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Background Material
AERO 306 notes and Introduction to Aerospace Structural Analysis,
Allen and Haisler
http://ceaspub.eas.asu.edu/structures/FiniteElementAnalysis.htm
http://www.myb2o.net/myb2ous/Analysis/Features/10547.htm
http://www.myb2o.net/myb2ous/Analysis/Tools/Process/10407.htm
http://larcpubs.larc.nasa.gov/randt/1993/RandT/SectionG/G11.html
Assumptions
It is assumed that you are familiar with basic FEM theory (AERO 306)
and with applications to truss or beam elements and structures, and:
know FEM theory based on an energy or variational formulation,
know what a stiffness matrix is,
know how to assemble element stiffness and force matrices into
global (structural) stiffness and force matrices,
know how to solve the resulting equilibrium equations
[ K ]{q} {Q} for displacements, and
know how to determine resulting strains and stresses.
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 2
Structures are often analyzed using complex finite element analysis
methods. These tools have evolved over the past decades (since
early 1960's) to be the basis of most structural design tasks. A
candidate structure is analyzed subject to the predicted loads and
the finite element program predicts deflections, stresses, strains,
and even buckling of the many elements. The designed can then
resize components to reduce weight or prevent failure. In recent
years, structural optimization has been combined with finite
element analysis to determine component gauges that may
minimize weight subject to a number of constraints. Such tools are
becoming very useful and there are many examples of substantial
weight reduction using these methods. Surprisingly, however, it
appears that modern methods do not do a better job of predicting
failure of the resulting designs, as shown by the figure below,
constructed from recent Air Force data. The data compares static
test failures of wing, fuselage, vertical tail, horizontal tail, landing
gear and other components for New Aircraft (designed with finite
element methods) and Older aircraft (designed without FEM).
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 3
Moral of the story as presented by the chart above? Don't believe that
just because you are using modern, sophisticated finite element tools that
the analysis will in some way be better or safer. It still takes engineering
judgment, know-how and experience.
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 4
Aircraft have many main structural components in the wings, fuselage,
tail section, landing gear, etc. as shown below:
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 5
t = 0.5 in.
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 9
U
1 { }T { }dV
2 V
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 11
where
xx
xx
{ } yy and { } yy
xy xy
Assuming a linear elastic material, the constitutive equation may
be written as
{ } [ D]{ }
1 0
E
[ D] 1 0
1 2
0 0 (1 ) / 2
Note that [D] is symmetric.
u v u v
xx , yy , xy
x y y x
U 12 { }T [ D]{ }dV
V
where use has been made of the symmetry of [D]. Note that if we
substitute into , U is now in terms of the displacement fields
u ( x, y ) and v( x, y ) .
where the ' s and ' s are constants. These constants can be
related to nodal
displacements for the
triangular element:
Assume the corners of
the triangle (nodes) are
numbered CCW, and
have coordinates
( x1, y1 ) , etc. as shown.
At each node (i=1,2,3),
assume the nodal
displacements are given
by (ui , vi ) . We can now
write 6 "boundary
conditions" as follows:
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 15
For u(x,y):
At node 1: u1 u ( x1 , y1 ) 1 2 x1 3 y1
At node 2: u2 u ( x2 , y2 ) 1 2 x2 3 y2
At node 3: u3 u ( x3 , y3 ) 1 2 x3 3 y3
For v(x,y):
At node 1: v1 v( x1, y1 ) 1 2 x1 3 y1
At node 2: v2 v ( x2 , y2 ) 1 2 x2 3 y2
At node 3: v3 v( x3 , y3 ) 1 2 x3 3 y3
1 x1 y1 1 u1
1 x
y2 2 u2
2
1 x3 y3 3 u3
Solution is:
1 (a1u1 a2u2 a3u3 ) /(2 A)
2 (b1u1 b2u2 b3u3 ) /(2 A)
3 (c1u1 c2u2 c3u3 ) /(2 A)
where
a1 x2 y3 x3 y2 , a2 x3 y1 x1 y3 , a3 x1 y2 x2 y1
b1 y2 y3 , b2 y3 y1 , b3 y1 y2
c1 x3 x2 , c2 x1 x3 , c3 x2 x1
and
1 x1 y1
2 A 1 x2 y2 2(area of triangle)
1 x3 y3
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 17
Note that the a's, b's and c's are constants and depend only upon the
nodal coordinates (x,y) of the 3 corner nodes.
