Advanced Production and Process3

Advanced Production Process 1 Module III
GRINDING
It is a process of removing metal in small quantities by using an abrasive wheel, called grinding
wheel. It is regarded as a finishing process for obtaining desired surface finish, accuracy in size and
geometrical configuration of the product.
Grinding is a process of removing material by abrasive action of a revolving wheel on the surface
of a work-piece in order to bring it to required shape and size. The wheel used for performing the
grinding operation is known as grinding wheel. It consists of sharp crystal called abrasive held together
by a binding material or bond
Grinding Wheel: A grinding wheel may be regarded as a multi-point cutting tool. Grinding wheels
are composed of abrasive grains held together with a suitable bond. Some porosity is essential for
bonded wheels to provide clearance for minute chips being produced Fig. 10.1 shows the make-up of
grinding wheel.
PRINCIPLE OF GRINDING:
In grinding process the work piece is brought into contact with revolving grinding wheel. Each
abrasive grain will acts as an individual cutting tool and removes the metal in the form of small chips In
doing so the grains became dull, the pressure and heat created between wheel and the work piece causes
the dull face to break away leaving new sharp cutting edges or dull grains turn out of the bond to expose
a new cutting grains.
Purpose of Grinding:
 to bring the component to size,
 to obtain required surface finish, and
 to machine very hard materials.
ADVANTAGES OF GRINDING:
 The surface finish obtained is superior to that of any other machine tool, and is also one of the
most dimensionally accurate machining processes.
 Hardened components can be machined by grinding, which would be difficulty or even impossible
for other machine tools.
 Grinding requires very little pressure permitting its use on light and delicate parts.
DISADVANTAGES OF GRINDING
 Work surface gets over heated.
 Wheel chatter and vibrations result inaccuracies, and duplicate pieces do not have the same
dimensions.
 Grinding is not suitable as a machining process where high, metal removal is required.
ABRASIVES:
 An abrasive is a small, non-metallic hard particle having sharp edges and an irregular shape. They
are capable of removing small amounts of materials from a surface in the form of small chips.
 The abrasives used in grinding must have the following characteristics.
 must be harder than material being ground
 must be strong enough to withstand grinding pressure
 must be heat resistant so that it retains sharp cutting edges at grinding temperature, and
 Must be capable to break when the cutting edge is dull, so that new sharp edge is exposed to work
piece. This ability of the grains to micro fracture and expose new sharp edges is termed as
friability.
Types of Abrasives:
Abrasives may be classified into two types:
1. Natural abrasives.
2. Artificial abrasives.
Natural abrasives
Sand stone (solid quartz), emery, corundum and diamond.
Sand stone is relatively soft and cannot be used for grinding harder materials.
Emery and corundum are natural aluminium oxides, and have a greater hardness and better
abrasive action than quartz.
Diamond is one of the best natural abrasives but, due to high cost its use is limited to grinding
cemented carbides, glass, marbles and garnets.
Natural abrasives lack uniformity and contain a high percentage of impurities.
ARTIFICIAL ABRASIVES
Silicon carbide (S)
It is also called carbornudum. It is manufactured from 56 parts of silica sand, 34 parts of
powdered cake, 2 pats of salt, 12 parts of saw dust in a long rectangular electric furnace of resistance
type. Sand furnishes silicon, cake furnishes carbon, saw dust makes the charge porous, salt helps in fusing
it. There are two types of silicon carbide abrasive, green grit with approximately 97% silicon carbide and
black grit with approximately 95% silicon carbide. It is less harder than diamond and less tough than
aluminium oxide. It is used for grinding of material of low tensile strength like cemented carbide, stone
and ceramic, gray cast iron, brass, bronze, aluminium vulcanized rubber, etc.
It is manufactured in an electric induction furnace. The mixture consisting silica sand and high
purity coke is heated in the furnace. Saw dust is added to produce porosity in the finished product.
Sodium chloride (salt) is added to assist in removing the impurities. The resulting SiC is then crushed,
treated with acid and alkalies to remove any remaining impurities. The abrasives are screened and
graded to size. It is denoted by S. Silicon carbide is harder and brittle than aluminum oxide and are used
for grinding metals having a low strength. Its color varies from green to black. Green silicon carbide
contains SiC, and mainly used (or cemented carbides and other harder materials. Black silicon carbide
contains 95% SiC. This is harder but weaker than green silicon carbide. Black silicon carbide is used for
grinding cast iron, aluminium, copper and its alloys. It is also suitable for grinding ceramics.
Aluminium oxide (A)
