The normal fruit shows plain unblemished appearance. The general condition
of the pulp is dry and the latex flow is slow. In some instances, chilling can also be caused at
13.3C when refrigeration is too efficient, it tends to goes down to 0.2 or 0.3C.
Too much water during the rainy season could increase the harvesting age by 2-3 weeks,
which means that the fruit could ripen quicker than normal. In that case we could have "false
chilling effect" on the cargo. It is not easy to prove that the chilling is not the ship's
responsibility.

C) DAMAGE OF THE PALLETS / BREAK BULK BOXES

Boxes can be damaged during ship refrigeration due to excessive humidity in the hatches.
Rolling, heavy swells and bad weather in general can cause the pallets to move, rubbing
other pallets and/or boxes, called "chaffing".
Sea water, moisture and humidity are factors to consider to avoid wet boxes. Wet
condition of boxes affects the overall quality of the fruit after ripening.
Before loading commences visual control and pulp temperature must be checked on the
quay.
All damaged boxes, and boxes in which yellow or ripe bananas are noticed, must under
no condition be loaded on the ship.
When a banana box is damaged, it indirectly affects the condition of the fruit. Scarring,
bruising, mutilated fingers will be the result.
 Special attention must be paid to the cut where the fruit has been separated from the
plant. If the cut is black and mouldy, it means the cut is old and the fruit is probably of a
similar age. If the cut is yellow and fresh looking, then the fruit is relatively fresh too.
We can cut the banana crosswise. If there is a lot of bleeding or latex flow, it means that
the fruit is fresh.
If there is presence of cucumber smell, it also means that the banana is fresh. When there
is slow bleeding the fruit is old and dehydrated.
Pulp temperature must be measured at the very beginning of the loading, at mid loading
and just before the compartment in question is to be filled.
Measured pulp temperatures are to be entered into the log book and special form (if
charterer requires) and records should be taken during the whole loading procedure, in an
orderly manner.
A pulp temperature of over 32C should be considered too high and written protest
should be made to the stevedores. At the same time enter a note into the log book and inform
charterer/owner.
When measuring the pulp temperature with a glass thermometer, the best results are
achieved if the thermometer is held not less than one minute in the bananas. When using an
electronic thermometer a much shorter time of measuring gives us satisfactory results.
The pulp temperature of pre-cooled cargo, reloaded from the trucks, should be measured
as often as possible before loading on to the ship.
The ship's officers, while conducting a spot check of the cargo prior to loading, should
observe certain physical characteristics of the banana's peel, pulp and crown. The officers, are
not experts in describing the quality of the cargo, and the actual pre-shipment condition of a
banana cannot be determined by the ship’s officers at the time of loading.
Theoretically, no more than 36 hours should elapse between the harvest and loading of
bananas.
To estimate the time that has elapsed from the moment when the fruit had been cut and
the inspection before loading, the following table may be guidance:
time elapse appearance
under 18 hours fruit still wet, crowns light tan colored, tissue appears fresh.
up to 24 hours fruit damp, crown light tan color, tissue appears to be drying.
up to 36 hours fruit is dry, crown darkening along its three trimmed edges, tissue dry.
up to 48 hours fruit is dry, crown along its 3 trimmed edges is dark colored, dry
tissue.
Pulp temperature of any of these commodities will also be 1-2C higher than the ambient
temperature if the fruit has been cut for more than 36 hours.
When taking temperature never leave sampled fruit in the carton.
Independent of whether the charterer's surveyors are taking pulp temperatures before
loading the cargo on to the ship, it is advisable for the deck officer on duty to record pulp
temperatures during the loading.
Kernel fruit if packed a long time ago has dark fruit kernels. This is one of the
indications that the fruit was not picked fresh.
Very often only by visual examination of the color we can conclude that the fruit is about
to ripen. In practice you may find that people sometimes like to take a pressure test to
measure the hardness of the fruit. However that is the business of shore people and the ship
has nothing to do with it.

c) STOWAGE OF CARGO
When loading bananas you will find that, usually, there are two kinds of packing:
1. Large boxes of about 20 kg, where the stowage factor is 0.057-0.062 cub.met/box (2.0-
2.2 cbf/box)
2. Small boxes of about 13 kg and stowage factor 0.045-0.048 cub.met/box (1.6-1.7
cbf/box).
Bananas are usually stowed 7-9 boxes high. In the case of bananas being stowed in hatch
coamings, which require special care, the boxes are stowed at a maximum stacking height of
13 boxes.
At the very beginning of loading attention should be paid to the cargo stowed close to the
return air screen openings.
Depending on the shipper or charterer and his instructions, one of the four ways,
hereunder described and sketched, are mainly used:

(Sketch 7)

(Sketch 8)
 (Sketch 9)

(Sketch 10)

On all four sketches it can be seen that the boxes do not interfere with the air flow to the
return air screen openings. Boxes should be stowed in the fore and aft positions, i.e. with the
ends of the boxes facing fore and aft. In this way of loading the maximum amount of cargo
can be loaded in each compartment.
To permit proper circulation, sufficient space must be left on top of the stack, usually 8-
10 centimeters. This is the space between the top of the stack and insulated deck, or the
lower side of the un-insulated deck-head or deck-beam.
 STOWAGE OF NON PALLETIZED CARGO
(Sketch 12.) Cargo loaded through weather deck

Numbers 1-5 showing areas where to start loading and where to complete loading
bananas loaded in carton boxes. If compartment is not fully loaded stepping down is
necessary in area no.5.

(Sketch 13.) Cargo loaded through side door

 When loading through side doors area no.5 is always the area to be loaded last.
When loading is nearly finished and it is obvious that there is not enough cargo, or
loading is to be continued in another port, then the "stepping down” should be done as
showed on the sketch. Stepping down is also done to prevent cargo from damages which may
occur due to ship rolling and possible fall of the cargo when the cargo hold is partly loaded. It
is not allowed to have less than two tiers of cartons after stepping down. If all compartments
are not expected to be filled, the cargo on this deck must be stowed up against the return air
bulkhead.
US ports have a special requirement requiring three feet of working space, and that the
elevator space (wells) must remain clear on all decks, but floored with a minimum of two
tiers of cartons.
 (Sketch 14.)

At the end of the loading operations the stack should be carefully examined to ensure that
all gratings are covered, and check if there are any broken cartons or any bananas lying out of
the boxes on top of the cartons, and that no cargo has been stowed too high to block air
circulation.
There are two ways of stowage in hatch coamings, to allow the cargo to be provided with
sufficient air circulation:
A) boxes stowed under the angle. It means that only a corner of the carton will touch the
coaming. In this case dunnage could be dispensed with.
B) boxes stowage using 5x5 cm dunnage. Dunnage is placed vertically between the cargo
and the hatch coamings to avoid direct contact.
In short, the cargo should be stowed so as to
permit free circulation of air, as hatch coamings
are not well insulated.

On vessels with air ducts for ventilation, channels should be left for free air circulation.
In the picture below the most common way of loading in hatch coamings is shown.

(Sketch 15.) Cargo stowed in hatch coamings

 In this way the cargo receives a sufficient quantity of air, and at the same time the limit of
13 cartons in height is not exceeded, as mentioned in Chapter IV under c)STOWAGE OF
CARGO.
An increasing number of cargoes transported on reefer vessels are palletized. Quicker and
cheaper loading and discharging operations, or simply because certain receivers demand it,
are the main reason for this method of transportation. For easy understanding of cargo
stowage and transportation of the
bananas as a palletized cargo, we should mention some details of the terminology
commonly used in this system.
Their purpose often is a facility for prestowage
of the cargo on it prior to the ships arrival and in
this way, winning time for the vessel to stay in
port, considering that it is one of the most
important items in shipping management.

(Sketch 16.) Marked area showing covered bottom sides of the pallets

At the beginning of loading it is recommended to start at the ship’s sides, continuing

towards the centerline. Sometimes the best stowage is achieved by loading from port to
starboard. In Ecuador they call this kind of stowage "chiminea" (funnel).
To enable an optimum circulation of cool air it is necessary to cover with paper strips (see
sketch no. 16) the bottom side of some pallets.
The pallets are designed for operating with fork lifts ashore and inside the hatches.
There are two primary pallet types in use today: "block style”, commonly used in Europe,
and "stringer", commonly used in the United States.
In the early 1950s, the majority of pallets in Europe were of the "stringer” type. Studies
were conducted to determine the optimum pallet for a returnable system. This investigation
led to a recommendation to standardize on a “block” style pallet, due primarily to cost
savings associated with the pallet’s four-way entry feature.
Four-way entry refers to the pallet's ability to be entered by a hand truck from all four
sides. Stringer pallets are typically two-way or partial four-way entry. Partial four-way entry
(Chiquita U.S. pallets) allows fork trucks and special hand trucks to enter through cut-outs in
the stringer boards.
Another advantage of the block pallet in a returnable system is its durability.
The average number of trips the block style pallet makes during its useful life is thought
to be greater than the stringer style.
The dimensions of the pallets are 1.20m x 1.06m for the European type, and 1.22m x
1.02m (48” x 40”) for the US type. Stowage area is about 1.34 square meter for the US type
of pallets, and 1.42 square meter for the European type of pallets.
 The longer sides are called port & starboard and the shorter ones fore & aft. They are
designed to load 6 carton boxes on each tier, a total of 48 cartons.
The standard of securing the carton boxes is by four vertical supports (angle forms), and
five plastic tapes (horizontally all around the pallets).
The pallets can be lifted by lifting equipment made for two pallets (in Ecuador called
"binchas"), for three (called "sijud"), or the cage for lifting four pallets at the same time.
Many different kinds of loading equipment exist and almost every port has its favorite
one.
Stowage factor for the pallets is 2.89 - 3.06 m 3/pallets (102-108 cft/pal), depending on
the compartment.
If we have filled less than one half of the compartment, plastic sheet or paper role to be
used to floored about 2-3 meters from the pallets wall over open gratings area, to prevent
short circuiting of the air circulation.
When half or more of the compartment is filled with cargo, then the remaining open
grating area must be covered so the bypass will, as a rule, be avoided.
In either of the above mentioned cases, plastic sheet or paper role must be fixed well with
lattices, so as to fix it close to the gratings. With wooden gratings this is fastened with nails,
while with aluminum gratings dunnage must be used.
At the end of loading in each compartment 18-36 pallets are loaded as pre-slung pallets,
where the stevedores in the discharging port will start with cargo manipulation.
There are several types of slings, but two of them are mostly in use:
a) the basket sling - one for each pallet
b) the eye sling - two for each pallet
During the loading of palletized cargo, when fork-lift handling becomes impossible, the
loading will continue with pre-slung pallets. The number of pre-slung pallets depends on the
largeness of the hatch square, customs of the port of loading and the demand of shippers,
charterers or receivers.
As the pre-slung pallets somewhat slow down the speed of loading, an insufficient
number of such pallets slows down the discharging operations.
In liner service the shipper and the receiver are in agreement as to the number of pre-
slung pallets, while in the tramp service it depends exclusively on the request of the
charterers or on the custom of the port. This number usually varies between 18-36 pre-slung
pallets in each compartment (as mentioned before).
It is best for the size of the hatch square to permit the pallets to be 4 atwartship and 6
fore and aft, or 4 atwartship and 9 fore and aft.
After completing the discharging of the palletized cargo it is necessary in all cases to
check the slings which may get damaged on the lower edging as they may be unreliable for
repeated use.
With a palletized cargo the loading must be started from the return air bulkhead, then
loading the sides of the compartment up to the centerline in case the compartment is to be
fully loaded, continuing with centerline after part and complete loading in hatch coaming.
(Sketch 17.)

