Questions

1. In the design of 3- phase induction motor, how to select average flux

density in air gap as well as ampere conductors per meter.

2. Explain design procedure for stator of single phase induction motor.

3. Write a short note on Short Circuit Ratio of synchronous machine. Also

discuss in detail the significance of SCR in synchronous machine design.

The Short Circuit Ratio (SCR) of a synchronous machine is defined as the

ratio of the field current required to generate rated voltage on an open circuit
to the field current required to circulate rated armature current on short
circuit. The short circuit ratio can be calculated from the open circuit
characteristic (O.C.C) at rated speed and the short circuit
characteristic (S.C.C) of a three-phase synchronous machine as shown in
the figure below.

From the above figure, the short circuit ratio is given by the equation shown
below.
 Since the triangles Oab and Ode are similar. Therefore,

The direct axis synchronous reactance Xd is defined as the ratio of open

circuit voltage for a given field current to the armature short circuit current
for the same field current.

For the field current equal to Oa, the direct axis synchronous reactance
in ohms is given by the equation shown below.

The per unit value of Xd is given as

But, the base impedance is

Therefore,

From the equation (1) and the equation (6) we get

 From the equation (7) it is clear that the short circuit ratio is equal to the
reciprocal of the per unit value of the direct axis synchronous reactance.

In a saturated magnetic circuit, the value of Xd depends upon the degree of

saturation.

Significance of Short Circuit Ratio (SCR)

Short Circuit Ratio is an important factor of the synchronous machine. It
affects the operating characteristics, physical size and cost of the machine. The
Large variation in the terminal voltage with a change in load takes place for the
lower value of the short circuit ratio of a synchronous generator. In order to keep
the terminal voltage constant, the field current (If) has to be varied over a wide
range.

For the small value of the short circuit ratio (SCR), the synchronizing power
is small. As the synchronizing power keeps the machine in synchronism, a lower
value of the SCR has a low stability limit. In other words, a machine with a low SCR
is less stable when operating in parallel with the other generators.

A synchronous machine with the high value of SCR had a better voltage
regulation and improved steady state stability limit, but the short circuit fault
current in the armature is high. It also affects the size and cost of the machine.

The excitation voltage of the synchronous machine is given by the equation.

For the same value of Tph Excitation voltage is directly proportional to the
field flux per pole.

The synchronous inductance is given as

Therefore,

Hence, the short circuit ratio is directly proportional to the air gap reluctance
or air gap length.

If the length of the air gap is increased, the SCR can be increased. With the
increase in the air gap length, the field MMF is to be increased for the same value of
excitation voltage (Ef). Hence, to increase the value of field MMF either field current
or the number of field turns has to be increased. All this requires a greater height of
field poles and, as a result, the overall diameter of the machine increases.

Thus, a conclusion is that the large value of SCR will increase the size,
weight and the cost of the machine.

The typical values of the SCR for different types of machines are as follows:-

 For cylindrical rotor machine, the value of SCR lies between 0.5 to 0.9.
 In case of the Salient-pole machine, it lies between 1 to 1.5 and
 For synchronous compensators, it is 0.4.

4. Derive an expression for relationship between rating and size of the

machine in three phase induction motor.

5. Explain the effect of Harmonic induction torque and Harmonic

synchronous torque on the performance of 3 phase induction motor.

The induction motor performance is affected by the harmonics in the time

variation of the impressed voltage. But its effect on the performance of the
motor is not predominant hence it is not considered here.
 Fig. 1 Torque speed characteristics

The torque-slip characteristics as shown in Fig.1 is obtained when the

space distribution of flux wave along the air gap periphery is sinusoidal. But the
air gap flux is not purely sinusoidal as it contains odd harmonics (5th, 7th,
11th etc). Hence at low speeds, the torque-slip characteristic is not smooth. The
distribution of stator winding and variation of air gap reluctance due to stator
and rotor slots are main causes of air gap flux harmonics.
The harmonics caused due to variation of air gap reluctance are called
tooth or slot harmonics . Due to these harmonics produced in air gap flux,
unwanted torque are developed along with vibration and noise.
Now eventhough stator currents are sinusoidal, the stator m.m.f. is not
sinusoidal as stator winding has the number of slots not more than 3 to 4 per
phase. If carry out analysis of stator m.m.f. with the help of Fourier series it can
be seen that in addition to fundamental wave it contains odd harmonics m.m.f.
waves.
The third harmonic flux waves produced by each of the three phases
neutralize each other as it differs in time phase by 120o. Thus air gap flux does
not contain third harmonics and its multiplies. The fundamental mmf wave
produces flux which rotates at synchronous speed which given as ns = 2f1/P rps
where f1 is supply frequency and P is number of poles. Similarly fifth harmonic
mmf wave produces flux which rotates at 2f1/5P = ns/5 rps and in direction
opposite to the fundamental mmf wave. The seven harmonic mmf produces flux
which rotates at ns/7 rps and in the direction of fundamental m.m.f. wave.
Thus it can be seen that harmonic m.m.f. wave produces flux which rotates
at 1/K times the fundamental speed and in the direction of fundamental wave if
K = 6m + 1 and in the reversed direction if K = 6m - 1 where m is any integer.
The most important and predominant harmonics whose effects must be studied
are 5th and 7th harmonics.
The electromagnetic torque that is developed in the induction motor is
because of zero relative speed between stator and rotor fields. This fact can be
explained as follows :
When rotor is revolving in the same direction of rotation as the stator field,
the frequency of rotor currents is sf1 and the rotor field produced will have
speed of snsrpm with respect to rotor in the forward direction. But there is
mechanical rotation of rotor at n rpm which is superimposed on this. The speed
of rotor field in space is thus given by sum of these speeds
sns + n = sns + ns(1-s) = ns
The stator and rotor fields are thus stationary with respect to each other
which produces a steady torque maintaining the rotation. This torque existing
at any mechanical speed n other than synchronous speed is called synchronous
torque.
The fifth harmonic field rotates at ns/5 rps and in a direction opposite to
direction of rotor. Therefore slip of rotor with respect to fifth harmonic field
speed is