Defining the coefficients of ui as Ni , equation becomes:
3
u ( x, y ) N i ui
i 1
where
1
N i ( x, y ) ( ai bi x ci y )
2A
v 3 Ni 3
ci
yy vi vi
y i 1 y i 1 2 A
u v 3 Ni 3
Ni 3
ci 3
bi
xy ui vi ui vi
y x i 1 y i 1 x i 1 2 A i 1 2 A
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 19
The last 3 equations for strains can be put into matrix notation as:
u1
v
xx b 0 b 0 b 0 1
1 1 2 3
u2
yy
0 c1 0 c2 0 c3
v2
2 A
c b c b
1 1 2 2 3 3 u c b
xy 3
v3
Or, more compactly as (for any element "e"):
{ e } [ Be ]{q e }
b1 0 b2 0 b3 0
1
where
e
[B ] 0 c1 0 c2 0 c3
2A
c1 b1 c2 b2 c3 b3
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 20
u1
v
1
e u2
and {q }
v2
u3
v3
Since the terms in [ B e ] are constant for an element, the strains
{ e } are constant within an element; hence the name "constant
strain triangle" or CST.
We can now evaluate the internal strain energy U. Substituting
into gives:
Ue
1 {q e }T [ B e ]T [ D e ][ B e ]{q e }dV
2 V
= 12 {q e }T [ B e ]T [ D e ][ B e ]dV {q e }
V
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 21
U e 12 {q e }T [ k e ]{q e }
[k e ] [ B e ]T [ De ][ B e ]dV
V
e
If the element has a constant thickness t , then dV=tdA. Assuming
that E is constant over the element and noting that the terms in B
are constants, then
[k e ] t e Ae [ B e ]T [ D e ][ B e ]
Note that the general form for the strain energy can be written in
index notation also:
6 6
U e 12 {q e }T [k e ]{q e } 1
2 ij qi q j
k e e e
i 1 j 1
The stiffness matrix for the CST defined by can be written in sub-
matrix notation as:
1
(bi b j D11 ci c j D33 ) (bi c j D12 ci b j D33 )
[kij ] 4 A (c b D b c D )
(2 x 2) i j 21 i j 33 (ci c j D22 bi b j D33 )
i 1
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 25
1 pt e L cos
2
1 pt e L sin
2
e 1 pt e L cos
where {F } 2
1 pt e L sin
2
0
0
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 26
The matrix {F} represents the equivalent generalized nodal force
vector due to pressure load on boundary 1-2, i.e., we have replaced
the pressure p on boundary 1-2 by the nodal forces {F} at nodes 1
and 2.
S 4
S S 2
2 3
S 1
S 1
6
S 5
3
S i r e a c tio n s fr o m a d ja c e n t e le m e n ts
[k e ]{q e } {F e } {S e }
e 1 i 1 e1 i 1
The principle of minimum potential energy for the structure
requires that
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 30
M
(U str Vstr )
(U str Vstr ) 0 qi
i 1 qi
where {q} contains the M degrees of freedom for the structure
(NOT dof for each element). For qi 0 , the last equation
requires that
(U str Vstr )
0 for i 1, 2,..., M
qi
Substituting U str and Vstr into gives
N el N el N el
1 {q
2
e
} [k ]{q } {q } {F }
e T e
e T e
e T e
{q } {S }
e1 e 1 e1 0
qi
for i 1, 2,..., M
Problem: The energy terms for each element are in terms of the
element dof, but in order to obtain the equations of equilibrium for
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 31
the structure (above equation), we have to take the partial
derivatives with respect to the global structural dof. In order to
complete the above, the element degrees of freedom {q e } must be
written in terms of the M global structural degrees of freedom {q}.
