Anthracite Coal

More than 250 million years ago, the land in northeastern Pennsylvania was
covered with swamps, giant ferns, trees, and grasses. As the plant life died, it
fell into the swamp water. The gathering layers were compressed by more
plants and swamp water, which formed peat after thousands of years.

Eventually the face of the earth changed, and this area was covered with
water. Layers of rock and sand were deposited on top of the peat. This put
more pressure on the decayed plants. Earth movement caused friction, heat
and even more pressure, forming the peat into coal. This is why coal is
considered a fossil fuel. It originated from plants.

There are 3 general categories, or ranks, of coal; bituminous, which makes

up most of the coal in the United States, lignite, which is the youngest of the
coal types, and anthracite. Anthracite coal was subject to greater pressure
when it was forming, is the hardest rank of coal, and is made up of almost
pure carbon. Because of this, it produces more energy when burned and it
burns cleaner than the other coal types.

Evidence can be found in Europe and China that suggests coal was used as
early as the Stone Age. In the anthracite coal region of Pennsylvania, the
earliest report of coal use was in 1710, used by the natives for cooking.
These natives showed Obadiah and Daniel Gore of Wilkes-Barre the
location of the “black stones” in 1762. Mining began in the area in 1775.

1778 brought the first industrial use of anthracite coal in the production of
nails. Since anthracite burned hotter than other coals, it fueled the industrial
revolution. It also became a prime source of energy for cooking and heating
because it burned cleaner than wood or other coal. By 1860, some of the
mines of northeastern Pennsylvania reached depths of 1,500 feet into the
earth. Mining became the prime industry for this region.

Coal mining continues today. Most of the coal being mined is bituminous,
used to run turbines at power plants to produce electricity. By-products of
coal are used for everything from cosmetics to baking powder to tar.
Although people usually do not use coal for cooking and heating today, it is
still a needed source of energy for the United States.
Name: ____________________________ Date: _________________

Directions: Answer the questions below.

1. Decaying plants were covered with water and formed _______________.

2. How did peat change into coal? _________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

3. Why is coal considered a fossil fuel? _____________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

4. Name the 3 general ranks of coal. _________________________

________________________________ ________________________________

5. Which of these is the hardest? __________________________________

6. Which of these is the youngest? _________________________________

7. What are “black stones”? ______________________________________

8. Why was anthracite better for making nails than the other ranks of coal?
___________________________________________________________________________

9. Name 4 things coal is used for. _________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

10. Where is most anthracite coal found? ____________________________

 Answer Key

1. peat
2. Water covered the peat, depositing rocks and sand. Earth movements
added more pressure and heat.
3. It originated from plant material.
4. bituminous, lignite, anthracite
5. anthracite
6. lignite
7. coal
8. It burned hotter.
9. baking powder, electricity, tar, cosmetics, heat, cooking
10. Pennsylvania
 Anthracite Coal Miners

With the rise of mining in Pennsylvania, mine owners needed experienced

workers. European immigrants flocked to the area in hopes of finding work.
Patch towns were built close to the mines. They consisted of a company
store, one- and two-story houses built in rows, and if lucky a chapel.
Communities shared such things as ovens for baking bread, washtubs for
laundry, and water pumps.

The mining companies owned practically everything in town. The miners

were paid with scrip instead of money. Their rent, supplies and food were
paid from these accounts. Because they didn’t have money, they had to shop
at the company stores. The company stores could charge whatever they
wanted for their goods because there was nowhere else to buy things.
Families often found themselves in debt because they could not make
enough to support their families.

It was because of this that men and boys both went to work in the mines.
Children as young as 8 would work as breaker boys, toiling long hours bent
over chutes, picking slate and rocks from the coal brought out of the mines.
As the boys grew older, most were given jobs as door- or trapper-boys,
opening and closing doors in the mines to keep the air ventilated properly.
They would sit in the dark mines alone from morning till night, with just a
small oil lamp if they were lucky enough to afford one.