Here -ns/5 represents fifth harmonic field rotating opposite to the rotor.
The frequency of rotor currents induced by fifth harmonic rotating field is
f2 fifth harmonic = s5 x Stator frequency
= (6 -5s) x f1
Now speed of fifth harmonic rotor field with respect to rotor is given by

Now, speed of fifth harmonic rotor field with respect to stator

Negative sign is used before ns/5 (6 - 5s) which indicates 5th harmonic field
rotates opposite to rotor movement. Thus it can be seen that speed of fifth
harmonic stator field and rotor field is equal and relative speed between the two
is zero. Thus it produces 5th harmonic induction motor torque similar to torque
produced by fundamental component.
Similar analysis can be made on 7th harmonic to show 7th harmonic torque
produced similar to fundamental one. Thus each space harmonic can be
considered to produces its own asynchronous torque. The induction motor can
be considered as equivalent to number of induction motors in series having
poles equal to number of harmonics multiplied by number of poles. The torque
produced by fundamental component and the harmonic are shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Presence of harmonics

1.1 Crawling
As fifth harmonic field rotates opposite to the rotor rotation, the torque
produced by fifth harmonic opposes fundamental torque and it acts as braking
torque on motor. The seventh harmonic field rotates in the direction of rotor
rotation, the torque produced by seventh harmonic aids the fundamental
torque. The resultant torque is shown in the Fig. 2 which shows the addition of
fundamental, fifth harmonic and seventh harmonic torque. The fifth harmonic
torque is zero at -ns/5 rps while seventh harmonic torque is zero at +ns/7.
There are two dips which can be seen in the resultant torque, one is near
the slip 1.2 and other near slip 6/7. The slip near s =6/7 is more important as
torque here decreases with increase in speed. The load torque is shown in
figure. The rotor will run at ns/7 with X as the operating point. Thus stable
operation is obtained near sub-synchronous speed ns/7. This is called crawling
or synchronous crawling. Due to crawling there is much higher stator current
accompanied by noise and vibration. The torque obtained from induction motor
here is called synchronous called.
When two harmonic fluxes of same order one because of stator and the
rotor because of rotor interact with each other at one particular speed and
produces harmonic synchronous torque just like that produced in synchronous
motor. These torques are caused by tooth harmonics. The stable operation at
synchronous speed caused by slot harmonics is called synchronous crawling
which is associated with vibration and noise.
1.2 Cogging
A special behaviour is shown by squirrel cage induction motor during
starting for certain combinations of number of stator and rotor slots. If number
of stator slots S1 are equal to number of rotor slots S2 or integral multiple of
rotor slots S2 then variation of reluctance as a function of space will have
pronounced effect producing strong forces than the accelerating torque. Due to
this motor fails to start. This phenomenon is called cogging. Such combination
of stator and rotor slots should be avoided while designing the motor.
 Let the slots of stator and rotor be 24. The stator-slotting produces its tooth
harmonics of order 2S1/P ±1 whereas the rotor-slotting produces its tooth
harmonics of order 2S1/P ±1 where S1 and S2 are number of stator and rotor
slots. The plus sign refers to the harmonic field rotation in the direction of rotor.
Here S1 = S2 so stator and rotor slot harmonics are same and given by,
Let P=4
(2x24/ 4) ± 1 = 11 or 23
The harmonics of order 11 produce backward rotating field for both stator
and rotor. The harmonics of order 13 produces forward rotating field.
The two harmonics fields of same order say 11th harmonic would be
stationary with respect to each other only when
nr - (ns-nr / 11) = -ns/11
nr = 0
As the harmonic field due to 11th harmonic rotates backward with respect
to stator hence negative sign is used for ns/11.
Similarly, for 13th harmonic produced by stator and rotor would be
stationary with respect to each other when
= (ns-nr / 13) + nr = ns/13
nr = 0
Hence it can be seen that harmonic synchronous torque is produced at
zero rotor speed. The 11th and 13th harmonic fields produced by stator and
rotor and stationary with respect to each other. The harmonic synchronous
torque is produced at zero rotor speed and the motor will remain at rest. This is
called cogging. The torque speed characteristic with harmonic synchronous
torque as ns/7 is shown in the Fig.3.