It is prepared by heating mineral bauxite, a hydrated aluminum oxide clay containing silica, iron
oxide, titanium oxide mixed with ground coke and iron borings in a arc type electric furnace. Aluminium
oxide is tough and fracture resistant. It is preferred for grinding of materials of higher tensile strengths
like steel; high carbon and high speed steel and tough bronze.
It is manufactured from calcined bauxite in an electric arc furnace. The furnace is half filled with a
mixture of bauxite, ground coke and iron filings in the proper proportions. The mixture is fused in the
furnace. During the operation, the height of electrodes is automatically adjusted to maintain a constant
rate of power input. The fused ingot cooled and is broken up and fed into crushers; the material is then
washed, screened and graded to size. This is manufactured under the trade dimensional accuracy and
tested for defects.
TYPES OF BOND
The bonding materials are used for holding the abrasive grains together.
Vitrified bond: Vitrified bond is made of clay or feldspar. The clay and water is mixed with
abrasive grains, and the mixture is moulded to form the wheel. It is then baked in a kiln upto a
temperature of about 1250°C to develop structural strength. As the burning proceeds clay fuses and
forms porcelain that holds the grains together. The wheels are then cooled slowly to avoid thermal
cracking, finished to size, inspected for dimensional accuracy and tested for defects. Since vitrified bond
wheels are baked at high temperatures they can withstand high temperature generated during grinding
process. The bond is used in about 75% of the wheels manufactured. Vitrified bond is denoted by ’V'.
Vitrified bond has high strength, porosity and does not easily clog. It is not affected by water, acid, oils or
ordinary conditions. A high rate of metal removal is possible with this bond. Vitrified bond break down
readily on the wheel to expose new grains during the grinding operation.
Silicate bond: Silicate bond is made from silicate soda and is mixed with abrasive grains. The
mixture is moulded to wheel shape and then baked in a furnace at a temperature of 260°C for several
days. A silicate bond is denoted by S. Silicate bond is less sensitive to shock. It is not strong as vitrified
bond and therefore release the abrasive grains more readily. It is affected by moisture and alkaline
solution. It is suitable for the grinding where the heat generation is minimum, and mainly used for
making large wheels.
Shellac Bond: In shellac bond, also called as elastic bond, shellac is mixed with abrasive in a heated
container and is shaped in a heated mould. The shaped wheels are then baked at 1500C for several hours.
It is denoted by E. Shellac wheels are comparatively easy to manufacture and are capable of producing
high finishes on cam shaft and mill rolls. They produce less temperature (120 - 1500C) than vitrified
bond. Shellac wheels possess high elasticity and considerable strength. They also possess a high degree of
safety which makes them valuable for operations (cutting off hardened steel) requiring thin wheel. The
other application of shellac wheels includes sharpening of saws, knives and fettling of castings. Shellac
wheels are not suitable for heavy duty, and wheels of bigger diameter cannot be produced.
Resinoid bond: Resinoid wheels are made from synthetic resins (Bakelite) mixed with abrasive
grains. The mixture is heated in a mould at about 2000C. At this temperature resin sets and holds the
abrasive grains together. A resinoid bonded wheel is designated as B. Resinoid wheels are more flexible
and can run at high speeds (2900 m/min) than vitrified bond wheels. They cut cool, and removes stock
rapidly. They are used for cutting off metal bars and tubes and for the work needing a very high surface
finish. Resinoid wheels are likely to be softened prolonged exposure to water or water based cutting
fluids.
Rubber bond: Rubber bonded wheels are made from pure rubber and abrasive. In this bond
abrasive grains are mixed with, pure rubber and sulphur (added as a vulcaniser). The mixture is
deformed into sheets. The wheels are cut out of the sheet and then heated in a mould to vulcanise the
rubber. A rubber bonded wheel is designated by R. Rubber bonded wheels are strongest of all and is also
tough. It is suitable for making extremely thin wheels for cutting off operations. They produce high
surface finish and can be used for finishing ball bearing races. Rubber bonded wheels can also be used as
regulating wheels in centreless grinding.
Oxychloride bond: The oxychloride bonded wheels are made from oxide and chloride of
magnesium. They are mixed with abrasive gains in the same way as for vitrified bond. An oxychloride
bonded wheel is designated by 'O'. Oxychloride bonded wheels are less brittle than vitrified bond and
produce low temperature than any other bond, (except silicate bond) during grinding. They are affected
by acidic solutions and sudden temperature changes The strength of the bond decreases with time. As the
cutting fluids affect the bond, the wheel is normally employed for dry grinding.
Different types of grinding wheels