For any element, we can write a transformation between element
local and global dof (called the local-global transformation):
{q e } [T e ] {q}
(6 x1) (6 xM ) ( Mx1)
{Fge } � [T e ]T {F e }
( Mx1) ( Mx 6) (6 x1)
{S ge } � [T e ]T {S e }
To see what an element stiffness and force matrix written in global
dof looks like, consider element 7 again. We obtain for [ K g7 ] and
{Fg7 }:
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method
6117 35
67
k
1
7
1k
2k
1
7
1
3 F
7
1
Element 7
Each block is a (2x2) sub-matrix 7 7 7 7
F
1
12k1 2k2 2k3
2
7 7 7
7
k1k 2k F
7 3 3 3
3
3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1
2
3
4
5
7 7 7
[ K g7 ] 6 k11 k13 k12 {Fg7 }
7 7 7
7 k31 k33 k32 F37
8
9
10
11 7 7 7
k21 k23 k22
12
Now the internal and external potential energy is given by
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 36
N el N el M M N el
U str U e 2
T e
1 {q} [ k ]{q}
g
1
2
e1 i 1 j 1
e
k gij qi q j
e1 e1
N el N el N el
Vstr V e {q}T {Fge } {q}T {S ge }
e 1 e1
e1
N el M N el M
Fgie qi S gi qi
e
e1 i 1 e1 i 1
Now we can substitute and into to obtain:
N el N el N el
1 {q}T [ k e ]{q}
2 g {q} T
{Fge } {q} T
{S ge }
e1 e 1 e 1 0
qi
for i 1, 2,..., M
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 37
which gives a system of M equations in terms of the structural
displacements:
N el N el N el
[k ge ]{q} {Fge } {S ge } {0}
e1 e 1 e1
or
N el e N el N el
g g g} e e
[ k ] {q} { F } {S
e1 e 1 e 1
Note that when the element stiffness and force matrices are written
in terms of structural displacements (using local to global
transformation), they become additive [see eq. ]; i.e., to get the
structural stiffness matrix [K], we sum the contributions for all
elements.
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 38
Assemblage of Elements
Note that the global node numbers for the structure are somewhat
arbitrary, i.e., we could number them in any order. However, it
will turn out that there are optimum ways to number nodes (for a
given structure and mesh) in order to reduce the bandwidth of the
structural stiffness matrix [K] - this saves time solving the
equations. For the mesh above, it would be optimum to number
downward and left-to-right, as opposed to left-to-right and
downward. We'll discuss that later. Likewise, the element
numbering is arbitrary, but again there may be optimum
approaches. An automatic mesh generator tries to do the
numbering in an optimum fashion.