Fig. 2 Cogging

The stator slot harmonics of order 2S1/P ±1 may interact with rotor slot
harmonics of order 2S2/P ± 1 to develope the harmonic synchronous torques.
2S1/P + 1 = 2S2/P + 1
S1 = S2
And 2S1/P -1 = 2S2/P + 1
S1-S1 = P
It can be thus seen that if S1 = S2 or S1-S2 = P then cogging will be
definately observed in the induction motor.
 The cogging and crawling is not predominately in slip ring induction motor
as these motors are started with higher starting torques with external resistance
in rotor circuit.
The crawling effect can be reduced by taking proper car during the design.
Still if crawling is observed then it can be overcome by applying a sudden
external torque to the driven load in the direction of rotor. If there is reduction
in supply voltage then torque also decreases (Tα V12). Hence asynchronous
crawling may be observed which is absent under rated voltage conditions. Thus
asynchronous torques can not be avoided but can be reduced by proper choice
of coil span and by skewing the stator or rotor slots.
Key Point : The synchronous harmonics torques can be totally eliminated by
proper combination of stator and rotor slots.
Hence it can be seen that harmonic synchronous torque is produced at
zero rotor speed. The 11th and 13th harmonic fields produced by stator and rotor
and stationary with respect to each other. The harmonic synchronous torque is
produced at zero rotor speed and the motor will remain at rest. This is called
cogging. The torque speed characteristics with harmonic synchronous torque as
ns/7 is shown in the Fig..3.
The stator slot harmonics of order 2S1/P ±1 may interact with rotor slot
harmonics of order 2S1/P ±1 to develope the harmonic synchronous torques.
2S1/P +1 = 2S2/P +1
S1 = S2
And 2S1/p -1 = 2S2/P +1
S1- S1= P
It can be thus seen that if S1= S2 or S1 - S2 = P then cogging will be
definitely observed in the induction motor.
The cogging and crawling is not predominately in slip ring induction motor
as these motors are started with higher starting torques with external resistance
in rotor circuit.
The crawling effect can be reduced by taking proper care during the design.
Still if crawling is observed then it can be overcome by applying a sudden
external torque to the driven load in the direction of rotor. If there is reduction
of in supply voltage then torque also decreases (Tα V12). Hence asynchronous
crawling may observed which is absent under rated voltage conditions. Thus
asynchronous torques can not be avoided but can be reduced by proper choice
of coil span and by skewing the stator or rotor slots.

6. Discuss the effect of air gap length on performance of synchronous

machine.
Length of the air gap: Length of the air gap is a very important
parameter as it greatly affects the performance of the machine. Air gap in
synchronous machine affects the value of SCR and hence it influences
many other parameters. Hence, choice of air gap length is very critical in
case of synchronous machines. Following are the advantages and
disadvantages of larger air gap.

Advantages:
(i) Stability: Higher value of stability limit
(ii) Regulation: Smaller value of inherent regulation
(iii) Synchronizing power: Higher value of synchronizing power
(iv) Cooling: Better cooling
(v) Noise: Reduction in noise
(vi) Magnetic pull: Smaller value of unbalanced magnetic pull

Disadvantages:

(i) Field mmf: Larger value of field mmf is required

(ii) Size: Larger diameter and hence larger size
(iii) Magnetic leakage: Increased magnetic leakage
(iv) Weight of copper: Higher weight of copper in the field winding
(v) Cost: Increase over all cost.

The approximate value of air gap length can be expressed in terms

of pole pitch.

For salient pole alternators: lg = (0.012 to 0.016) x pole pitch

For turbo alternators: lg = (0.02 to 0.026) x pole pitch

Synchronous machines are generally designed with larger air gap

length compared to that of Induction motors.

Estimation of length of air gap: Length of the air gap is usually

estimated based on the ampere turns required for the air gap.

Armature ampere turns per pole required ATa = 1.35 Iph Tph Kw /p

Where Tph = Turns per phase, Iph = Phase current, Kw = winding

factor, p = pairs of poles No load field ampere turns per pole

ATfo = SCR x Armature ampere turns per pole

ATfo = SCR x Ata

Ampere turns required for the air gap will be approximately equal
to 80% of the no load field ampere turns per pole.
 Mmf for air gap is also equal to 800000Bg Kg lg 0.8 ATfo = 800000
Bg Kg lg lg = 0.8 ATfo/800000 Bg Kg

7. Explain the steps for field winding design in case of synchronous

machine.
 Generally the exciter voltage will be in the range of 110 volts to 440
volts. 15-20 % of voltage is kept as drop across the field controller.
Hence voltage per coil Vc = (0.8 to 0.85) exciter voltage / Number of
field coils
 Assume suitable value for the depth of the field coil
 Mean length of the turn in field coil is estimated from the dimensions
of the pole and the depth of the field windings. Mean length of the turn
= 2( lp + bp ) + π (df + 2t i ) where t i is the thickness of insulation on
the pole.
 Sectional area of the conductor can be calculated as follows Resistance
of the field coil Rf = ρ x lmt x Tf / af = voltage across the coil/ field coil
Vc / If = ρ x lmt x Tf / af Hence af = ρ x lmt x If Tf / Vc
 Field current can be estimated by assuming a suitable value of current
density in the field winding. Generally the value of current density may
be taken as 3.5 to 4 amp/mm2 . Hence If =δf x af
 Number of turns in the field winding Tf = Full load field ampere turns
/ field current = ATfl/ If
 Height of the field winding hf = ATfl x 10-4 / √(sf df qf)
 Resistance of the field winding Rf = ρ x lmt x Tf / af
 Copper loss in the field winding = If2 x Rf

8. Explain methods of improving starting torque of induction motor.

In deep bar double cage rotor bars are there in two layers.
Outer layer has the bars of small cross sections. This outer winding has
relatively large resistance. The bars are shorted at the both ends. The flux
linkage is thus very less. And hence inductance is very low. Resistance in
outer squirrel cage is relatively high. Resistance to inductive reactance
ration is high. Inner layer has the bars of large cross section
comparatively. The resistance is very less. But flux linkage is very high.
The bars are thoroughly buried in iron. As flux linkage is high the
 inductance is also very high. The resistance to inductive reactance ration

is poor.