d) SECURING AND LASHING

When loading the palletized cargo it has to be immediately secured for the simple reason
that the pallets can not be stowed perfectly due to the shape of the hold and the supports
which are situated in the tweendeck. The above mentioned securing is performed with air
bags.
 (Sketch 18.) Placing of dunnage bags

Cargo-pak dunnage bags can be placed in both horizontal and vertical spaces. The
dunnage bags must not be inflated beyond the recommended pressure, usually between
20.000 - 30.000 Pa (0.2 and 0.3 bars). If the space is too large, the pallets must be shifted to
enable a dunnage bag to be placed on each side of the pallet. The recommended maximum
restraining space is between 25 and 45 cm.
 Chapter V
CARGO CARE
a) TEMPERATURES
Temperature is a measure of the intensity of heat. When speaking about temperatures in
refrigerated cargoes we must distinguish a number of definitions of various expressions
which are in use:
1. PULP TEMPERATURE. It is the temperature measured inside the fruit, vegetable or
frozen product.
2. DELIVERY TEMPERATURE. It is the temperature of the air which passing through the
cooler batteries enters the cargo hold.
3. RETURN TEMPERATURE. It is the temperature of the air which after passing through
the cargo leaves the cargo hold.
4. HOLD TEMPERATURE. It is the temperature measured in the cargo hold.
5. CARRYING TEMPERATURE. With some shippers known as the delivery temperature,
while with others it has the same meaning as the hold temperature. The carrying
temperature of bananas is the lowest degree of temperature of air that can be blown into
the air delivery system without causing damage to the cargo. 13.3C has been considered
the lowest acceptable carrying temperature for "cavendish" variety bananas by most
exporters as in theory, “cavendish" can not be carried below 13.3 C on an extended
voyage.
6. FREEZING TEMPERATURE. It is the temperature of -10C.
7. DEEP FREEZING TEMPERATURE. It is the temperature of -18C or less.
8. PULL-DOWN TEMPERATURE. This is the lower of the two temperatures mentioned in
the temperature instructions.
9. TWO STAGE TEMPERATURE INSTRUCTIONS. Here the vessel is instructed how to
reduce the air delivery temperature to the lower of two temperatures (pull-down
temperature), and then to raise it immediately to the carrying temperature.
10. FIELD HEAT. This term is understood to be the heat retained in the bananas at the
moment of delivery to the vessel at the loading port.
11. TEMPERATURE SEPARATION. “Reefer unit" consists of one or more compartments,
served by an independent cooling system, and at the same time insulated from adjacent
units.

A B deck loaded in one port, A deck loaded in

EMPTY or one
B of three solutions
C C&D cooling units fully loaded
some day in one session.
D Use pull-down temp. and
increase to carrying temperature.
next port. Pull-down temp. use on B
deck and empty A deck. A deck reduced
carrying temp. at second loading port.
C&D cooling unit part loaded first day,
completed next day (not fully
loaded in one session). Reduce to carrying
temp. and keep for the voyage.

Precisely because of the different interpretation of various expressions we must read very
carefully the instructions which are sometimes not clear or are incomplete. Therefore in the
case of any suspicion regarding the text or confusion regarding the contents an additional
written explanation has to be asked for.
With shipments of bananas the carrying temperature is always the delivery temperature,
and for citrus cargo it is always the return temperature.
 We must be sure which temperature is meant, and that the right temperature is kept in the
right place at the required level avoiding variations.

When speaking of temperature let us mention all three conditions under which the
refrigerated products are transported:
a) COOLED CARGO - is a cargo transported at a relatively high temperature, so as to slow
down the growth of the bacteria and to slow down the process of ripening without
consequences to the product. The best example are bananas which are transported at a
temperature of about 13.3C whilst their freezing point is at a temperature of -1C.
b) CHILLED CARGO - is a cargo transported at a temperature of 0.5C above the
commodity's freezing point. An example is chilled beef, which is transported at the
temperature of about -2C to -1.5C while its freezing point is at a temperature of -2.8C.
c) FROZEN CARGO - is a cargo which freezes at a temperature of -10C or less.

The delivery temperature normally has to be about 2C lower than the carrying temperature.

Cooling times are divided into:

1. air cooling time: this is the time necessary for the delivery air to reach the temperature
of ambience required for the transport.
2. cargo cooling time: this is the time necessary for the cargo to reach the carrying
temperature.
Cargo cooling time is always longer than the air cooling time. At the end of the cooling
time the difference between delivery and return air has to be around 1C. As mentioned
above the cargo must be cooled as fast as possible. This means that the temperature of the
fruit must be lowered to the carrying temperature in the shortest time possible. On no account
must the delivery temp. fall below the lowest carrying temperature.
Let us come back to the beginning of the chapter to give a more detailed explanation of
the temperatures which we have mentioned:
ad1) Regardless of the conditions under which we load the refrigerated product it is
obligatory to take the pulp temperature at least three times for each particular
compartment. In case of any suspicion, pulp temperatures have to be taken until we are
convinced that the suspicion is unfounded.
ad2) The heat which is released by the fruits (“heat of respiration” is a product of moisture
and carbon dioxide) plus the heat which is penetrating the insulation plus the heat
which is supplied by fresh air, is transferred to the circulating air and is removed by the
passing of this circulating air through the cooling unit.
ad3) The temperature which is leaving the cargo hold after passing through the product is
raised by the quantity of the heat released by the product plus the heat which is
penetrating the insulation.
ad4) Some charterers require that the hold temperature before starting the loading and before
closing the compartment must be written in specially made forms. The most accurate
data will be obtained from reading of the return air temperature.
ad5) For banana cargo, the carrying temperature is always the delivery temperature, meaning
that at this temperature the delivery air must be maintained during the whole voyage.
Too low carrying temperature will have a result of chilling the cargo. Too high carrying
temperature will cause faster ripening process in the fruit and vegetables. A stable carrying
temperature is almost the same as the return temperature. When cool air passes through the
cargo, it takes away its heat, and goes back to the battery room; this circulation continues
until the moment when the delivery temperature, hold temperature, carrying temperature and
return temperature are equalized.

b) REDUCTION PERIOD
 The first step in the reduction period is the pull down period (if required), which is the
period when we reduce the delivery temperature to a specific value below the carrying
temperature. The next step is the reduction period proper.
During the loading of bananas, if the vessel has received two stage temperature
instructions, the reduction period has ended when the return air is brought down 2.2C of the
carrying temperature, not the pull-down temperature.
During the reduction period the cooling air is recirculated between the hold and the
reefer machinery usually for not more than 24 hours (see shippers/charterers instructions).
The reduction period can be continued in two ways: in relation to the return temperature,
or to the delivery temperature. In the first case the reduction period is the time counted from
the moment of closing the hold (i.e., from the moment we have started with the full cooling)
to the moment when the return temperature is brought down to the highest permissible for
the cargo. In the second case the time starts to count as above described and up to the
moment when the lowest permissible delivery temperature has been reached.
If we load several kinds of cargo in one or more ports, the charterers always require
declaration of the reduction period for every kind separately, as well as for every port of
loading. Reduction period takes between 24 and 36 hours (for bananas as well as for non pre-
cooled cargo).
Do not forget during the reduction period of bananas to use the maximum power when
the cooling commences.
Independent of the kind of cargo, all dumpers must be closed, i.e. it is necessary to avoid
any circulation of fresh air.
After the reduction period the difference between delivery and return air must be a
constant value, ranging between 1 and 2C.
It is necessary to keep precise records for all compartments on the time of the reduction
period. At the same time it is necessary to calculate the average reduction period per cooling
compartment, per hatch and per each hold.
With the reduction period for bananas the cycle is closed at a temperature difference of
2.2C between the delivery temperature requested and the return air.
The expression "cooling down time" may also be used in this connection.

c) VENTILATION
The main purpose of the ventilation is to take away CO 2, ethylene gas, heat, humidity,
and odd smell etc. from the cargo compartments.
The ventilation can be divided into the two basic groups:
a) NATURAL VENTILATION
b) ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION
Natural ventilation was mentioned when we discussed ventilation of cargo holds before
starting the loading of the cargo. Natural ventilation is useful only when the holds are
completely empty.
Artificial ventilation is the kind of ventilation where fresh air is blown into the holds by
means of ventilators.
The capacity of ventilation on all reefer vessels is estimated for the transport of bananas
as one of the products which requires the biggest quantity of fresh air during transport.
As mentioned in previous chapters, during the transport of perishable foodstuffs the heat
created by their respiration has to be removed to prevent the increase of temperature in the
compartment. During the respiration, the products in addition to heat also emit gases which
have to be removed from the compartments full of cargo.
The excess of warmth or temperature must be removed by the refrigeration plant, while
the excess of gases must be removed by ventilation.
The gases emitted from the fruits are carbon dioxide and ethylene.
 Now we will discuss the artificial ventilation which starts the moment when one of the
following conditions is fulfilled for the carriage of bananas:
a) that not more than 24 hours have passed from the closing of each compartment
b) that the required carrying temperature has been reached
c) that the reduction period is over
d) that the concentration of CO2 is higher than l%
When any of the above conditions has been reached, fresh air ventilation may gradually
be turned on.
To avoid any confusion, in almost all instructions of shippers or charterers you can read
that fresh air inlets must be completely opened and the ventilators must work at maximum
speed.
Experience has shown that it is better to open l/3, after that l/2, etc. of fresh air inlets,
than 100% at once, for two basic reasons:
1. we want to prevent the possibility of an increase of temperature in the compartments
2. do not want a large quantity of humid air to enter at once which, increasing the relative
humidity considerably.
The quantity of CO2 will show us whether our procedure is correct or not.