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 42
Note that for this structure, we have 12 global nodes. There are 2
degrees of freedom (dof) at each node (u and v). Hence, the
structure has 24 dof and the structural stiffness matrix [K] will be
(24x24). The structural equilibrium equations can be written as:
k111 1
k12 1
k13 F11
(2 x 2) (2 x1)
1
1 1 1
1
1
[k ] k21 k22 k23 , {F } F2
(6 x 6) 1 1 1 1
k
31 k32 k33 F3
We now look at element 1 and note that element node numbers 1, 2, 3
correspond to global node numbers 1, 5, 2 (from the drawing of the
mesh, or from the element connectivity table). We can indicate this
information on the stiffness and force matrices as follows:
1 5 2
k11 1
k 1 1
k13 F11
1 12
1 (2 x1)
(2 x 2)
1
1 1 1
1
[k ] 5 k21 k22 k23 , {F 1} 5 F2
(6 x 6) 1 1 1 (6 x1) 1
2 31k k32 k33 2 F3
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 44
Hence, we see that element 1 contributes stiffness and forces to
global nodes 1, 5 and 2. Placing these contributions into the global
stiffness matrix gives:
Element 1 only
K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 {q} Q
1 1
k11 1
k13 1
k12 q1,2 F11
2 1
k31 1
k33 1
k32 q3,4 F31
3 q5,6
4 q7,8
5 1
k21 1
k23 1
k22 q9,10 F21
6 =
7
8
9
10
11
12 q23,24
** remember, each block is a (2x2) sub-matrix
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method
6117 45
67
k 7
1k
2k
7
3 F
7
1
Now take element 7. 1
1 1
7 7 7 F 7
11k
2 k
1 2 2 2k
3 2
7 7 7 7
k k k F
Element 7 only 731 3 2 3
3 3
K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 {q} Q
1 q1,2
2 q3,4
3 q5,6
4 q7,8
5 q9,10
6 =
7
8
9
10
11
12 q23,24
** remember, each block is a (2x2) sub-matrix
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 46
Note that the distributed pressure load p is applied only to the right
boundary of elements 10 and 11. Hence {F} for all elements
except 10 and 11 will be zero. For elements 10 and 11, we will
have
0 0
0 7 0 7
1p tL 1 ptL2
10 2 48 11 2 81
{F } 8 { F} 12
0 0
1p tL
1p tL 2
2 48 2 81
4 8
0
0
where L48 is the length between global nodes 4 and 8, etc.
K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 {q} Q
1 X X X q1,2
2 X X X X X q3,4
3 X X X X X q5,6
4 X X X X q7,8 X
5 X X X X X X q9,10
6 X X X X X X X =
7 X X X X X X X
8 X X X X X
9 X X X
10 X X X X X
11 X X X X X
12 X X X X q23,24 X
X means that one or more elements have contributed here
** remember, each block is a (2x2) sub-matrix
Note that [K] is symmetric; also it is banded (semi-bandwidth=12).
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 48
In the previous page, each X 1 2 3
means that one or more elements 1 3 31 3 3
have contributed to that (2x2) 1 5
sub-matrix. For example, we note 5 2 1 2 2 2 1 6 2
that node 2 will have stiffness 1 1 3 36 1 7 7
from elements 1, 2 and 5. Hence, 2 4 3
22 8
3 2
the 2,2 position of the global
stiffness matrix will be equal to 9 10 11
(note: you have to refer to the element connectivity to see which
element node for each element corresponds to global node 2):
1 2 5
[ K 22 ] [k33 ] [k33 ] [k11 ] each sub-matrix is (2x2)
OK, but what about the boundary where there are supports? What
happens to the reactions there? For example, the cantilever plate
example above: 1 2 3 4
1 5 9
They don't disappear and should 5 2 6 6 7 10 8 p
be included in the structural 3 7 11
stiffness matrix. y
4 8 12
9 10 11 12
We know that there will be x
unknown reactions at global
nodes 1, 5 and 9. We could call R 2
1 R 1 2 3 4
these reactions R1, R2 , R9 , R10 , R 1 5 9
105
R17 and R18 (consistent with R92 6 6 7 10 8 p
global displacements). So we R 18 3 7 1
1
4 8 12
have the free body of the y
9 R 17 10 1
1 12
structure: x
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 51
Structural Equations of Equilibrium with Support Reactions
K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 {q} Q
1 X X X q1,2 R1,2
2 X X X X X q3,4
3 X X X X X q5,6
4 X X X X q7,8 X
5 X X X X X X q9,10 R9,10
6 X X X X X X X =
7 X X X X X X X
8 X X X X X
9 X X X R17,18
10 X X X X X
11 X X X X X
12 X X X X q23,24 X
X means that one or more elements have contributed here
** remember, each block is a (2x2) sub-matrix
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 52
OK, now one last step. We have to apply displacement boundary
conditions. The structure is fixed at nodes 1, 5 and 9; thus,
q1 q2 q9 q10 q17 q18 0 . The easiest way to apply
boundary conditions to any system of equations is as follows:
1. Zero out the row and column on the left side matrix (the [K]
matrix) corresponding to each B.C., and zero out the row of the
right side (the {Q} matrix) corresponding to each B.C.