Operational Principle Construction of Deep Bar Double Cage Induction

Motor
At the stand still condition the inner and outer side bars get
induced with voltage and current with the same frequency of the supply.
Now the case is that the inductive reactance (XL = 2πfL) is offered more in
the deep bars or inner side bars due to skin effect of the alternating
quantity i.e. voltage and current. Hence the current tries to flow through
the outer side rotor bars.

The outer side rotor offers more resistance but poor inductive
reactance. The ultimate resistance is somewhat higher than the single
bar rotor resistance. The higher valued rotor resistance results more
torque to be developed at the starting. When the speed of the rotor of
the deep bar double cage induction motor increases, the frequency of
the induced EMF and current in the rotor gets gradually decreased.
Hence the inductive reactance (XL) in the inner side bars or deep bars
gets decreased and the current faces less inductive reactance and less
resistance as a whole. Now no need for more torque because the rotor
already has arrived to its full speed with running torque.
 Speed Torque Characteristics of Deep Rotor IM

where R2 and X2 are the rotor resistance and inductive reactance at

starting respectively, E2is the rotor induced EMF and Ns is the

RPS speed of synchronous stator flux and S is the slip of the rotor speed.
The above speed-torque graph shows that the higher valued resistance
offers higher torque at the stand still condition and the max torque will be
achieved at higher valued slip.

Comparison between single cage and double cage motors:

1. A double cage rotor has low starting current and high starting torque.
Therefore, it is more suitable for direct on line starting.
2. Since effective rotor resistance of double cage motor is higher, there is
larger rotor heating at the time of starting as compared to that of single
cage rotor.
3. The high resistance of the outer cage increases the resistance of double
cage motor. So full load copper losses are increased & efficiency is
decreased.
4. The pull out torque of double cage motor is smaller than single cage
motor.
5. The cost of double cage motor is about 20-30 % more than that of single
cage motor og same rating.

9. Discuss the effects for rotor design of a single phase induction motor.

10. State the advantages and disadvantages of larger air-gap length in

case of synchronous machines.

Following are the advantages and disadvantages of larger air gap.

Advantages:
 (i) Stability: Higher value of stability limit
(ii) Regulation: Smaller value of inherent regulation
(iii) Synchronizing power: Higher value of synchronizing power
(iv) Cooling: Better cooling
(v) Noise: Reduction in noise
(vi) Magnetic pull: Smaller value of unbalanced magnetic pull

Disadvantages:

(i) Field mmf: Larger value of field mmf is required

(ii) Size: Larger diameter and hence larger size
(iii) Magnetic leakage: Increased magnetic leakage
(iv) Weight of copper: Higher weight of copper in the field winding
(v) Cost: Increase over all cost.

11. Explain different methods use to eliminate harmonics from the

voltage waveform in synchronous generator.

In an Alternator, the primary source of harmonics in the emf

waveform is due to non sinusoidal field waveform. If the field waveform
would have been sinusoidal then there have been no harmonics in
generated emf of an Alternator.

Therefore, first attempt is made to make the field waveform

sinusoidal as far as possible and them means of reducing or suppressing
the harmonics is adopted. Field waveform of an Alternator can be made
sinusoidal by the following methods:

 Small air gap at the pole centre and large air gap at the pole end in an
Salient Pole Synchronous machine tens to make the field flux sinusoidal.

 Skew pole faces if possible.

 In Turbo-Alternator or cylindrical pole synchronous machine, the air gap

is uniform and hence field winding is distributed in slots in such a
manner to make the field waveform sinusoidal. Figure below shows the
Rotor of an Alternator.
 Having adopted all the above mentioned methods, the filed
waveform along the air gap periphery is still not purely sinusoidal but it is
flat topped. As a result, harmonic emf is always generated in the
Alternator. These harmonics can however be eliminated / suppressed by
the following methods:

 The distribution of armature winding along the air gap periphery tends to
make the generated emf waveform sinusoidal.

 With chorded coil, harmonics can be eliminated. If the ξ be the chording

angle for fundamental flux wave, then for nth space harmonics the
chording angle becomes nξ electrical. Therefore, pitch factor for nth
harmonics,

Kp= Cos(nξ/2)

If we want to eliminate 5th harmonics then, ξ = 36° as

Kp = Cos(180/2)
=0
Therefore, generated emf E = KpKdπfNphØ

Where Kp = Pitch factor

Kd = Winding Distribution Factor

f =Frequency

Nph = Number of turns per phase

Ø =Flux

A chording angle of 30° is most useful in an Alternator as it gives the

following pitch factors,
 0.966 for fundamental, 0.707 for 3rd harmonic, 0.259 for 5th and
7th harmonics and 0.7.7 for 9th harmonics.

Mind that triplen harmonics is eliminated from the generated line

emf by Star connection, though 5thand 7th harmonics of reduced
magnitude are present in the line emf.

 By Skewing the Armature Slot tooth / slot harmonics are eliminated.

Thus, using the above mentioned ways, harmonics in the generated emf
of a synchronous generator is reduced.

12. State and explain the factors to be consider in selection of stator

slots in case of synchronous generator.
Following factors are considered for selection of number of slots.

Balanced winding:- The number of slots are so selected that a

balanced 3-phase winding is obtained. Unbalance winding
will leads to generation of space harmonics and over heating.