ONCE AGAIN I WANT TO WARN YOU THAT IT IS VERY IMPORTANT TO

STRICTLY FOLLOW THE WRITTEN INSTRUCTIONS. THESE REMARKS ARE ONLY
A REMINDER WHICH CAN NOT SUPERCEDE THE SHIPPERS lNSTRUCTlONS.

As a rule, after each particular compartment has been closed after the completion of
loading the cargo, the fresh air ventilation should be completely closed down, and the fresh
air fans should also be kept closed.
We have already said that the fruits and vegetables breathe, i.e. continue their existence,
even after picking by absorbing oxygen and emitting carbon dioxide.
As we can see the absorbed oxygen has in some way to be replaced by fresh oxygen. That
means a constant supply of fresh air is necessary.
The quantity of fresh air blown into the holds depends on the carrying temperature,
concentration of CO2, temperature of the fresh air, kind of cargo, quality of cargo, etc.
Under the notion “air changes per hour” it is understood that in the empty hold the air
must circulate at this speed in order to change, approx. 50 times in one hour. With a full hold,
where there is less presence of air, the number of changes will be greater. W e can say also
that the number of air changes depends on the nature of the cargo (for bananas about 75-85
changes per hour).
The recommended exact rate of air flow within one insulated compartment depends on
the commodity stowed in it. With an insufficient quantity of fresh air the fruits start to decay,
become soft, i.e. the fermentation process begins.
When we notice that during the voyage the ripening of the cargo has begun the best thing
to do is to remove the cargo if it is possible, or else chain reaction of decay will set in.
Very often we are encountered with the fact that in a particular part of the compartment
the decay of the fruits or vegetables exposed to bad or insufficient circulation in the cargo
compartment starts.
If the fruits begin to ripen or decay the result is the increased concentration of CO 2, and
an intensive smell.
At the same time, if the cargo shows a larger percentage of decay, the quantity of fresh air
must be increased to the maximum. In this situation the fresh air does not influence the
delivery temperature.
In case of doubt that the quality of the cargo is worse than normal, fresh air must be
supplied as soon as possible. As an example during the transport of bananas from the regions
where larger quantities of fertilizer were used or the season was not the best, after only a few
hours (4-6) the concentration of CO2 will pass 1%, which means only a few hours after
closing the compartment, it is necessary to bring in fresh air.
Relative humidity, carbon dioxide and raised temperature will contribute to the process of
ripening of the fruit.
In the mentioned example the ship still situated in warmer seas (and there the fresh air
contains a lot of humidity) resulted in high relative humidity in the hold, which have a
negative influence on the fruits, i.e. it will hasten the development of microorganisms.
With frozen cargoes which emit no smell or gases, it is not necessary to obtain any kind
of ventilation with fresh air, because it might have only harmful consequences to the cargo,
especially in the tropical zones where the fresh air would cause increase of temperature in the
compartments.
An addition of fresh air will reduce the quantity of CO 2 to a tolerable level, and that is at
the same time the only way in which we are able to influence the concentration of CO 2 in the
compartment.
Two different ships, loading the cargo in the same port, under the same conditions, of the
same quality, from the same plantation and at the same time, would not have an identical
position regarding the use of fresh air, i.e. the ventilation varies from one ship to another.
Concerning the cargo hold fans ventilation, we must bear in mind that with frozen
cargoes the ventilators are to be operated at low speed as soon as the carrying temperature
has been reached.
With cool cargoes the ventilators must be reduced in certain cases, but only when the
carrying temperature has been reached. In principle with such cargoes they are always at full
speed.
During the transportation of oranges, lemons, tangerines, grapes, apples, etc. when the
desired return temperature has been reached, the rate of air circulation in the holds may be
lowered by 50%, depending on a number of factors and the decision of whether to lower the
capacity of ventilators or not (at the same time the consumption of fuel and evaporation of
moisture from the fruit will be reduced too) is for us to make.
We must know that during the transport of bananas or any palletized cargo, the rate of air
circulation in the compartments must be 100% of maximum capacity. Closing and opening
time of fresh air openings must be always recorded in the log book.
If the fresh air in any manner affects the delivery air temperature, the fresh air openings
must be adjusted.
Most of the charterers in their manuals for the transport of bananas give instructions of
how to operate at low temperatures, but as an orientation would serve the temperature of the
outside air at 10C.
At that time the fresh air will have to be closed or kept partly open, so that the delivery
temperature of about 13.3C remains stable.
How much to open or close the dumpers depends on the concentration of CO 2, which
must be carefully controlled.

d) CARBON DIOXIDE (CO 2) -BANANAS

During the reduction period the concentration of CO 2 would probably be around 0.5-
0.7%.
During the voyage fresh air ventilation is used so that the concentration of CO 2 should not
exceed 0.3%. Experience has shown that it is most convenient to have a concentration of
0.05-0.1%. Some charterers permit an upper limit of 0.7% (during the reduction period), but
during the transport this limit is 0.3%.
The quantity, i.e. the concentration of CO2, is regulated by adding fresh air.
PLEASE NOTE AND KEEP IN MIND THAT FAILURE TO OPEN THE FRESH
AIR INLETS MAY RUIN THE CARGO COMPLETELY.
The concentration of CO2 in the amount of about 3 - 4% would greatly damage the lot.
 If the CO2 is not removed from the loaded compartments, and is allowed to accumulate,
the bananas will "suffocate" and a condition known as “green ripe” can occur.
Depending on the season, geographical position, the quality of bananas, the quantity of
fertilizer used, etc. the concentration of CO 2 would vary so that in particular cases we would
be forced to add fresh air only a few hours after closing the compartment by full opening of
dampers, while in other cases it would be enough to open only 1/2 of the dumpers and do it
about 24 hours after closing the compartment.
From nearly any instructions received from shippers or charterers you could see that the
fresh air must be opened not later than 24 hours after starting full cooling. This must be
strictly followed.
With bananas which are not emitting an elevated quantity of CO 2 it will do to open 1/2 of
the dumpers in the endeavor to influence as little as possible the change of delivery air
temperature.

e) RELATIVE HUMIUITY
The relative humidity for a number of products which are carried by reefer ships is
between 85 - 95%. The exceptions are chocolate, candies, dried egg product, dates, garlic and
onion.
Mostly all sorts of fruits and vegetables need a high relative humidity to prevent
dehydrogenation by evaporation.
The high relative humidity causes the forming of mould and bacteria, while a too low
relative humidity hastens the loss of liquid resulting from the consequences listed in Chapter
I.- GENERAL.
In one word that means too dry air would cause the loss of weight of the products
(discoloration of the skin), while too humid air will hasten the growth of mould, will increase
the number of bacteria, and the skin of the fruit would be slimy.
Fresh air usually contains a much higher concentration of humidity than the air in the
cooled compartment. With the addition of the fresh air the relative humidity is increased.
As our duty is to bring the product to the port of discharging in a fresh and juicy
condition, we must do our best to prevent evaporation from the surface of the fruit.

f) HEATING OF CARGO HOLDS

It often happens that in the winter months during the discharging of bananas in the
countries with a cold climate, the outer air temperature is so low that on opening the holds
there is danger that the cold air could penetrate into the hold and damage the cargo.
To prevent cold air from outside entering the hold, it is recommended to keep fans at
slow speed on the upper deck to raise the delivery air temperature a little higher than the
prescribed temperature.
With low temperatures of -5 to -10C or lower it is possible that the fresh air penetrating
into the hold is so cold as to cool the whole hold, so that the delivery air temperature can fall
below the requested values, and then the refrigerant or brine must be heated so that the
correct delivery temperature is kept.

g) ENGINE ROOM BULKHEADS

On all types of ships where the engine room bulkheads are not particularly isolated (very
old types of reefer vessels), cooled by air circulation or separated by battery room, dunnage
should always be used between cargo and bulkheads.

h) CARGO INSPECTION DURING THE VOYAGE - BANANAS

The duty of the Chief Officer is to control every day, after the end of the reduction period,
the pulp temperature and concentration of CO 2.
 As mentioned before, fresh air ventilation should be turned on at once or gradually
depending on the temperature of the outside air and concentration of CO 2, i.e. according to
the instructions of shippers or charterers.
In no way should we allow the increase of temperatures in the holds due to fresh air
supply, particularly if the fresh air is added before the end of the reduction period.
If the pulp temperature during the loading was not extremely high, then one of the
indications that something is not as it should be with the cargo is the fact that the pulp
temperature 24 hours after closing the compartment and beginning of full cooling is not less
than 15-16C.
Practice shows that the correct measurement starts when the violet color has reached 0.1l
% of division on the scale of the glass test tube.
As data at the top and bottom of the test tube are not as reliable as the middle section, the
middle of the test tube shows the most accurate measures. So in case of any doubt about the
concentration of CO2 always check with the measurements at the middle of the test tube.
Some of the ships have indicators for the percentage of CO 2 on the navigation bridge;
however the most secure and punctual way is to take measures directly in the holds.
With any kind of cooled cargoes the pulp temperature must be measured at the bottom
and at the top of cartons (break-bulk or palletized cargoes), whilst with frozen cargoes (if it is
necessary) the pulp temperature should be measured always in the middle.
During the measurement of pulp temperature with any kind of fruits, never leave the
checked fruit in the hold or battery room. It has to be taken out and thrown away.
Each time a compartment is entered attention should be given to any intensive odor.
If cooled cargo has already begun to ripen or decay, this would be felt by the
intensification of the odor.
If not enough attention is dedicated to the bananas the pulp temperature will be lowered
at first in the two lowermost tiers of cartons and in the uppermost tier.
Much more time would be necessary to devote to the bananas stowed in the middle to
lower the pulp temperature to the required level.
Therefore it is recommended to measure the pulp temperature of the bananas stowed on
top of the gratings as well as those cartons stowed in the top tier. Thus we would have a more
realistic situation and the bananas will not become chilled.
After about 72 hours from the time we started with full refrigeration, if the pulp
temperature is above 17C, it is one of the indications that something is wrong with the
cooling or with the cargo.
During the voyage the co-operation between Chief Officer and Reefer Engineer is very
important.
On the ships where there are indicators of the delivery and return temperatures on the
navigation bridge it is recommended to enter the recorded temperatures every four hours into
specially made forms and in case of any irregularity advise the Reefer Engineer immediately.
On ships which use Freon in the system of cooling, it is good to use a portable instrument
for detection of gases in the air. The first reason is safety, and the second is to check that
there is no accidental leakage somewhere in the system.