As children grew older and stronger, they would move on to the longed-for
position of laborer, which meant more pay. Here they would work beside the
miners, learning the job they would have as an adult.

Pennsylvania’s 1870 census reported 11,000 children working in mines. By

1880 that number had more than doubled. Child labor laws were put into
place by 1887, but many families lied about their children’s ages and mine
owners hired them as cheap labor, even though they were obviously under
the age of 12.

Child labor laws were finally enacted in Pennsylvania in 1915 and by the
federal government in 1938 restricting the type of work children could do
and limiting the age and number of hours they were allowed to work.
Name: _______________________________ Date: _________________

Directions: Answer the questions below.

1. Name some countries that the immigrants may have come from.
___________________________________________________________________________

2. What was bad about company stores? ____________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

3. What is scrip? _______________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

4. Why did children work in the mines? ____________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

5. What would you do while waiting for miners to come through your door

if you were a trapper-boy? ____________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

6. What jobs did boys have until they became miners?

_________________________ ________________________ _______________________

7. Why did parents lie about their children’s ages? ____________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
 Answer Key

1. Italy, England, Wales, Ireland, Poland, Germany, etc.

2. They could charge any prices they wanted.
3. A note stating the amount a miner earned.
4. Miners didn’t make enough to support their families.
5. any answer
6. breaker-boy, trapper- or door-boy, laborer
7. They needed more money to support the family.
 Mine Disasters and Safety

There were three types of mines used to reach the coal underground. To
reach veins that were not very deep, slope mines were angled down to meet
the coal. Drift mines were dug into the side of a hill to follow an outcropping
of coal. Shaft mines went straight down into the earth. As miners dug the
coal using picks and shovels, they would support the space with lumber.

Between 1870 and 1995 there were 31,113 deaths recorded in anthracite
mining accidents. Situated at the bottom of shafts, large ventilating furnaces
were used to move air into the mines. They were built on wooden floors.
The furnaces would sometimes catch on fire and burn the timbers in the
mine. Falling rock was another hazard. Great sheets could fall from the
ceiling and walls. Ground water had to be pumped out of the shafts. If the
pumps failed, or if the miners dug into an underground water supply, they
could be drowned. There were also deadly gases present that could suffocate
the miners, or cause a massive explosion if ignited. These hazards and more
were faced daily by the workers.

A sign in the town of Avondale reads, “Avondale Mine Disaster – On

September 6, 1869, a fire broke out at the nearby Avondale Colliery,
trapping the miners. The eventual death toll was 110. This included five
boys between the ages of twelve and seventeen, and two volunteers who
were suffocated while attempting rescue. As a result of this disaster,
Pennsylvania’s General Assembly enacted legislation in 1870 which was
designed to enforce greater safety in the industry.” A ventilating furnace set
fire to the mine timbers that day, and there was only one way out; through
the shaft where the furnace was burning. All died in the tragedy.

On June 28, 1896 disaster struck the Newton Coal Company in Pittston,
Pennsylvania. The roof of The Twin mine fell in, killing 58 miners.

An engine room blaze, 700 feet below the surface, trapped miners at the
Price-Pancoast mine on April 8, 1911. The mine filled with smoke and
fumes taking the lives of all 72 miners. The official statement was that the
men had been warned of the fire, but a door tender was found sitting as if he
were enjoying his lunch. No one was left alive to deny that the warning
came.
At approximately 11:30 a.m. on January 22, 1959, the roof of the River
Slope Mine collapsed and the water and ice of the Susquehanna River
gushed into the opening. Twelve miners were lost that day and their bodies
never recovered. As the mine filled, many workers in other sections were
able to get out in time. The twelve who were lost had been digging under the
riverbed. Inspectors had deemed it safe to dig within 35 feet of the river
bottom, but the owners of the Knox Coal Company didn’t stop there. The
collapse occurred when the miners were less than 10 feet from the river
bottom. All the mines in the area were interconnected and were forced to
shut down after this accident because they could not fix the breach.