Tooth flux density:- selection of large number of slots will lead

to narrower teeth resulting in to increased tooth flux density
beyond permissible limits.

Leakage reactance:- With less number of slots, the conductors

are nearer leading to increased leakage flux and thereby
increased leakage reactance.

Tooth ripples:- With large number of slots tooth ripples and

therefore pulsation loss decreases.

Temperature rise and cost:- Selection of too small a number of

slots will lead to crowding of conductors, disturbance in air
circulation and hence developing high internal temperature.
Also, smaller number of slots result in saving in labour
because of less number of coils to wind, insulate, place in to
slots and connect.

13. Give the rules for selecting number of rotor slots in induction motor.
 The number of rotor slots may be selected using the following guide lines.
(i) To avoid cogging and crawling: (a)Ss ≠ Sr (b) Ss - Sr ≠ ±3P
(ii) To avoid synchronous hooks and cusps in torque speed
characteristics ≠ ±P, ±2P, ±5P.
(iii) To noisy operation Ss - Sr ≠ ±1, ±2, (±P ±1), (±P ±2)

Rules for number of rotor slots:

The number of rotor slots Sr in comparison with number of stator slots
Sa, is given by
(i) Sr = (1.15 to 1.30) Ss
(ii) To avoid Synchronous Cusps
Ss - Sr != ± p ± 2p or ± 5p;
(iii) To avoid magnetic locking in 3 phase motor,
Ss - Sr != ± 3p;
(iv) To avoid noise and vibrations,
Ss - Sr != 1,2, (p ±1 ) or (p ±2).
Rotor bar current for 3 phase machine is given by
Ib = 0.85 (( 6 Ib Ts) / Sr )
where Is, is stator current.

14. State and discuss the factors to be considered why determining the
air-gap length in case of 3-phase induction motor.

Air gap length depends on:

(i) Power factor,
(ii) Overload capacity,
(iii) Unbalanced magnetic pull,
(iv) Pulsation loss,
(v) Noise.

For small motors, any one of the following relation is used for air gap
length :'
 lg = ( 0.2 + 2 √ ( DL))mm

lg= (0.125 + 0.35D + L + 0.015 Va)mm

lg = (0.2 + D) mm

where,
D = inner diameter of stator in meters
L = length of stator in meters
Va = peripheral speed, m/s.

15. What is dispersion Co-efficient? What is its effect on (1) Power factor
(2) overload capacity of induction motor?

16. Derive the equation of capacitance to give maximum starting torque

of capacitor start 1-phase induction motor.

17. Compare design difference between 3-phase induction motor and 1-

phase induction motor.

18. Develop a flow chart an discuss algorithm for main dimension for 3-
Phase induction motor

19. Explain the factors affecting the selection of Air gap of three phase
Induction Motor

20. Draw and explain briefly the current distribution wave form spread
over one pole pitch in bars and end rings of squirrel cage induction
motor.

21. What is the role of damper winding in (i) synchronous generator and
(ii) synchronous motor? Derive the equation of MMF of damper
winding.

22. Explain evaluation of Direct and Quadrature axis reactance of

Alternator.
 It is known that in case of nonsalient pole type alternators the air gap is
uniform. Due to uniform air gap, the field flux as well as armature flux very
sinusoidally in the air gap. In nonsalient rotor alternators, air gap length is
constant and reactance is also constant. Due to this the m.m.f.s of armature
and field act upon the same magnetic circuit all the time hence can be added
vectorially. But in salient pole type alternators the length of the air gap
varies and the reluctance also varies. Hence the armature flux and field flux
cannot vary sinusoidally in the air gap. The reluctances of the magnetic
circuits on which m.m.fs act are different in case of salient pole alternators.
Hence the armature and field m.m.f.s cannot be treated in a simple
way as they can be in a nonsalient pole alternators.
The theory which gives the method of analysis of the distributing
effects caused by salient pole construction is called two reaction theory.
Professor Andre Blondel has put forward the two reaction theory.
Note : According to this theory the armature m.m.f. can be divided into
two components as,
1. Components acting along the pole axis called direct axis
2. Component acting at right angles to the pole axis called quadrature axis.
The component acting along direct axis can be magnetising or
demagnetising. The component acting along quadrature axis is cross
magnetising. These components produces the effects of different kinds.
The Fig. 1 shows the stator m.m.f. wave and the flux distribution in
the air gap along direct axis and quadrature axis of the pole.

Fig. 1 Flux distribution in air gap for salient pole

machine

The relucatnce offered to the m.m.f. wave is lowest when it is aligned

with the field pole axis. This axis is called direct axis of pole i.e. d-axis. The
relucatnce offered is highest when the m.m.f. wave is oriented at 90 to the
field pole axis which is called quadrature axis i.e. q-axis. The air gap is least
in the centre of the poles and progressively increases on moving away from
the centre. Due to such shape of the pole-shoes, the field winding wound on
salient poles produces the m.m.f. wave which is nearly sinusoidal and it
always acts along the pole axis which is direct axis.
 Let Ff be the m.m.f. wave produced by field winding, then it always
acts along the direct axis. This m.m.f. is responsible to produce an excitation
e.m.f. Ef which lags Ff by an angle 90o .
When armature carries current, it produces its own m.m.f. wave FAR.
This can be resolved in two components, one acting along d-axis (cross-
magnetising). Similarly armature current Ia also can be divided into two
components, one along direct axis and along quadrature axis. These
components are denoted as,
: Fd = Component along direct axis
FAR : }
Fq = Component along quadrature axis

Id = Component along direct axis

Ia : }
Iq = Component along quadrature axis

The positions of FAR, Fd and Fq in space are shown in the Fig. 2. The
instant chosen to show these positions is such that the current in phase R is
maximum positive and is lagging Ef by angle Ψ.