i) COMPATIBILITY OF THE CARGO

The table below shows commodities which may or may not be stowed in the same hatch.
From the table it can be seen which cargoes are compatible, but we also know that we will
never transport them together, for the simple reason that they request entirely different
treatment during the transport.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
1 apples Y Y Z Y Z X X Y X Y Y X X X Z X X Z X
2 bananas Y X X X X Z X Y Z X X Z Z Y Z X X Y X
3 butter fr. Y X Z X X Y X X Y X X Z Y Y Y Y X X Z
 4 cheese Z X Z Y Y Y Z X Y Z Z Z Y Y Z Y Z X X
5 egs Y X X Y X Y X X Y X X Z Y Z Y Y Z X X
6 fish fr. Z X X Y X Z X X Z X X Z Y X Z Z X X X
7 grapefruit X Z Y Y Y Z X Z X Y Y X X X X X X X X
8 grapes X X X Z X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
9 kiwi Y Y X X X X Z X Z X X Y Y Y Z X Y Z X
10 lemon X Z Y Y Y Z X X Z Y Y X X X X X X X X
11 meat fr. Y X X Z X X Y X X Y X Z Y Y Y Y X X X
12 meat chill. Y X X Z X X Y X X Y X Y Y X Z Y X X X
13 melon X Z Z Z Z Z X X Y X Z Y X X Z Z X X X
14 orange X Z Y Y Y Y X X Y X Y Y X X X X X X X
15 pear X Y Y Y Z X X X Y X Y X X X X X X Z X
16 potato Z Z Y Z Y Z X X Z X Y Z Z X X X X X X
17 pinaple X X Y Y Y Z X X X X Y Y Z X X X X X X
18 plum X X X Z Z X X X Y X X X X X X X X X X
19 tomato Z Y X X X X X X Z X X X X X Z X X X X
20 vegetables X X Z X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
X - Compatible Y - Incompatible Z - Slight risk
 Chapter VI
FRUIT CARGOES
a) CITRUS FRUITS
The concept of citrus fruit includes five sorts of fruits: oranges, lemons, mandarins
(tangerines), grapefruit and limes.
They are usually loaded as pre-cooled cargo.
As non pre-cooled cargo they emit a large quantity of CO2.
After loading and during the whole voyage the cooler fans should be operated at
maximum speed.
CO2. concentration should be kept below 0.5%, and relative humidity between 85-95%.
Lemons and grapefruit are more sensitive cargo than oranges.
The carrying temperatures vary from 0C to 15C.
Limes should be carried with lemons and grapefruit, and never with oranges.
Mandarins should be carried with oranges rather than with grapefruits and lemons.

GRAPEFRUIT
Comes for loading as break-bulk and as palletized cargo. Grapefruit is very sensitive to
chilling injury, so we must be careful not to damage the cargo during cold treatment and
during the voyage.
The holds could usually be pre-cooled to +10C. Minimum delivery temperature about
5.5 - 6C. The relative humidity needs to be kept at not less than 85% and not more than
90%. Keep full supply of fresh air during the whole voyage. CO 2 concentration kept at not
above 0.2%.
We can say that citrus fruit is a very simple cargo for transport

b) DECIDUOUS FRUITS
GRAPES
Grapes belong to the most delicate fruit from the group of deciduous fruits for transport.
There is a number of reasons for this statement, among which is their small berries, high
concentration of sugar, the bunch of grapes not being a compact entirety, their thin tree, etc.
For the above mentioned reasons great attention during the transport has to be paid to this
cargo.
As the grapes are more sensitive to the relative humidity, it has to be kept at about 85%.
The temperature at which the grapes are transported is slightly lower, so that there is a
danger of freezing if we are not careful. The freezing point is somewhere around -2 C,
depending on the percentage of sugar concentration.
The grapes are transported in cartons whose edges are strengthened so as to avoid
pressure between cartons which are almost always stowed on pallets.
The pulp temperature is the same as for bananas, to be taken from the lowest tier stowed
on pallets, for the before described reason, i.e. for fear of too low temperature.
The concentration of CO2 in individual compartments must be around 0.3% or below,
never over 0.7%.
When the carrying temperature has been reached, it has to be lowered to 50% of the
capacity of the fans for delivery air to the holds.
The carrying temperature in most cases is 0C. Shippers sometimes require the grapes to
be kept at the lowest practical temperature, i.e. at a constant temperature of above -1C.

APPLES
Apples are usually loaded as pre-cooled cargo.
 The freezing point is somewhere at temperatures of up to -1.5 C, depending on the sort
of apples, climate and the concentration of sugar and acid in the cell sap.
It is necessary to maintain the concentration of carbon dioxide below 0.7%.
Relative humidity must be about 90%.
In the beginning full speed on the cooler fans; later reduce the capacity of the fans to half
speed.
Addition of fresh air is required.
Pre-cooling of the cargo compartments must be done at temperatures from +3C to 0C.
Avoid stowing of pre-cooled and non pre-cooled fruit in the same cooling compartment.
Delivery temperature is usually to be kept at about 0C.

PEARS
The same as apples, pears are usually loaded as pre-cooled cargo.
Relative humidity should be kept within the range of 80-90%.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) should be kept below 1%.
Cooler fans must be operated at full speed for the first few days, later the fan speed can
be reduced.
Usually the delivery temperature is at about -1C.

c) TROPICAL FRUITS
PINEAPPLES
Not so sensitive a cargo as kiwi. The concentration of CO 2 must be kept below 0.5%.
Cooler fans must blow at maximum speed throughout the voyage. The freezing point is at
-1C. The carrying temperature is in most cases 7.2C. The freezing point is at -1C.

KIWI
Due attention must be dedicated to every cargo we are carrying during the transport.
However, besides bananas, kiwi is the only fruit to which it is necessary to dedicate
particular attention during the transport. There are a number of reasons for this: high price on
the market, sensibility to aberration of the temperature, and first of all the cargo calls for hard
work by the engine department due to the temperature of -0.5C at which it is carried.
The relative humidity should be around 85-90%.
CO2 concentration should be kept below 0.5%.
Recommended pulp temperature is normally 0C. Minimum air delivery temperature
should be -0.5C. Usually the maximum allowable loading pulp temperature is not greater
than 10C.
Cargo fans should remain at full speed during the whole voyage.
Owing to the necessity of very frequent defrosting, the ice which falls down during
previous defrosting may not liquefy, so large quantities of ice accumulate in the battery room.
Therefore it is necessary to keep caring the ice out of the battery room and throw it
overboard.
The pallets, once loaded on board the vessel, are not touched until the arrival in the port
of discharge, i.e. during the transport it is not allowed to take pulp temperatures (as for
example with bananas). Separate boxes in the battery room are used for taking the pulp
temperatures.
Great attention must be paid to the cleanness of the hold, because the examination of the
holds before the loading is rigorous.
At the arrival of the vessel in the port of discharging, each carton passes the inspection
and so the product gets the green light to come to the market.
 Chapter VII
VEGETABLES
POTATOES
With the transport of potatoes it is recommendable to pre-cool all compartments in which
the cargo is to be stowed to about +10C.
It is desirable that before starting the loading to pay particular attention to the outward
appearance of the jute bags, which must be dry and without any stain.
During the stowage not more than nine bags, one on top of the other, are to be stowed.
The potatoes are very sensitive to light, so that you must not forget to switch off the lights
after completing the loading in each compartment.
The carrying temperature depends on the climate, i.e. it varies from port to port, but most
often it is taken that the temperature varies about +5C for table potatoes, while seed
potatoes are carried at different temperatures, (usually +8 - +9C).
The cooler fans must work at maximum speed until the carrying temperature is reached.
Then the fan speed can be reduced by 50% of its capacity, up to 3-4 days before starting the
discharging.
The temperature must be increased gradually so that the outer temperature will be equal
to the temperature in the holds.
That is done with the intention of preventing condensation on the cargo.
It is recommended to ventilate the loaded compartments during the voyage every 24
hours.
Bagged potatoes can be shipped in bulk, or else the bags can be stowed on pallets.
Each pallet contains 50 bags. Five bags in a row; ten bags high. The weight of each bag is
25 kilos.
When shipping palletized "jumbo" bags weighing 1250 kilos the stowage factor is by
12% greater than with the loading of palletized bagged potatoes of 25 kilos per bag.
The min. temperature for potatoes is +4C, while the max. temperature is +12C.

ONIONS
The procedure of the cooling treatment is the same as with potatoes.
The temperature in the holds has to be increased gradually before discharging as
described in the previous chapter.
The concentration of CO2 is to be kept under 0 5%.
The relative humidity is to be maintained at 85-95%.

CARROTS
Good air ventilation is desirable to prevent condensation if relative humidity is 95%.
Carrots should be stored away from products that give off ethylene.
Freezing injury occurs if the temperature is below -1C.
The relative humidity is to be maintained at 95 - 98%.
Maximum concentration of CO2 : 0.5%
Carrying temperature : + 0C. Freezing point : -1.2C.
 Chapter VIII
FROZEN CARGOES
GENERAL
One of the methods to protect the product from deterioration is to freeze the product. That
means to preserve the product from deterioration we must prevent the multiplication of
micro-organisms whose development would be completely stopped somewhere at the
temperature of about -8C.
At the same time that does not mean that we have destroyed the micro-organisms by
lowering the temperature to under -8C. We have only stopped their growth. In other words
they are in a state of hibernation and they can come to life again if the temperature increases.
When preparing the holds for loading frozen cargo we must pay great attention first of all
to eliminate any smells, if they exist, as well as any dirtiness.
In one word it is recommended that the preparation of the holds is carried out as
described in Chapter II.
In all cases we must make any additional efforts which are required for the protection of
all drains under cooling elements, draining pipes, cooler spaces, etc. to be flushed with
calcium chloride.
A 26% calcium chloride (CaCl 2) will give sufficient protection against freezing, i.e. the
freezing point is somewhere about -30C.
Most charterers demand pre-cooling to begin 48 hours before the arrival of the vessel in
the port of loading, in other words that the pre-cooled temperature has to be reached about 24
hours before the loading begins.
This will provide enough time for the vessel to rectify any failure of the cooling system.
Generally speaking, in order to start with the cooling it is required to undertake some
preliminary works, such as:
1. all drains in the cargo compartments and battery room must be filled with 26%
calcium chloride solution.
2. check up heating coils in drain pipes.
3. close all possible accesses of outside air on all dumpers and all inlets and outlets.
4. check the work of cargo fans.