Another tragedy of coal mining isn’t caused by an accident. It doesn’t bring

about sudden death or injury, but it is just as serious. Coal Miner’s
Pneumoconiosis, CWP, is an incurable disease except through a lung
transplant. Otherwise known as “black lung,” it is caused by inhaling coal
dust. The dust settles in the lungs causing inflammation. After prolonged
exposure, scars start to form in the lungs, restricting airflow. This disease
can prove fatal within 15-20 years.

In 1969, the Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act, also known as the
Coal Act, was passed. It established health and safety standards for mining,
and gave the Bureau of Mines the power to enforce these standards. Miners
continued to be injured or killed at a high rate, so in 1977 a new act was
introduced. The Federal Mine Safety and Health act, known as the Mine Act,
helped to strengthen the laws already in place. This act brought many
changes to the mining industry and reduced the number of lives lost in
accidents.
Name: _____________________________ Date: _________________

Directions: Answer the questions below.

1. What kind of mine was dug into the side of a hill? __________________

2. What did miners use to dig coal? ________________________________

3. How did miners get air to the mineshafts? _________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

4. Why were furnaces a danger to miners? __________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

5. Does mining seem like a good career? Why or why not? _____________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

6. If mining was so dangerous, why would people immigrate to get a job as

a miner? ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

7. Why would Knox Coal Company owners want the miners to keep

digging? ___________________________________________________

8. What do you think happened in the community after the Knox mines

closed? ____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
 Answer Key
1. drift mine
2. picks and shovels
3. ventilating furnaces
4. They could catch the timbers on fire and trap miners.
5. any answer
6. no jobs at home, better pay, didn’t know how to do anything else
7. to get more/all the coal or for profit
8. Miners had to move to a new area, had to get a new job, people lost
their homes because they couldn’t pay the mine owners their rent, etc.

Name: ______________________________ Date: ________________

Name: ______________________________ Date: ________________

Coal Mines

Directions: Label each diagram as either drift, slope, or shaft. Describe briefly why each
type might be used to mine the coal.

1. _____________________________________________________

_____________ ______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________
_
______________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________

_____________ _____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________

_____________ _____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________
 Coal Mines Answer Key

1. Shaft – Coal was deep Underground. There was no other way to reach it.
2. Slope – The coal vein was not very far from the surface. The miners could walk
down the slope instead of needing elevators.
3. Drift – The coal was easily reached by digging straight into an outcropping.
 THE MINERS’ WORK
By Alyson Mountjoy

Like slaves to the god of fire, the miners worked each day,
In darkness, damp and squalor, for very little pay.
Each day was like a nightmare, with dangers, fear and pain,
Each morning never knowing they would get out again.

In narrow tunnels toiling, in dank and musty air,

They were like moles in blindness with all that lurked in there,
The walls like darkened diamonds, so precious and so old,
Their sharp and shiny surfaces were cruel and hard and cold.

John Simons was the first one to be caught out by the gas,
It knocked him out to sleep so still, a sleep that would never pass.
Ten men soon fell beside him in pockets deep below,
Fallen heroes of the pit shafts where rich men dared not go.

Then came the silent smoker who set his pipe alight,
Forbidden for the wisest who saw at once, with fright,
That gas ate up the flicker that grew within the flame,
And spread into a fireball, engulfing all who came

The pit like a volcano shot fire to the sky,

The coal that burnt within her sent smoke for miles on high.
They never found the bodies of father, brother, son.
The pit was sealed forever; the miners’ work was done.