Fig. 2 M.M.F. wave positions in salient pole

machine

The phasor diagram corresponding to the positions considered is

shown in the Fig. 3. The Ia lags Ef by angle Ψ.
It can be observed that Fd is produced by Id which is at
90o to Ef while Fq is produced by Iq which is in phase with Ef .
The flux components of ΦAR which are Φd and Φq along the direct and
quadrature axis respectively are also shown in the Fig.3. It can be denoted
that the reactance offered to flux along direct axis is less than the reactance
offered to flux along quadrature axis. Due to this, the flux ΦAR is no longer
along FAR or Ia. Depending upon the reluctances offered along the direct and
quadrature axis, the flux ΦAR lags behind Ia.
 Fig 3 Basic phasor diagram for salient pole
machine
We know that, the armature reaction flux ΦAR has two components, Φd along
direct axis and Φq along quadrature axis. These fluxes are proportional to the
respective m.m.f. magnitudes and the permeance of the flux path oriented along
the respective axes.
... Φd = Pd Fd
where Pd = permeance alomng the direct axis
Permeance is the reciprocal of reluctance and indicates ease with which
flux can travel along the path.
But Fd = m.m.f. = Kar Id in phase with Id
The m.m.f. is always proportional to current. While Kar is the armature
reaction coefficient.
... Φd = Pd Kar Id
Similarly Φq = Pq Kar Iq
As the reluctance along direct axis is less than that along quadrature
axis, the permeance Pd along direct axis is more than that along quadrature
axis, (Pd < Pq ).
Let Ed and Eq be the induced e.m.f.s due to the fluxes Φd and
Φq respectively. Now Ed lags Φd by 90o while Eq lags Φq by 90o .

where Ke = e.m.f. constant of armature winding

The resultant e.m.f. is the phasor sum of Ef, Ed and Eq.

Substituting expressions for Φd and Φq

 Now Xard = Equivalent reactance corresponding to the d-axis
component of armature reaction
= Ke Pd Kar
and Xarq = Equivalent reactance corresponding to the q-axis
component of armature reaction
= Ke Pq Kar

For a realistic alternator we know that the voltage equation is,

where Vt = terminal voltage

XL = leakage reactance

Substituting in expression for ĒR ,

where Xd = d-axis synchronous reactance = XL + Xard

.............(2)
and Xq = q-axis synchronous reactance = XL + Xarq
.........(3)
It can be seen from the above equation that the terminal voltage Vt is nothing
but the voltage left after deducing ohmic drop Ia Ra, the reactive drop Id Xd in
quadrature with Id and the reactive drop Iq Xq in quadrature with Id, from the
total e.m.f. Ef.

The phasor diagram corresponding to the equation (1) can be shown as in

the Fig. 1. The current Ia lags terminal voltage Vt by Φ. Then add Ia Ra in phase
with Ia to Vt. The drop Id Xd leads Id by 90o as in case purely reactive circuit
current lags voltage by 90o i.e. voltage leads current by 90o . Similarly the drop
Iq Xq leads Xq by 90o . The total e.m.f. is Ef.
In the phasor diagram shown in the Fig. 4, the angles Ψ and δ are not
known, through Vt, Ia and Φ values are known. Hence the location of Ef is also
unknown. The components of Ia, Id and Iq can not be determined which are
required to sketch the phasor diagram.
 Fig. 4

Let us find out some geometrical relationships between the various

quantities which are involved in the phasor diagram. For this, let us draw the
phasor diagram including all the components in detail.
We know from the phasor diagram shown in the Fig. 4 that,
Id = Ia sin Ψ ............. (4)
Iq = Ia cos Ψ ..............(5)
cosΨ = Iq/Ia ...............(6)
The drop Ia Ra has two components which are,
Id Rd = drop due to Ra in phase with Id
Iq Ra = drop due to Ra in phase with Iq
The Id Xd and Iq Rq can be drawn leading Id and Iq by 90o respectively.
The detail phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 Phasor diagram for lagging p.f.

In the phasor diagram,

OF = Ef
OG = Vt
GH = Id Ra and HA = Iq Ra
GA = Ia Ra
AE = Id Xd and EF = Iq Xa

Now DAC is drawn perpendicular to the current phasor Ia and CB is drawn

perpendicular to AE.
 The triangle ABC is right angle triangle,

But from equations (6), cosΨ = Iq/Ia

Thus point C can be located. Hence the direction of Ef is also known.

Now triangle ODC is also right angle triangle,

Now OD = OI + ID = Vt cos Φ + Ia Ra
and CD = AC + AD = Ia Xq + Vt sinΦ

As Ia Xq is known, the angle Ψ can be calculated from equation (10). As

Φ is known we can write,
δ = Ψ - Φ for lagging p.f.

Hence magnitude of Ef can be obtained by using equation (11).

Note : In the above relations, Φ is taken positive for lagging p.f. For leading
p.f., Φ must be taken negative.

23. Draw flow chart and write algorithm steps for design of submersible
motors.

24. Discuss design consideration of High Voltage Machine AND Explain

design difference between low speed and high speed machine.