In almost all books of reference and manuals you can find one or two temperatures, i.e.
ranging from -10C to - 12C. It is the temperature above which cargo in frozen condition
should not be loaded. This is the temperature which is measured in the middle of meat or
fish. In other words that means before the loading starts it is important to take pulp
temperature, and in cases where the temperature is higher than -10C or -12C, it is
recommendable this cargo not be loaded without special permission from shipowner or
charterer, i.e. to wait for further instructions.
Sometimes it is very difficult to reject the cargo, so in that case the lots in which higher
temperature occurs have to be separated, stowed in the block stack, and naturally for this
load special permission has to be obtained.
To measure the pulp temperature below -10C it is necessary to make a hole with a hand
drill in which the thermometer is to be inserted and the temperature read.
Special attention has to be given to the outward appearance of the packing.
If defrosting of the cargo occurs, then on the cardboard packing signs in the form of stains
of blood will appear, or distortion of the cartons because of humidity.
Frequent checking of the pulp temperature is desirable and about this exact and clear
records should be made.
 We must know that the pulp temperature is to be taken as near as possible to the middle
of the meat body, as well as temperature just inside the surface, and record of both
temperatures are to be kept.

During the discharging the identical procedure is to be repeated and temperature records
kept so that in case of any claim we have some evidence in our favor.
It doesn't hurt to record the temperature of the outside air too at the moment of measuring
the pulp temperature, especially in those regions which are exposed to high outside
temperature.
The biggest obstacle in the loading of frozen cargo is high outside temperature. To avoid
any damage to the cargo and any claim against the vessel it is good to undertake steps such
as:
1. protect the cargo from direct influence of sun
2. check the temperature in the holds continuously
3. protect the cargo from direct influence of warm winds
4. if the temperature in the holds has risen, the loading should be suspended and cooling
started.

After completing the loading of frozen cargo and lashing, which has been done if
required, it is necessary to start with the cooling.
The refrigeration plant must work at maximum capacity to reach the carrying temperature
prescribed in the instructions as quickly as possible.
No damage to the cargo will occur should the temperature be 2-3C lower than the
stipulated carrying temperature.
It is important only that the cargo fans operate at slow speed.
At the same time we must watch that there are no variations of the temperature for more
than +/- 1C, otherwise a great loss of humidity may occur.

DEFROSTING
When the refrigerated cargoes are transported at temperatures lower than 0C, the
creation of ice under the battery coils appears. There are some indications which tell us that
defrosting is needed. However we must know that visual inspection only cannot be a
sufficient indication when defrosting must be done.
These indications are:
1. forming of ice under the coils.
2. increase of return air temperature.
3. increase of the difference between the air delivery temperature and the brine delivery
temperature.

The defrosting in any case must be done when the quantity of ice is small. At that time it
is a simple matter to do so and no increase of the temperature in the compartment or in the
pulp temperature will occur. Experience shows that the first defrosting is best done 8-10
hours after closing the compartment. After defrosting has been done it is good to flush all
drains with a 26% solution of calcium chloride.

a) FROZEN MEAT
After the loading of frozen meat has been completed, it is necessary to start with the
cooling as soon as possible.
During the cooling down period, the cooler fans must work at maximum speed; then after
a certain time when the carrying temperature has been reached, the fan speed must be
reduced. The basic reason to reduce the fan speed is to prevent the drying of the cargo.
Naturally, all openings and all ventilation must be completely closed.
 The arrival of any quantity of outside air must be prevented. This forms part of the
preliminary work which can be done before the beginning of the loading of frozen cargo. It is
desirable to have the relative humidity at about 90%.
Pre-cooling: see Chapter III.c.
The temperature of the holds has to be pre-cooled to about -20C for frozen meat, while
the pre-cooling for the transport of chilled meat has to be at about -l.5C.
During the loading it is necessary to constantly check the pulp temperature and the
temperature in the cargo holds.

stowage factor carr. temp. ( C)

chilled meat 2.83 - 4.25 cbm 100 - 150 cuft 1.5 - 2.0
pork boneless 1.70 - 2.27 cbm 60 - 80 cuft 18 - 25
beef boneless 1.70 - 2.27 cbm 60 - 80 cuft 18 - 25
pork halves 2.55 - 2.83 cbm 90 - 100 cuft 15 - 20
mutton 3.40 - 3.68 cbm 120 - 130 cuft 18 - 23

b) FROZEN FISH
For pre-cooling, cooling down treatment the work of cooler fans, ventilation, etc., the
procedure is identical with that for the transport of frozen meat.
Frozen fish is transported at temperatures from -18C to -25C while it is always loaded
from cold storage ashore or from fishing trawlers.
The fish could be packed in cardboard boxes (cartons) vacuum-packed or simply loaded
as bulk cargo.
As with meat, the pulp temperature and the temperature in the holds must be checked all
the time, and in case of a high temperature in the holds, suspend the loading for a definite
time and start with cooling.
Recommended relative humidity is about 90%.
Since for most fish the temperature in the holds during the transport by sea must be about
-20C, the delivery temperature should be about -22C.

stowage factor carr. temp. ( C)

salted fish 2.27 - 2.69 cbm 80 - 95 cuft -3
fish in bulk 2.27 - 2.69 cbm 80 - 95 cuft - 18 - 25
fish fillets 1.98 - 2.27 cbm 70 - 80 cuft - 18 - 25
octopus/squids 1.98 - 2.27 cbm 70 - 80 cuft - 18 - 25
lobsters/shrimps 1.70 - 1.98 cbm 60 - 70 cuft - 18 - 25

LOADING OF FROZEN CARGOES IN CARTONS

Most frozen cargoes, such as meat, chicken, fish, butter, cheese etc., are stowed in
cartons. As each of the producers has his own method of packing there is no uniform size of
packing like that used for bananas (although even here there may exist minor exceptions). If
a number of units different in size are carried in same hold, one of the possible orientation
stowage factors to be considered may be 1.90 cbm/mt (67 cuft/mt). This also includes the
space in the hatch coamings where the boxes have to be placed vertically along the edges to
permit the circulation of air.
If only one lot of cargo is loaded the shipper will supply the stowage factor, and this
simplifies the calculation a great deal. As the pictures show, with such cargoes almost the
entire free space is made use of. Care has to be taken not to block the return air screen
openings, and to permit air circulation along the edge of the hatch coamings.
With these lots it is important to separate the cargo (in most cases by means of nets), as
there are usually a number of different receivers, and hence also a number of bills of lading.
 With any kind of frozen cargo, loading should not be allowed if the pulp temperature is
above -10C, so this has to be taken into consideration.
The stowage of cargoes of this kind may cause problems to the ship operators, and it is
advisable to have the ship's crew deal with the tally.
It is important for the crew to compare the tally sheets with those of the stevedores tally
clerks, and intervene in case of any discrepancy at once, with the end of the loading
operation. If a difference is only then discovered, it is usually too late to ascertain the exact
number of boxes loaded.
The tally at the port of loading has the same importance as that port of unloading. There
are ports in which shortages appear as normal occurrence, and in these ports special attention
has to be paid to the quantity of the cargo loaded or unloaded to secure for the ship operator
maximum protection from ensuing complaints.

LOADING AND STORAGE OF TUNA LOINS

A common route on which Tuna Loins are carried is W. Africa - the Caribbean Sea.
The cargo is packed in cartons of 25x25x75 cm, and it is shipped either as break bulk or
pallets. The weight of each carton is 30 kilos, 40 cartons per pallet.
The shipper will without doubt require precooling to -20C. It goes without saying that
the compartments have to be clean, free of any odors etc., which applies to the carriage of any
frozen cargo. During the loading procedure it has to be seen to that the pulp temperature is
not above -10C.
For a few days after loading the refrigeration has to be maintained at its maximum. When
the return temperature has reached - 20C the refrigeration capacity may be reduced, and the
delivery and return temperature kept between -20 and -21C.

SHRIMPS
Loaded at Bay Roberts, NFLD, Canada.
Type of cargo:
1) Japanese shrimps - 12 kg/box - 8 stacking - cart/pall
2) Boiled shrimps - 5 kg/box - 204 cart/pall
3) Industrial shrimps - 20 kg/bag - 6 stacking - 30 bags/pall (2 pallets in high)
- 35 kg/bag - 7 stacking - 35 bags/pall
- 15kg/blocks - 17 stacking - 102 blocks/pall

Square meter/pallet:
1) Japanese:
2) Boiled 5 kg:
3) Industrial 20 kg:
Industrial 35 kg:
1.6 sq.met/pall
1.6 sq.met/pall
1.8 sq.met/pall
2.4 sq.met/pall

Temperaiures: from -25 to -32C.