2. Place a 1 on the diagonal of the left side matrix (the [K] matrix)
corresponding to each B.C.
You will notice that every dof that has a B.C. also corresponds to
a dof where a support reaction (R) occurs. Applying B.C. as
described above will thus eliminate the reactions from the
equilibrium equations.
A theoretical reason why we don’t have to worry about reactions
in structural equations of equilibrium? Because these support
reactions R do no work (displacement is zero at support) and
hence do not affect equilibrium of the structure!!!
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 53
Structural Equations of Equilibrium with B.C. Applied
K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 {q} Q
1 1
1
0 0
0 0
0
0
0
0
q1,2 0
0
2 0 0
0 0 X X 0
0
0
0 X q3,4
3 X X X X X q5,6
4 X X X X q7,8 X
5 0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
1
1
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0 q9,10 0
0
6 X X 0 0
0 0
X X X X =
7 X X X X X X X
8 X X X X X
9 0
0
0
0
1
1
0 0
0 0
0
0
10 0
0
0
0 X 0 0
0 0
X X
11 X X X X X
12 X X X X q23,24 X
X means that one or more elements have contributed here
** remember, each block is a (2x2) sub-matrix
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 54
The structural equations with B.C. may now be solved for the
unknown displacements. Note that when we solve the system of
equations, the solution will give q1 q2 q9 q10 q17 q18 0 ,
i.e, the 1st equation simply says (1)q1 0 , etc.
xx p xy xy
yx yy p yz 0
zx zy zz p
Membrane
element (no bending; flat and curved)
Triangular, Quad (both straight and curved sides)
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 61
t = 0.5 in.
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 69
of a structural component and other distinguishing features such as
holes, fillets, etc. Consider the bracket shown above. We could
first define the corners of a 10" x 25" rectangle. To specify the
rounded edges on the right boundary, we could specify that a 4"
radius fillet is to be placed at each right corner. Finally, to specify
the location of the hole, we would define a 2" radius circle whose
center is located 5" from the right boundary.
Since the structure is 2-D and in plane stress, we would specify the
type of element (triangular, quad, etc.) to be used in defining the
mesh.
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 70
The mesh generator would then automatically determine the
coordinates of all global nodes and determine the element
connectivity for all elements.
Solver
Once the solver has created the structural stiffness and force
matrices, solved for global nodal displacements, and solved for
stresses and strains (plus a few other things appropriate to each
element type), it generates an output file and we are now ready to
examine and interpret the results.
Post-processing
Clearly, for a complicated structure with many nodes and elements,
the examination and evaluation of all results is an enormous task
because of the shear volume of data (displacements, strains,
stresses, etc). The post-processor now takes over. Its purpose is to
provide output such as the deformed geometry, contour plots of
principal stress components, contour plots of von Mises stress,
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 73
contour plots of strain components, etc. (what ever you decide is
important). What, and how, the postprocessor can display
information depends on the type of elements being used.
Below are outputs of the deformed geometry and vonMises stress.
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 74
Often the pre and post-processor are combined into one software
package (like FEMAP or PATRAN). Most preprocessor programs
will create output files in formats acceptable to various solvers
A04 - Introduction to the Finite Element Method 75
(like CAEFEM, NASTRAN, ANSYS, ABACUS, etc.). Likewise,
most postprocessor programs will accept the output file of most
solvers and display a variety of data results generated by the solver.