25. Explain factors affecting specific electric loading and specific

magnetic loading of alternator.

26. On what factor the cooling coefficient ‘c’ depends? Explain how it
influence the selection of specific electric load in synchronous
machine?
27. Explain how you will estimate MMF required for various parts of
magnetic circuit of Synchronous Machines.

28. Explain the effect of skewing the rotor slots in a squirrel cage
induction motor.

29. Give reasons:

i. Semi-enclosed sots are usually preferred for induction
motors.
ii. Use of revolving field system is almost universal in
synchronous machines.

30. Derive the relation for total leakage reactance in a single phase
induction motor.

31. Explain the points to be considered for the selection of number of

stator slots of an 3-phase induction motor.

32. Explain the construction of Hydro-generators with respect to stator

core , stator winding and bracing of stator overhang.

33. Write the steps and necessary equations for rotor design of an
synchronous machine

34. Explain the current distribution in the bars and the end rings of a
squirrel cage induction motor. Also derive the relation for the current
in the end ring.

All the rotor bars are short circuited by connecting them to the end rings at
both the end rings. The rotating magnetic field produced will induce an emf
in the rotor bars which will be sinusoidal over one pole pitch. As the rotor is
a short circuited body, there will be current flow because of this emf
induced. The distribution of current and end rings are as shown in Fig.
below. Referring to the figure considering the bars under one pole pitch, half
of the number of bars and the end ring carry the current in one direction
and the other half in the opposite direction. Thus the maximum end ring
current may be taken as the sum of the average current in half of the
number of bars under one pole.
 Fig. currents in cage rotor bars and end rings

Maximum end ring current Ie(max) = ½ ( Number rotor bars / pole) Ib(av)

= ½ x Sr/P x Ib/1.11

Hence rms value ofIe = 1/2√2 x Sr/P x Ib/1.11

= 1/π x Sr/P x Ib/1.11

35. Discuss the factors that govern the choice of average gap density for
a synchronous machine.

36. Explain the factors which are to be considered while selecting the
armature slots of a synchronous machine.

Following factors are considered for selection of number of slots.

Balanced winding:-
The number of slots are so selected that a balanced 3-phase winding is
obtained. Unbalance winding will leads to generation of space harmonics and
overheating.

Tooth flux density:-

Selection of large number of slots will lead to narrower teeth resulting in
to increased tooth flux density beyond permissible limits.

Leakage reactance:-
With less number of slots, the conductors are nearer leading to increased
leakage flux and there by increased leakage reactance.

Tooth ripples:-
 With large number of slots tooth ripples and therefore pulsation loss
decreases.

37. Explain briefly the methods for improving e.m.f. wave form of an
alternator.

38. Derive the equation of rotor resistance referred to stator side, for a
squirrel cage induction motor.

39. Discuss the design differences of a salient pole and non salient pole
synchronous machines.

Salient Pole Synchronous Alternator:

 Salient pole Generators will have large diameter and short axial length
 Pole shoes cover 2/3 of the pitch
 Salient Poles are laminated in order to reduce eddy currents
 They are used in hydraulic turbines or diesel engines
 Salient pole generators will have typical speed about 100 to 375 rpm.
 As the speed of the water turbine is slow hence more number of poles
are required to attain the frequency. Therefore Salient pole machines will
have typically number of poles will be between 4 to 60.
 Cheaper compared to cylindrical rotor machines for speeds below
1000rpm.
 Causes excessive windage losses
 Flux distribution is not uniform due to the presence of salient poles,
hence emf waveform generated is not good compared to cylindrical
machine
 Salient Pole Synchronous Generators are employed in Hydro-Power
plants.

Non-Salient pole Synchronous Alternator:

 Non-Salient pole generators will have smaller diameter and longer

axial length
 They are used for High speed operation (typically speed will be 1500 and
3000 rpm)
 Better in dynamic balancing because of absence of salient poles.
 Less windage loss
 Robust construction and noiseless operation
  Nearly sinusoidal flux distribution around the periphery, therefore gives a
better emf waveform than salient pole machine
 No need to provide damper windings (except in special case to assist the
synchronising) because the field poles themselves acts as efficient
dampers.
 Non-Salient pole generators are used in Thermal,Gas and in Nuclear
Power plants.

40. Write the design steps for a starting winding of split phase induction
motor.

Examples
1. Determine the main dimensions, no of radial ventilating ducts, no of
stator slots and no of turns per phase of a 3.7 kW, 400 volts, 3 phase,
4 pole, 50 Hz Squirrel cage induction motor to be started by a star
delta starter. Assume: Average flux density in air gap = 0.45 wb/m2,
ampere conductors per meter=23000, efficiency=0.85 and power
factor=0.84

2. Find the main dimensions of a 2500 kVA,187.5 r.p.m, 50 Hz ,3 phase

,3 kV, salient pole synchronous generator. The generator is to be a
 vertical, water wheel type. The specific magnetic loading is 0.6
Wb/𝑚2 and the specific electric loading is 34000 A/m. Use circular
poles with ratio of core length to pole pitch=0.65. Specify the type of
pole construction used if the run-away speed is about 2 times the
normal speed.

3. Find the main dimensions of a 15kW, 3 phase, 400V, 50Hz, 2810

r.p.m. squirrel cage induction motor having efficiency of 0.88 and a
full load power factor of 0.9 Assume: Specific magnetic loading=0.5
Wb/𝑚2; Specific electric loading=25000 A/m. Take rotor peripheral
speed as approximately 20m/s at synchronous speed.