 Chapter IX
“USDA” INSTRUCTlONS
Requirement for vessels carrying fresh fruit to the United States.

a) GENERAL

USDA - United States Department of Agriculture is a state service which is engaged in

the control of all sorts of fresh fruits imported to the United States.
The task of USDA control is to prevent any of the various flies, such as Mediterranean
Fruit Flies, The Queensland Fruit Fly, The Mexican Fruit Fly, Flies of the Anastepha Family
and other insects, from being imported into the United States.
Any fruit imported to the United States, whether in the vessels holds or in containers
which might be infected with these flies, must be stored at a temperature of 2.2C or less
during the voyage on shipboard, or in the warehouse located in the country of origin or in the
United States for a certain period of time.
The recording installation system consists of a recorder, which records temperature on a
number of places in each compartment at least once an hour, and a sensor. Fix sensors are
placed in forward and aft bulkheads, and they measure air temperature. In case of the
tweendeck compartment two sensors are required in the upper compartment and one in the
lower compartment which have to be placed on the bulkhead farthest from cooling unit.
Other sensors, “movable” or fruit sensors are attached to the rubber cable, inserted in the
fruit by the USDA representative, and in different places in the compartment to register the
pulp temperature of the fruit.
From 5-15 meters cable length are usually sufficient.
The number of temperature sensors and their location in each compartment will be
specified and the approval will be issued to the vessel on condition that the vessel fulfills the
norms in accordance with the USDA rules. This approval is valid for equipment only.
The following table can be used to determine the number of sensors required in
each compartment.
cubic feet cubic meter No. of sensors
0 - 10,000 0 - 283 4
10,001 - 15,000 284 - 425 5
15,001 - 25,000 426 - 708 6
25,001 - 45,000 709 - 1274 7
45,001 - 70,000 1275 - 1980 8

b) INSTRUCTlONS
When the vessel has been instructed to carry the fruit under USDA rules, the first thing to
do is to check the entire equipment, so that it will be in working order for the USDA
representative on arrival of the vessel in the port. This check is compulsory. Therefore any
fault, i.e. unnecessary delay of the vessel, is unjustified.
If during the testing of the equipment before arrival of the vessel in port, any technical
incorrectness is observed, and we are not in a position to eliminate it ourselves, an authorized
service must be advised in time so as to reduce the delay of the vessel to the minimum, i.e.
not delay the USDA official test.
Regarding this on board testing, compartments in which the cargo to be loaded must be:
a) pre-cooled to 0C;
b) the installation system tested;
c) recording started;
d) start the recorders between 24 and 36 hours prior to the arrival in the loading port;
e) install portable phones or walkie-talkies;
f) prepare 100 - 150 kilos of crushed ice made of fresh water (the quantity of the ice
depends on the number and size o f the compartments in which the cargo is to be loaded);
g) prepare a large number of small plastic buckets which have to be filled with crushed ice
and some water;
h) take all sensors out from their boxes or places, and plunge them in the plastic buckets in
at least two compartments which are going to be tested first, so that the sensors are left in
the mixture for a certain period of time.

During the testing, if any of the sensors deviate more than +/- 0.5C, they must be
calibrated or changed if calibration is not possible.
For the testing to run as fast as possible, the officers and crew must be organized so that
one compartment is always ready in advance.
If everything has been done as advised, the whole procedure of testing could be done in a
relatively short period of time.
When after the testing all measuring points have been approved, the USDA
representative gives the green light for the loading.
The results obtained from the measuring points are recorded in a report of which one
copy is delivered to the vessel.
When loading non pre-cooled cargo, the USDA has detailed instructions about dunnage.
The instructions are usually given by USDA representative or by the shipper.
For loading pre-cooled cargo the USDA has no special regulations.
Sufficient dunnage must be placed between the cargo and bulkheads against the engine
room, or any fuel oil or diesel oil tank, if this bulkhead is not specially cooled by circulating
air (as described in Chapter V under g).

c) COLD TREATMENT
Cold treatment is an efficient post-harvest method for the control of various flies.
Exposing the affected fruit to temperatures of 2.2C or below for a specific period of time
will kill the flies and their eggs.
The procedure of keeping the fruit at the above mentioned temperature during a definite
period of time is called COLD TREATMENT, and consists of two parts:
a) cooling down period;
b) keeping the fruit at the scheduled temperature level for the stipulated number of days
The USDA representative at the loading port will give information concerning the
maximum temperature and the period for the cold treatment.
The cold treatment will commence when all sensor readings are brought down to the
required temperature.
The cold treatment must not be interrupted before the vessel arrives in the port of
discharge, i.e. until the USDA representative has allowed discharging to start.
The cold treatment must not be interrupted even if it has been performed for the
stipulated number of days before arrival at discharging port.
In case the cold treatment has not been completed during the voyage, the ship must lie at
the port until the cold treatment has been completed.
We must be very cautious during the defrosting periods, because if the temperature
exceeds the limit for a longer period of time than usual the whole procedure for the particular
compartment has to be repeated.
At the request of the USDA all measuring points must be at or below the required figure
for the said voyage.
The concept of sterilization temperature includes the pulp temperature and the hold
temperature, but not the delivery temperature.
The pulp temperature and the hold temperature must not exceed the temperature required
by the USDA surveyor's instructions for the voyage in question.
 The shipper’s instructions will include the delivery temperature.
The temperature regulated by the USDA surveyors cannot exceed the maximum
prescribed temperature, while the delivery temperature regulated by the shipper cannot be
lower than the minimum allowable temperature.
Each shipment of fruit must satisfy all requirements described in section 319.56-2D of
Quarantine 56.

d) ABSTRACT

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION SERVICE

Title 7 Agriculture

CHAPTER III Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

PART 319 FOREIGN QUARANTINE NOTICES

Subpart Fruit and Vegetables

§ 319.56-2c Administrative instructions authorizing the importation of frozen fruits and

vegetables.
a) The type of treatment designated in this subpart as freezing shall be one of those
treatments commonly known as quick freezing, sharp freezing, or frozen pack. In general this
involves an initial quick freezing at subzero temperatures with subsequent storage and
transportation handling at not higher than 20F. Any equivalent freezing method is also
included in this designation.
b) The Deputy Administrator of the Plant Protection and Quarantine Programs, under
authority contained in § 319.56-2, hereby prescribes freezing as a satisfactory treatment for
all fruits and vegetables enterable under permit under § 319.56.
Such frozen fruits and vegetables may be imported from any country under permit, on
compliance with §§ 319.56-1 through 319.56-7 (exclusive of non-elated administrative
instructions), at such ports as shall be authorized in the permits.
c) Such fruits and vegetables may not be removed from the vessel or vehicle transporting
them until it has been determined by an inspector of the Plant Protection and Quarantine
Programs that they are in a satisfactory frozen state on arrival in this country.
d) If the temperature of the fruits or vegetables in any part of such an importation is found
to be above 20F. at the time of inspection upon arrival, the entire shipment shall remain on
board the vessel or vehicle under such safeguards as may be prescribed by the inspector of
the Plant Protection and Quarantine programs until the temperature of the shipment is below
20F., or the shipment is transported outside the United States or its territorial waters, or is
otherwise disposed of to the satisfaction of the inspector.
e) The importation from foreign countries of frozen fruits and vegetables is not authorized
when such fruits and vegetables are subject to attack in the area of origin, by plant pests that
may not, in the judgment of the Deputy Administrator of the Plant Protection and Quarantine
Programs, be destroyed by freezing.
f) Freezing of fruits and vegetables as authorized in the instructions in this section is
considered necessary for the elimination of pest risk, and no liability shall attach to the U.S.
Department of Agriculture or to any officer or representative of that Department in the event
of injury resulting to fruits or vegetables offered for entry in accordance with the instructions
in this section.
 § 319.56-2d Administrative instructions for cold treatment of certain imported fruits.
a) Treatments authorized. The following cold treatments are authorized for imported fresh
fruits enterable under § 319.56-2 under permit and upon compliance with applicable
regulations in this subpart:
(1) Phases of treatments. Authorized cold treatments shall consist of:
(i) Precooling, during which the fruit shall be cooled until its pulp temperature is at
or below a level designated in or under this paragraph and
(ii) Refrigeration, during which the fruit shall be held at or below this level for a
number of days designated in or under this paragraph.
(2) Refrigeration temperatures and periods.
(i) Fruit cold treated because of the Mediterranean fruit fly shall be refrigerated for
one of the following periods at or below the respective temperature designated:
10 days -32F.
11 days -33F.
12 days -34F.
14 days -35F.
16 days -36F.
(ii) Fruit cold treated because of fruit flies of the Anastrepha (other than A. ludens
(Loew)) shall be refrigerated for one of the following periods at or below the
respective temperature designated:
11 days -32F.
13 days -33F.
15 days -34F.
17 days -35F.
iii) Fruit cold treated because of the Mexican fruit fly (A. ludens (Loew)) shall be
refrigerated for one of the following periods at or below the respective temperature
designated:
18 days -33F.
20 days -34F.
22 days -35F.
(iv) Fruit cold treated because of the Queensland fruit fly (Dacus tryoni (Frogg.))
shall be refrigerated for one of the following periods at or below the respective
temperatures designated:
13 days -32F.
14 days -33F.
(v) Fruit cold treated because of the false codling moth (Critophlebia (Argyroploce)
leucotreta) shall be refrigerated for not less than 22 days at or below 31F.
If the temperature of the fruit rises above 31.5F. while under treatment, it may be
compensated for by extending the treatment one-third of a day for each day or part of a day
the 31.5F. is exceeded.
Should the temperature of the fruit exceed 34.5F. at any time during the period of
treatment, the treatment is nullified.
Refrigeration temperatures and periods for fruit to be cold treated because of other
species of insects may be designated by the Deputy Administrator of the Plant Protection and
Quarantine Programs, if experimental data are available concerning applicable treatments of
known effectiveness.