Grinding wheels are made in many different shapes and sizes to adapt them for use in different
types of grinding machines and on different classes of work.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GRINDING WHEEL

Grit: Grit refers to the size of abrasive grains. They are graded for size by passing them through a
range of sieves each of which has a definite size of mesh. The grains are numbered according to the
smallest mesh through which they have passed. This number provides idea of grain size of abrasives. This
number is decided on the basis of number of holes in one inch length of the sieve used to filter the
abrasive particals. Larger number indicates finer grain sizes.
Grade: it is the degree of hardness of the wheel, and hardeness variesaccording to the tenacity
with which the bond holds the abrasive grains together.
Structure: The structure indicates the abrasive grain spacing in the grinding wheel. A wheel may
have open (porous) or a dense (close) structure. A grinding wheel with an open structure has more void s
than that of dense structure.
Marking for grinding wheel (Coding of a Grinding Wheel)
W C 30 L 5 R 17
W: Symbol for Manufacturer’s Abrasive Type (Prefixed)

C: Name of Abrasive
30: Grain Size
L: Grade
5: Structure Type
R: Bond Type
17: Manufacturer Symbol for Record (Suffix)
WHEEL MAINTENANCE:
For proper grinding, a grinding wheel must be properly maintained. All grinding wheels should be
balanced and mounted before use. The grinding wheel must not be loaded or grazed, and must run true.
The wheels should be properly dressed.
Mounting: The grinding wheels are mounted on spindle. Before mounting, wheel should be
inspected for cracks. The method of mounting a grinding wheel on spindle.
The wheel must be positioned properly between the flanges; a washer made up of rubber or
leather should be placed between the flanges and sides of grinding wheel. The abrasive wheel should
have easy fit on the spindle and should never be tightened in excess. The nut should be tightened suitably
to hold the wheel in position, and a guard should be placed over the wheel. After mounting the grinding
wheel, the grinding machine is started and should be run idle for 10 to 15 minutes. Grinding wheel must
be dressed and trued before grinding operation.
Balancing: All grinding wheels should be balanced before use. Because improper balance of a grinding
wheel will cause chatter marks on the work surface, and greatly affect the surface finish and accuracy of
the work. Wheel which is out of balance will come to rest with heavy side down. Small wheels are
balanced by cutting a short recess inside the flanges and filling the recess with lead. The large wheels are
mounted and balanced on balancing stand which has been leveled. To balance the wheel move the
weights in the face of the groove until the wheel remains stationary at any position. Fix the weight in that
position where the wheel is balanced. The wheel may be balanced by cutting some of the lead from the
bush with which the bore of the wheel is provided. The lead must be removed from heavy side. If the out
of balance is too large to correct in these ways it may be necessary to cutaway some of the wheel itself,
but this should only be done by an expert.
Loading: When the porous structure of the wheel becomes clogged with the material being cut, the
wheel is said to be loaded. This results in the abrasive grains not protruding for enough to cut properly.
Loading occurs when soft materials are being ground or if the wheel is too hard for a particular job.
Glazing: Wheel is said to be glazed when the abrasive grains become dull and the bond may not
release the blunt grains quickly. Glazing arises because the wheel is too hard or its speed is too high in
relation to the work speed.
Truing: Truing a wheel is necessary to ensure that it will be concentric with the spindle. It involves
removing any high spots on the wheel, there by wheel runs concentrically with the spindle. After
mounting, the wheel should be trued before use. A properly trued wheel will produce perfect round or
flat work.
Dressing: Dressing is the term used to denote sharpening operation of grinding wheel. The
purpose of dressing is to remove dulled abrasive grains and to improve the cutting action of a grinding
wheel. This is done by wheel dresser. The common types of wheel dressers are:
1. Star wheel dresser.
2. Rounded abrasive stick, and
3. Diamond dressing tool
Star wheel dresser: This is mainly used for coarse wheels on the large grinding machines. It
consist star shaped wheels which are freely revolved on a spindle. The wheels are made of hardened steel
and when pressed against the revolving grinding wheel, their points dig away the bond and release the
dull grains. It is purely a dressing tool and cannot provide any truing effect on the wheel.
Rounded Abrasive Stick: It is a steel tube fitted with bonded abrasive. The end of the tube is held
against the wheel and moved across the face.
Diamond dressing tool: The diamond dresser needs to be sharp and are used for dressing and
truing of a types of grinding wheels. The diamonds are set in steel shank that can be mounted into a rigid