This is an original poem, written for Denise Vignola by Alyson Mountjoy

All copyright is waived.
Simile Metaphor Personification Alliteration
 Teacher Guide
Simile – a comparison of two things using like or as Ex: Big like a mountain, as small as
a mouse
Metaphor – a comparison of two things without using like or as Ex: His eyes were
mirrors reflecting the scene.
Personification- representing inanimate things with human qualities Ex: The leaves
danced in the breeze.
Alliteration-repetition of the same sounds at the beginning of a word or on stressed
syllables Ex: Some sinister assistants

Similes
Like slaves to the god of fire
Each day was like a nightmare
They were like moles in blindness
The walls like darkened diamonds
The pit like a volcano

Metaphors
It knocked him out to sleep so still
Fallen heroes of the pit shafts

Personifications
With all that lurked in there
Their sharp and shiny surfaces were cruel
Gas ate up the flicker
The coal that burnt within her

Alliterations
Darkness damp
Tunnels toiling
Darkened diamonds
Sharp and shiny
Sleep so still
Silent smoker
 The Legacy of Coal Mines

Mining takes a toll on the environment. Millions of dollars are being spent to
correct the problems left by coal mining in the region.

Subsidence
Large voids are left when coal is taken from the ground. As time passes, the
beams used to support voids start to decay and can no longer hold the weight
of the surrounding rock. When a void collapses it can cause a small pit, or
can collapse an entire building into the subsidence. The Department of
Environmental Protection is working to fill these mine voids.

Acid Mine Drainage

AMD is the largest source of water pollution in Pennsylvania. Acid mine
drainage is a result of pyrite, a mineral commonly found in coal seams,
being exposed to air and water. You can spot AMD in water bodies by its
orange-yellow color. Pennsylvania has invested over 20 million dollars to
build acid mine drainage treatment plants.

Abandoned Mines
Many mine openings can be found in residential areas. They have become a
dangerous attraction for children and adults alike. Entering old mines dug
into the side of hills exposes you to the risk of cave-ins, gas deposits, and
drowning if the mine is flooded. Old mine shafts are being filled in, but this
will take a long time to complete. Some of the vertical shafts that are already
filled and capped have started to collapse as materials break down and settle.
They are filled in again. Hunters and others using empty land for recreation
can stumble into one of these mine shafts. People have lost their lives or
been injured falling into these pits.

Highwalls
Highwalls are sheer cliffs, sometimes hundreds of feet high, left behind from
strip-mining. Strip-mining was used in the twentieth century to collect coal
found in layers close to the earth’s surface. Miners stripped the earth with
large machinery, which left behind walls of rock. These highwalls collect
water, and are used as swimming holes by local teenagers. They are not safe,
but many do not know of the danger.
Name: ______________________________ Date: __________________

Directions: Write the letter for the matching answer.

____ 1. subsidence a. Caused by pyrite mixing with

air and water

____ 2. acid mine drainage b. A drowning hazard

____ 3. abandoned mines c. Caused by the surface

collapsing into a void

____ 4. highwalls d. Risk of gas pockets,

cave-ins and drowning

Directions: Fill in the correct answer.

5. What is being done with old mine shafts? ____________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

6. Why are old mine shafts dangerous? _________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

7. How are highwalls formed? _________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

8. How can you tell if acid mine drainage has occurred? _________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________
 Answer Key

1. C
2. A
3. D
4. B
5. Filled and capped
6. Can stumble in and lose life/be injured
7. Stripping the earth to get the coal, or strip-mining
8. Orange-yellow substance in river and streambeds
 The Centralia Mine Fire

On February 14, 1981 the town of Centralia got its

first national media coverage for a problem that
started 19 years earlier. This was the day a pit
opened up under teenager Todd Domboski. The
hole, about 4 feet wide and 150 feet deep, was
filled with toxic gases and heat. Todd only
managed to save himself by grabbing onto tree
roots. Luckily his cousin was there to save him
from the pit.

In 1962, a large coal vein was accidentally set afire

when a trash dump was burned on the outskirts of
town. . No one knew that the coal vein was exposed to the flames, but the
consequences to the town of Centralia have been devastating. As the fire
slowly spread, the burning coal began spewing poisonous gases up through
the ground and into people’s homes. Sinkholes would develop where the
underlying coal burned to ash. The main highway through town began to
split and buckle, making driving impossible.