b) Place and manner of treatments

(1) Places of precooling and refrigeration. Refrigeration may be conducted while the
fruit is on shipboard in transit to the United States. If not so refrigerated, the fruit shall
be both precooled and refrigerated after arrival only in cold storage warehouse approved
by the Deputy Administrator of the Plant Protection and Quarantine Programs and located
at the port of New York or such other northern ports as he may hereafter designate. Fruit
which is to be refrigerated in transit shall be precooled either at a dockside refrigeration
plant prior to loading aboard the carrying vessel, or aboard the carrying vessel.
Refrigeration shall be completed in the compartment or room in which it is begun.
(2) Precooling of fruit before departure. Fruit which is to be refrigerated in transit must
be precooled to the temperature designated in or under paragraph (a) of this section. The
precooling may be conducted in accordance with either paragraph (b)(2) (i) or (ii) of this
section:
(i) Fruit may be precooled at a dockside refrigeration plant prior to loading aboard the
carrying vessel.. Such fruit shall be precooled to a temperature at which it can be
transferred to the refrigerated compartments on such vessel without a rise above the
maximum temperature prescribed in or under paragraph (a) of this section. A
responsible official of the Department of Agriculture of the country of origin shall
sample fruit temperatures in all sections of the lot of fruit until he is satisfied that
complete precooling has been accomplished in accordance with this section and shall
issue a certificate to that effect. As the loading proceeds the certifying official shall
take frequent temperature readings of individual boxes of fruit. A record of such
temperature readings shall accompany the certificate.
(ii) Fruit may be precooled aboard the carrying vessel. Such fruit shall be precooled
in the same refrigerated compartments in which it is to be refrigerated. The boxes of
the fruit shall be spaced by horizontal wooden strips, so that each has at least 1 inch
of clearance above and below to allow free circulation of the cooling air. At least 2
inches of clearance shall be allowed between stacks of the fruit. Carriers desiring
consideration of alternate spacing arrangements may apply to the Plant Protection and
Quarantine Programs.
(3) Refrigeration in transit.
(i) Refrigeration in transit shall consist of holding the fruit temperature at or holding
the fruit temperature at or below the maximum temperature level for the number of
days prescribed in or under paragraph (a) of this section. A continuous, automatic
temperature record under lock shall be maintained from at least four locations to be
designated in each refrigerated compartment by an inspector of the Plant Protection
and Quarantine Programs. In large refrigerated compartments additional temperature
elements may be required. Charts from the temperature recording apparatus shall be
made readily available to an inspector of such Plant Protection and Quarantine
Programs at the port of arrival.
(ii) Refrigeration shall begin when the loading of precooled fruit has been completed.
Refrigeration shall continue until the vessel arrives at the port of destination and the
fruit is released for unloading by an inspector of the Plant Protection and Quarantine
Programs, even though this may prolong the refrigeration beyond the required period.
At least once during every 24-hour period, the responsible ship's officer shall sign the
temperature chart, noting thereon the date and time.
(4) Safeguarding untreated fruit. Whenever fruit is offered for entry as cold treated in
transit and it cannot be established to the satisfaction of such inspector that the fruit has
received the required cold treatment, such safeguards against the spread of fruitfly
infestation as the inspector may prescribe shall be immediately applied.
(5) Cold treatment after arrival.
(i) Fruit to be both precooled and refrigerated after arrival in the United States shall
be delivered under the supervision of an inspector of the Plant Protection and
Quarantine Programs to the approved cold storage warehouse where such treatment is
to be conducted.
 (ii) The fruit must arrive at a temperature sufficiently low to prevent insect activity
and shall be promptly precooled and refrigerated. An automatic, continuous
temperature record is required of each refrigeration, like that prescribed in paragraph
(b)(3) of this section for refrigeration in transit. The number of records required will
be designated by the inspector for each refrigeration, depending upon the
circumstances of each operation.
(iii) Shipments offered for entry before cold treatment may be allowed to leave
customs custody under redelivery bond for cold treatment. Final release of the
shipment by the U.S. Collector of Customs, or, in the case of Guam, by the Customs
officer of the Government of Guam, will be effected after the inspector has notified
the said Customs official that the required cold treatment has been given.
(6) Containers and season of arrival. Containers should be uniform and suitably
constructed to maintain firm stacking in the compartment throughout the voyage.
Shipments may be made during any season of the year. Untreated fruit arriving in broken
containers must be immediately repacked under the supervision of an inspector or the
contents must be immediately destroyed in a manner satisfactory to the inspector.
(7) Procedures in country of origin.
(i) By arrangement between the Deputy Administrator of the Plant Protection and
Quarantine Programs and the equivalent official in the country of origin, certifying
officials will be designated by the country of origin. Their signatures shall be filed
with the Plant Protection and Quarantine Programs.
(ii) Each container of fruit intended for intransit refrigeration shall be stamped or
marked as it is loaded on the carrying vessel so that it can be readily identified as
such. Fruit being shipped under permit to be completely cold treated at the Port of
New York or other subsequently designated northern ports shall not be so marked.
(iii) Fruit precooled at a dockside refrigeration plant shall be transferred to the
refrigerated compartments on the carrying vessel without a rise in temperature above
the maximum for the desired refrigeration. When this transfer has been
accomplished, the certifying official shall issue a certificate of precooling.
(iv) Fruit to be precooled on the carrying vessel in the refrigerated compartments
shall be loaded under supervision of the certifying official to assure that all packages
have the proper clearance on all sides.
(v) Fruit in transit for cold treatment after arrival shall be loaded in a separate
compartment and segregated from any fruit that is being refrigerated in transit.
(vi) Fruit not intended for any phase of cold treatment shall not be loaded in the same
refrigerated compartment with fruit to be given such cold treatment.
(vii) The certifying official shall calibrate the elements of the temperature recording
instruments not more than 3 days prior to the loading of fruit, by immersing them in
32F. mixture of crushed ice and fresh water, and recording their deviation from 32F.
He shall also supervise the placement of the temperature elements in the proper
places in the cargo of fruit.
(viii) The certifying official shall record the following data, noting the date and time,
on the temperature chart:
(a) commencement of loading of each compartment,
(b) insertion of the sensing elements into the fruit, and
(c) completion of loading of each compartment.
ix) The certificate of precooling when required, shall be issued in quadruplicate, to
cover the cargo of one vessel. The original certificate shall be airmailed to the
inspector of Plant Protection and Quarantine Programs in charge at the port of
destination. One copy shall accompany the carrying vessel. The third copy shall be
mailed to the Plant Protection and Quarantine Programs, Animal and Plant Health
Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20520. A record
showing calibration of the elements of the temperature recording instruments, as
 required in paragraph (b)(7)(vii) of this section shall be attached to each certificate,
along with any record of the fruit temperature readings required in paragraph (b)(2)
(i) of this section. The certificate shall also show the identifying stamp or mark
placed on all containers of fruit undergoing intransit refrigeration.

(c) Approval of precooling plants, refrigerated compartments, warehouses. All precooling

plants in the country of origin, the refrigerated compartments on the carrying vessels, and
cold storage warehouses at the Port of New York or subsequently designated northern ports
must have prior approval of the Deputy Administrator of the Plant Protection and Quarantine
Programs before any phase of cold treatment is begun. Requests for such approval shall be
made to the Plant Protection and Quarantine Programs, Animal and Plant Health Inspection
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20250. Hereafter before a
shipboard refrigeration installation will be approved it must first be certified by the American
Bureau of Shipping or a comparable agency as in good order, with the insulated spaces clean
and otherwise in satisfactory condition.
Applications for permits to import fruit under this subpart may be made to the Permit Unit,
PPQ, APHIS, Room 638, Federal Building, Hyattsville, Md. 20782.

(d) Caution and disclaimer. The cold treatments required for the entry of fruit are considered
necessary for the elimination of plant pests, and no liability shall attach to the U.S.
Department of Agriculture or to any officer or representative of that Department in the event
injury results to fruit offered for entry in accordance with these instructions. In prescribing
cold treatments of certain fruits, it should be emphasized that inexactness and carelessness in
applying the treatments may result in injury to the fruit, or its rejection for entry. Oranges
have been successfully cold treated for the false codling moth in commercial shipments at the
temperature prescribed in paragraph (a)(2)(v) of this section. Since commercial varieties of
oranges show a wide variation in acceptable refrigeration temperatures, it is recommended
that extensive tests be made with each variety in the country of origin before shipping in
commercial quantities.

(31 FR 16601, Dec.29, 1966: as amended at 32 FR 12832, Sept.8 1967: 32 FR 13215,

Sept.19. 1967: 35 FR 5031. Mar. 25 1970: 36 FR 24917. Dec. 24. 1971: 37 FR 10554, May
25, 1972).
 Chapter X
DAMAGES AND CLAIMS
The “Hague Rules” impose an obligation on the carrier, that from the time the cargo is
entrusted to him until the time that it is delivered to the receiver, the carrier has to take good
care of the cargo.
If the cargo is damaged or lost, the carrier must explain how the damage or loss has
occurred.
The carrier is responsible for a certain period of time only according to Charter-Party and
Bill of Lading.
The carrier has to take care of proper loading, stowage, carriage and discharging.
He has to prove that all of these are carried out properly and carefully. The carrier's
obligation is to deliver the cargo in "as good condition" as when the cargo had been entrusted
to him.
The rules ensure that the cargo is delivered "in good order and condition”. It means that
the condition of the cargo has to remain unchanged while it is in the care of the carrier.
The carrier must demonstrate his diligence to make the vessel seaworthy, and take all
necessary steps to ensure proper care of the cargo.
The enclosed text gives some written guidelines for those on board directly entrusted
with cargo handling.
A successful voyage requires the presence of at least three elements:
a) technically well maintained vessel;
b) professional crew;
c) cargo which is not affected by any inherent pre-shipment problems.
The first of the two elements are obviously dependent on each other.
A banana and some other fruit damage claim must be evaluated by reference to two
separate periods:
1. pre-loading / post-harvest period, out of owners responsibility;
2. the voyage period, which is the responsibility of the carrier.

a) On the TECHNICAL SIDE the most serious problems seem to arise from malfunctioning
generators.
Evidently, loss of power affects the cooling capacity and a decision to load a full shipment
of bananas, for example, without having all generators readily available is clearly an
invitation to disaster.
Maintenance of the temperature recording system has occasionally been noted to be less
than satisfactory.
Lack of calibration of the sensors has sometimes caused extensive cargo damage.
Loss of Freon due to leakage can easily threaten the entire shipment if not stopped in
time.

b) A significant percentage of payments made by P&I clubs involved STOWAGE

PROBLEMS
As we know rough weather may easily challenge the integrity of stow and at worst, the
safety of the vessel.
Surveyors sometimes note difficulties with the temperature levels because the stow has
apparently been too compact.
The carriage of frozen cargo to areas with extremely high ambient temperatures has
occasionally been a great problem should the stowage have been arranged in a manner which
does not take into account the sequence of ports in the vessel's sailing schedule.
 There are certain cargoes which for biological reasons are incompatible, i.e. they should
not be in the same hold because one type may destroy the other.

c) RECEIVING GOODS FOR SHIPMENT will usually put pressure on those on board
involved with the cargo.
The immediate obligation of the cargo officer is to ascertain the apparent condition of the
goods and to verify the quantity received.
It should be appreciated that a Master who issues a Bill of Lading with the knowledge
that the description of the cargo in this document does not reflect the actual condition or the
quantity received, is technically committing fraud.
The shipowner is legally bound by this document, and failure to clause it properly may
have serious consequences.
Should such a situation arise, for example that there are serious doubts about the quality
of the cargo received for shipment, the fruit shows signs of overripeness etc., the only advice
is to ask for assistance from the nearest P&I representative.
Problems arise occasionally when reefer cargo is transshipped from one vessel to another.
Care should be taken to secure written instructions from the shippers with details of
carrying temperatures, etc.