4. Determine the main dimensions for a 1000 kVA, 50 Hz, 3 phase 375
rpm alternator. The average air gap flux density is 0.55 Wb/𝑚2 and
ampere conductors per meter are 28000. Use rectangular poles and
assume a suitable value for ratio of core length to pole pitch in order
that bolted on pole construction is used for which maximum
permissible peripheral speed is 50 m/s. The runaway speed is 1.8
times the synchronous speed.

5. A 3 phase, 1440 rpm, 50 Hz, 415 V, 22 kW, star connected squirrel

cage induction motor has 48 stator slots with 20 conductors/ slot.
Calculate the bar and end ring current if the rotor has 55 slots. The
full load efficiency is 0.88 and full load power factor is 0.89 Also find
the cross section of the bar and end ring. If the current density is
6A/mm2, assume that the rotor ampere turns is 0.85 times the
stator ampere turns.

6. Determine a suitable no of slots and conductors per slot for the

stator winding of a 3 phase 3300 volts, 50 Hz, 300 rpm alternator.
The diameter is 2.3 m and the axial length of core is 0.35 m. The
maximum flux density in the air gap should be approximately 0.9
Wb/𝑚2 . Assume sinusoidal flux distribution. Use single layer
winding and star connection for stator.

7. Design the stator frame of a 500 KVA, 6.6 KV, 50 Hz, 3-phase, 12
pole, star connected salient pole alternator, giving the following
information.
 Internal diameter and gross length of stator. Number of slots and
conductor per slot. Number of stator conductors. Assume specific
magnetic and electric loading as 0.56T and 26000 AC per metre
respectively. Peripheral speed must be less than 40 m/s and slot
must be less than 120.

8. Find the main dimensions of a 100 MVA, 11 KV, 50 Hz, 150 rpm, 3-
phase water wheel generator. The average gap density is 0.65T and
Ampere conductor per metre 40000. The peripheral speed should not
exceed 65 m/s at normal running speed to limit run away speed.

9. Determine the main dimension, turns/phase, conductors, cross

sectional area and slot area of a 250 HP, 3- phase. 50 Hz, 400 Volt
1410 rpm Slip ring induction motor. Assume average flux density =
0.5T, AC/m = 30000 efficiency =0.9, PF = 0.9 winding factor 0.955
and current density = 3.5 A/mm2. The slot space factor is 0.4 and
the ratio of core length to pole pitch is 1.2. The machine is delta
connected.

10. A 15 KW , 400 Volt 3-phase , 50 Hz , 6 pole induction motor has a

diameter 0f 0.3 metre and core length 0.12 metre .the no of stator
slots = 72 with 20 conductors per slot. The stator is delta connected.
Calculate the value of magnetizing current per phase if the length of
the air-gap is 0.55 mm. The gap contraction factor is 1.2. Assume
the MMF required for the iron parts to be 30% of the air-gap MMF.
Coil span = 11 slots.

11. A 15-kW, 440-V, 4-pole, 50-Hz, 3-phase induction motor is built with
a stator bore 0.25m and a core length of 0.16. The specific electric
loading is 23000 ampere conductors/meter. Using the data of this
machine, determine the core dimensions, number of stator slots and
number of stator conductors for 11-kW, 460-V, 6 pole, 50-Hz motor.
Assume a full-load efficiency of 84% and power factor of 0.82 for
each machine. The winding factor is 0.955.
12. A 1250 kVA , 3-phase, 50 Hz, 3300V, 300 r.p.m synchronous
generator with a concentric winding has Bav =0.58 Wb /m2 , ac=
33000A/m, gap length 5.5mm, field turns per pole =60, short circuit
ratio =1.2, The effective gap area is 0.6 times the actual area.
Peripheral speed is 30 m/s. Find the stator core length, stator bore ,
 turns per phase , mmf for air gap, armature mmf per pole, and field
current for no load and rated voltage.

13. A 15 kW, 400V , 3-phase , 50Hz, 6-pole induction motor has a

diameter of 0.3m and the length of the core 0.12m. The number of
stator slots is 72 with 20 conductors per slot. The stator is delta
connected. Calculate the value of magnetizing current per phase if
the length of air gap is 0.55m. The gap contraction factor is 1.2.
Assume the mmf required for the iron parts to be 35 per cent of the
air gap mmf. Coil span =11 slots.

14. Determine the main dimensions, Number of radial ventilating ducts

and the turns per phase of a 3.7 KW, 400V, 3-Phase, 4-pole, 50Hz
squirrel cage induction motor which is to be started using a star-
delta starter. Assume:- Average flux density in the gap=0.45wb/m2,
Ampere conductors per meter=23000, efficiency=0.85, Power
factor=0.84. Choose the main dimension to give an overall good
design.

15. The following is design data available for a 1250 KVA, 3-phase, 50Hz,
3300V, star connected, 300 rpm alternator of salient pole type :
Stator bore D=1.9m, stator core length L=0.335m, ratio of pole arc to
pole pitch=0.66, turns per phase=150, single layer concentric
winding with 5 conductors per slot, short circuit ratio=1.2. Assume
that distribution of gap flux is rectangular under the pole arc with
zero values in the inter polar region. Calculate (i) specific magnetic
loading (ii) air gap length. Mmf required for air gap is 0.88 of no load
field mmf and gap contraction factor is 1.15.