By the mid 1980’s most of Centralia had been abandoned. The government
had stepped in to help residents relocate. The fire continues to spread and is
now threatening the nearby town of Ashland. Some unconcerned citizens
still remain in Centralia today, vowing to stay until the day they die. They do
not think there is a threat to their homes and claim that predictions of health
concerns are unfounded. Some feel the fire moves too slowly to be a threat
in their lifetime, yet environmental groups have recorded some rapid
spreading at times.

Attempts to halt the fire have failed so far. Over three million dollars were
spent between 1962 and 1973 in attempts to extinguish it. The most recent
plan is to dig a 500-800 foot trench around the fire to stop it from spreading.
This has an estimated cost of 663 million dollars.

There are many other coal fires burning in this region, but local residents
don’t usually think about the possibility of their own towns ending up like
Centralia. It seems a distant threat, unimaginable.
Photo courtesy of Bethany Rusen at http://www.u-town.com/centralia/index3.htm
Name: _______________________________ Date: _________________

Directions: Answer the questions below.

1. How many years has the Centralia mine fire been burning? ________

2. Why do you think residents would want to stay in the town?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

3. What is another word for sinkhole? _______________________

4. How could the residents of Centralia not know the coal was burning?

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

5. How would you try to put out the mine fire? _______________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
 Answer Key

1. (in 2003 the answer is 41)

2. family home, lived there a long time, didn’t have anywhere else to go
3. subsidence
4. it was buried in the ground, they couldn’t see it, etc
5. any answer
 Vocabulary Guide

1. compressed

2. peat

3. turbines

4. immigrants

5. scrip

6. breaker

7. ventilate

8. census

9. outcropping

10. colliery

11. interconnected

12. inflammation

13. subsidence

14. noxious

15. emissions
 Activity Suggestions

A. Make a model, diorama, or diagram of how coal is made

B. Make a model or diagram of the three types of coal mines
C. Discuss the poem “The Miners’ Work”. Use the chart as an
independent study guide or fill it in together in class.
D. Write a poem about coal mining or how the mine disasters
made you feel
E. Write a report on one of the suggested report topics
F. Have students bring in a dish that is commonly made by “coal-
crackers”

Report Topics

Child labor in the United States

How is coal mined?

What is coal used for?

How was coal transported?

Bootleg mining

The Molly Maguires

Ethnic groups in the anthracite region

Family life in a patch town

The Anthracite Coal Strike

The Lattimer Massacre

 Reading List
Dear Mr. President: Theodore Roosevelt Letters from a Young Coal Miner
By Jennifer Armstrong (fiction) ISBN: 1890817279

Growing Up in Coal Country

By Susan Campbell Bartoletti ISBN: 0395979145

Kids On Strike!
By Susan Campbell Bartoletti

A Real American
By Richard Easton ISBN: 0618133399

Silver at Night
By Susan Campbell Bartoletti ISBN: 0517594269

Coal (True Books)

By Christin Ditchfield, Jan Jenner, and Linda Cornwell ISBN: 0516293664

Cole Hole Mystery

By Teresa Crompton ISBN: 1857922174

Coal Miners
By Gail Stewart and Anita Larsen ISBN: 0896863956

From Swamp to Coal

By Lerner Publishing Group, Start to Finish Series ISBN: 0876142331

How Did We Find Out About Coal?

By Isaac Asimov ISBN:0802764002

In Coal Country
By Judith Hendershot ISBN: 0394881907

Boy of the Deeps

By Ian Wallace ISBN: 0789425696

Cave-in, St. Claire, Pennsylvania, 1859 – Survival Series #6

By Kathleen Duey and Karen Bale ISBN: 0689823509

Danger at the Breaker – On My Own History Series

By Catherine Welch ISBN: 0876145640

Trapped in the Old Mine

By Alvena Seckar ISBN: 0865164665