d) To VERIFY THE QUANTITY OF CARGO received for shipment has traditionally been
a very important task for us on board and it still is.
In cases where cargo receivers complain about short deliveries, the shipowner would
usually defend himself by referring to the vessel’s own tally records. Very often you will see
shortage claims which can not be disproved because the vessel has no tally. Whenever
possible the vessel should have her own tally in the ports where we can expect such
problems.
Sometimes the Master suspects that the actual quantity loaded is less than the figure
given by the shipper. His assumptions are supported by draft calculations and estimates based
on stowage factors, etc. When a vessel runs into these difficulties, inform as soon as possible
the owner and P&I club representative.
As a conclusion, from personal experience I can say that major claims are:
a) attributable to crew negligence;
b) lack of maintenance;
c) inherent vice.
The best advice is to think an hour, a few hours or days in advance of how to protect the
shipowner, ourselves, and at the same time satisfy all parties concerned.
 CONVERSION TABLES
Table For Converting F into  C
F C F C F C F C F C
-30 -34.4 -5 -20.6 20 -6.7 45 7.2 70 21.1
-29 -33.9 -4 -20.0 21 -6.1 46 7.8 71 21.7
-28 -33.3 -3 -19.4 22 -5.6 47 8.3 72 22.2
-27 -32.8 -2 -18.9 23 -5.0 48 8.9 73 22.8
-26 -32.2 -1 -18.3 24 -4.4 49 9.4 74 23.3
-25 -31.7 0 -17.8 25 -3.9 50 10.0 75 23.9
-24 -31.1 1 -17.2 26 -3.3 51 10.6 76 24.4
-23 -30.6 2 -16.7 27 -2.8 52 11.1 77 25.0
-22 -30.0 3 -16.1 28 -2.2 53 11.7 78 25.6
-21 -29.4 4 -15.6 29 -1.7 54 12.2 79 26.1
-20 -28.9 5 -15.0 30 -1.1 55 12.8 80 26.7
-19 -28.3 6 -14.4 31 -0.6 56 13.3 81 27.2
-18 -27.8 7 -13.9 32 0.0 57 13.9 82 27.8
-17 -27.2 8 -13.3 33 0.6 58 14.4 83 28.3
-16 -26.7 9 -12.8 34 1.1 59 15.0 84 28.9
-15 -26.1 10 -12.2 35 1.7 60 15.6 85 29.4
-14 -25.6 11 -11.7 36 2.2 61 16.1 86 30.0
-13 -25.0 12 -11.1 37 2.8 62 16.7 87 30.6
-12 -24.4 13 -10.6 38 3.3 63 17.2 88 31.1
-11 -23.9 14 -10.0 39 3.9 64 17.8 89 31.7
-10 -23.3 15 -9.4 40 4.4 65 18.3 90 32.2
-9 -22.8 16 -8.9 41 5.0 66 18.9 91 32.8
-8 -22.2 17 -8.3 42 5.6 67 19.4 92 33.3
-7 -21.7 18 -7.8 43 6.1 68 20.0 93 33.9
-6 -21.1 19 -7.2 44 6.7 69 20.6 94 34.4

Weight Area
1 kilogram = 0.001 metric ton 1 sq. millimeter = 0.000001 sq. meter
= 0.00098421 long ton = 0.00155 sq. inch
= 0.0011023 short ton = 0.00001076 sq.foot

1 metric ton = 1000 kilograms 1 sq. meter = 1000000 sq. millimeter

= 0.98421 long ton = 1550 sq. inches
= 1.1023 short ton = 10.764 sq.feet

1 long ton = 1016.064 kilograms 1 sq. inch = 645.16 sq. millimeter

= 1.016064 metric ton = 0.000645 sq. meter
= 1.1200 short ton = 0.0069444 sq. foot

1 short ton = 907.2 kilograms 1 sq. foot = 92903 sq. millimeter

= 0.9072 metric ton = 0.092903 sq. meter
= 0.89286 long ton = 144 sq. inches

Volume Length
1 cub. meter = 35.315 cub. feet 1 millimeter = 0.001 meter
 = 219.97 imperial = 0.03937 inches
gallon
= 264.18 U.S. gallon = 0.003281 foot
= 6.2898 barrel
1 meter = 1000 millimeter
1 cub. foot = 0.028317 cub. meter = 39.37 inches
= 6.229 imperial gallon = 3.2803 feet
= 7.4806 U.S. gallon
= 0.17811 barrel 1 inch = 25.4 millimeter
= 0.0254 meter
1 imperial gallon = 0.004546 cub. meter = 0.083333 foot
= 0.16054 cub. foot
= 1.2009 U.S. gallon 1 foot = 304.8 millimeter
= 0.028593 barrel = 0.3048 meter
= 12 inches
1 U.S. gallon = 0.003785 cub. meter
= 0.133681 cub. foot 1 kilometer = 0.53996 nautical mile
= 0.8327 imperial
gallon
=0.02381 barrel 1 nautical = 1.852 kilometer
mile

1 barrel = 0.15898 cub. meter

=5.6146 cub. foot
=34.973 imperial gallon
=42.0 U.S. gallon

Carmel COMMERCIAL STORAGE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

max. optimum recomm- ethy- air
COMMODITY transit & transit ended lene exchan
shelf life temp C relative sensi- ge *** remarks
(days) * humidity tivity
% **
ANONA 14-28 14 85 H H [EP=VH] [C/I]
(cherrimoya)
APPLES (not 90-240 -1 90 H H [EP=VH] [C/I]
sensitive to chilling)
APRICOTS 7-14 0 90 H H [EP=H]
ARTICHOKES 10-28 0 90 L VL
(globe)
ASPARAGUS 14-21 2 90 M M
AVOCADO 14-28 2 90 H H [EP=H] [V]
(etinger, hass, nabal)
AVOCADO 14-28 4 90 H H [EP=H] [V]
(fuerte, till january 1)
BANANAS 7-28 13 85 H H [S] [EP=M]
[C/I] [V]
BEANS 3-10 7 90 M M
(snap or green)
BEET ROOT 90-150 0 95 L VL
BROCCOLI 10-21 0 90 H H
BRUSSELS 21-35 0 90 H H
SPROUTS
CABBAGE 30-180 0 95 H H
(green, red, savoy)
CABBAGE 21-60 0 95 H M
(chinese)
CARROTS 28-180 0 95 L VL
CARAMBOLA 30-45 5 90 M L [EP=M]
CAULIFLOWER 14-30 0 90 H H
CELERIAC 180-240 0 95 L VL
CELERY 14-45 0 90 M M
CHICHORY 14-28 0 95 H H
CORN (SWEET) 4-14 0 90 L VL
(fresh on the cob)
CUCUMBERS 10-14 10 90 H M [C/I]
DATES (dry) 165-365 0 70 L VL
EGGPLANT 10-14 10 90 L VL [C/I] [V]
ENDIVE (escarole) 14-21 0 95 M L
FIGS 7-10 0 85 L L [EP=H]
FEIJOA 28-45 2 85 L L [EP=M] [V]
GARLIC (fresh) 140-210 0 65 L VL [S]
GRAPEFRUIT 28-42 11 85 M M
GRAPES 56-180 -1 90 L VL
GUAVA 14-21 10 85 M L [S] [V]
HERBS (FRESH) 2-28 2 95 H H
(excluding basil)
HORSERADISH 300-350 0 95 L VL
KIWIFRUIT 28-84 0 90 H H
KOHLRABI 25-30 0 95 L VL
LEEKS (green) 30-90 0 95 M L
LEMONS 30-180 12 85 M M [EP=L]
LETTUCE 14-21 0 95 H H
LOQUAT 14-28 0 85 L L
LYCHEE 21-35 5 95 M L [EP=M]
MANGO 14-40 12 85 H M [S] [EP=M] [V]
MELON 10-14 5 85 M M [EP=H] [V]
(cantaloupes)
MELON 7-14 7 95 H M [EP=M] [V]
(galia/ogen/charentais)
MELON (honeydew) 21-45 10 85 H M [EP=M]
MUSHROOMS 12-17 0 90 M L
NECTARINES 14-28 0 90 H M [EP=VH]
ONION (dry) 30-180 14 65 L M [S] [V]
ONION (spring) 7-10 0 95 M L
ORANGES (late) 56-84 3 85 M M [EP=L]
ORANGES 21-56 6 85 M M [EP=L]
(shamuti)
PAW PAW (papaya) 7-21 12 85 H M [S] [EP=H] [C/I]
PEACHES 14-28 0 90 H M [S] [EP=H]
PEARS 60-180 -1 90 H M [S] [EP=M]
PEPPER (sweet) 12-18 7 90 L L
PINEAPPLE 14-36 10 85 L VL [C/I]
(ananas)
PLUMS & 14-28 0 90 H M [EP=M]
PRUNES
POMEGRANATE 28-56 5 90 L VL
POTATOES 60-120 4 90 M L [V]
(main season)
POTATOES (spring) 28-60 14 90 M L [V]
PRICKLY PEAR 14-35 5 85 M L
(T saber)
RADISHES 21-28 0 95 L VL
SHARON FRUIT 50-90 0 90 H M [V]
(kaki, persimon)
SPINACH 10-14 0 95 H M
SQUASH 84-150 12 70 L VL
(hard skin, winter)
STRAWBERRIES 4-10 0 90 L L
SWEET 28-180 14 85 L VL
POTATOES
TANGERINES & 14-28 3 85 M M [EP=L]
MANDARINES
TOMATOES(vine 7-14 12 90 H M [EP=M] [C/I]
ripe) [V]
WATERMELON 14-35 14 85 L VL [V]
ZUCCHINI 5-10 7 95 L L
(courgette)
* PRODUCT TEMPERATURE IS NOT AIR TEMP.
** DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS OF ETHYLENE
H - high sensitivity
M - moderate sensitivity
L - low sensitivity
*** AIR EXCHANGE REQUIREMENTS
VH=12, H=8-10, M=5-7, L=2-4, VL=1
[S] MUST BE KEPT SEPARATE FROM OTHER PRODUCTS
[EP=...] ETHYLENE PRODUCTION
M - moderate (1-10 microliter ethylene/kg-hr)
H - high (10-100 microliter ethylene/kg-hr)
VH - very high (>100 microliter ethylene/kg-hr)
[C/I] CHILLING INJURY SENSITIVITY
[V] IF IS NO AIR EXCHANGE BE SURE TO VENTILATE