holder. The tool can then slowly traverse across the face of the revolving grinding wheel removing the
dulled abrasive.
Factors influencing the grinding:
The wheel performance is influenced by the following factors.
1. The mean force required to dislodge a grain from the surface (grade of wheel).
2. The cavity size and distribution or the porosity (structure).
3. The mean spacing of active grains in the wheel surface (grain size and structure)
4. The properties of grains
5. The geometry of the cutting edges of grains
6. The process parameters such as speeds, feeds, cutting fluids, and
7. The type of grinding (surface, cylindrical).
METHODS OF GRINDING
1. External cylindrical grinding
2. Internal cylindrical grinding
3. Surface grinding
4. Form grinding
5. Centre-less grinding
External cylindrical grinding (center type) is used for producing external cylindrical surfaces. In
this method the work piece can be held between centers and rotated against the grinding wheel.
Internal cylindrical grinding is used for accurate finishing the holes in a work piece by a grinding
wheel. In this method the work piece is held in a chuck and rotated. The grinding wheel rotates in
opposite direction to that of the work piece.
Surface grinding is the process of producing flat surfaces on work which is pressed against a
revolving grinding wheel.
Centre less grinding there is no necessity to hold the work piece between centres or in a chuck. In
this case the work is supported, between grinding wheel and regulating wheel, on work rest blade.
TYPES OF GRINDING
There can be different criteria to classify grinding into different categories. On the basis of quality
of grinding, it is classified as rough grinding and precision grinding.
Rough Grinding: It involves removal of stock without any reference to the accuracy of results.
Generally, rough grinding is followed by precision grinding. Rough grinders are used to remove the large
amounts of material without considering the accuracy of the parts.
Precision Grinding: Precision grinding removes negligible amount of metal. It is used to produce
finished parts and accurate dimensions.
1. Cylindrical grinders
a. External cylindrical grinders
i. Centre type
ii. Center-less type
b. Internal cylindrical grinders
i. Chucking type
ii. Center-less type
2. Surface grinders
a. Vertical spindle
i. Reciprocating table
ii. Rotating table
b. Horizontal spindle
i. Reciprocating table
ii. rotating table
3. Tool and cutter grinders
4. Special grinding machines
CENTRE-TYPE CYLINDRICAL GRINDERS:
In cylindrical grinders the work is mounted between the centers and rotated against the grinding
wheel. The work may also be held in a chuck for certain operations.
The various movements involved in a cylindrical grinding are shown in Fig. 10.14. They are :
1. The work must revolve
2. The wheel must revolve
3. The work must pass the wheel or the wheel must pass the work.
4. The movement of wheel into the work or work into wheel,
The following operations are performed in cylindrical grinding machines.
1. Traverse grinding, and
2. Plunge cut grinding
For traverse grinding, the work reciprocates as the wheel feeds into the work. This operation
produce cylindrical shapes longer than the width of wheel.
In plunge cut grinding, the work rotates in a fixed position and the wheel is fed into the work piece
until the required diameter is obtained. In this case the length of cylindrical shape produced is equal to
the width of grinding wheel.
Cylindrical grinding machines are classified into two types:

(i) Plain cylindrical grinding machines
(ii) Universal grinding machines
Plain cylindrical grinding machines:

The plain cylindrical grinding machine has the following parts :
1. Bed or Base
2. Table
3. Headstock
4. Tailstock or Footstock
5. Wheel head
Base: The base or bed rests on the floor. The top of the base is machined accurately to form ways
for the table. It also houses the table drive mechanism. It is made with cast iron to provide rigidity.
Tables: The lower table is mounted on the ways of the bed. It provides traverse motion to the
work past the grinding wheel. It can be operated manually or automatically. The reversal of lower table
(sliding table) is controlled by trip dogs. Upper table (work table) is mounted on lower table and can be
swivelled for grinding tapers and alignment purposes. The headstock and tailstock are mounted on this
table.
Headstock; Headstock supports and drive the work piece with the help of centre and dog or chuck.
It is mounted on the left end of the table and contains a motor for rotating the work.
Tailstock: Tailstock or footstock is mounted on the right end of the table. It can be adjusted along
the length of the bed to support the right end of the work.
Wheel head: Wheel head is mounted on a cross-slide at right angles to the table, providing the in-
feed movement of the wheel to the work. It has fixed speed motor to drive the grilling wheel. The
grinding wheel is fed to the work by the engagement of cross-feed control lever.
SPECIFICATIONS:
A cylindrical centre type grinding machine is specified by the maximum diameter and length of
work piece that can be accommodated between the centres.
Universal cylindrical grinding machines:

The universal cylindrical grinding machine is more .versatile and table can be swiveled on its base
to facilitate taper work to be done. In these machines both the wheelhead and headstock can be swivelled
on their bases. The swivel wheel head enables chamfers and angled faces to be ground on parallel work
mounted between centres. The swivel headstock can be used for grinding short tapers on the workpiece
gripped in a chuck.
INTERNAL GRINDING MACHINES:

Internal grinding machines are used for finishing holes to size and accuracy. The wheel is fed into
the work until the hole reaches required diameter. Internal grinding machine is specified by the diameter
of work that can be swung and the maximum length of wheel stroke.
Chucking grinders: Chucking grinder is one of the internal grinders in which the work piece is gripped in
a chuck and rotated about its axis. The wheel rotates and simultaneously reciprocates through the length
of the hole.
Planetary grinding machines: These machines are intended for internal grinding of very large work piece.
The work is clamped in a fixed position on a reciprocal mg table. The grinding wheel is mounted on a
spindle and given rotary and planetary motion to finish cylindrical holes. This method is used in the
manufacture of heavy machinery, locomotives and in smaller applications.
CENTRELESS GRINDING MACHINES:

In centreless grinding the work piece is supported by a combination of a work rest blade, a
regulating wheel and a grinding wheel. It is performed on work which does not have centres. This can
reduce the total operation time by eliminating the need for centre holes in the work piece and time taken
to mount the work piece. The grinding wheel rotates at higher speed than the regulating wheel and does
the actual grinding operation. Regulating wheel controls the rotation of the work piece. work rest is used
to keep the work piece pressing against the face of the control wheel. It consists of three basic elements :
1. Grinding wheel,
2. Control wheel, and
3. Work-rest blade.
Grinding wheel: It is a conventional type straight grinding wheel. It is rotated in a clockwise

direction at a speed of 25-30 m/ s, and its diameter varies from 300 to 500 mm. The wheel is chosen to
suit the type of work and operation.
Control wheel: It is a rubber bonded abrasive wheel and rotates in the same direction, but at
slower speed, of grinding wheel. It drives the work as if they were two friction wheels; hence the work
rotates in an anti-clockwise direction. The diameter of control wheels vary from 200 to 300 mm with
speed range 12 to 200 rev/min. It is tilted through a small angle (max. 7°) to provide axial feed to work
piece
Work-rest blade: The work-rest blade is positioned such that work axis is kept at a suitable height
above the wheel centres. Its top face is bevelled so that the work is always pressed against regulating
wheel.
These machines are relatively simple and easy to maintain.
Types of centreless grinding:

1. Through-feed grinding
2. Infeed grinding
3. End feed grinding
In through-fed grinding the work piece has a uniform diameter and is fed through the wheels
which have been set at a fixed distance apart to give the correct work diameter. In order to impart an
axial feed to the work piece the control wheel is tilted slightly, generally less than 7°. It is used for parallel
work of any length which has no surface obstructions.
Infeed grinding is a plunge grinding and is used for multi diameter work or any form of work that
cannot be passed completely through the wheels. The work is placed in position against a pre-set end
stop. Control wheel slide advances the rotating work up to the grinding wheel. The control wheel is
usually tilted slightly to hold the work piece.
End feed grinding is used with the multi diameter work but the length to be ground is too long for
the infeed grinding operation. Feed motion is imparted to work piece until it meets the end stop. Thus it
is combination of infeed and through-feed grinding. This method is mostly used for taper grinding.
Advantages of Centre less grinding:

♦ No axial thrust on work, long parts are easily ground.
♦ Work centre holes are not necessary.

♦ The process is relatively fast, and ideal for production purposes.
♦ Plain, short pieces can be continuously ground using through-feed grinding.
♦ Size of the work is easily controlled.
♦ The process is relatively simple, and low order of skill is needed to operate the machine.
Disadvantages of centreless grinding :
♦ Work having obstructions is not easily handled.
♦ Work with flats and key ways cannot be ground.
INTERNAL CENTRELESS GRINDING MACHINES:

In internal centre less grinding, three rolls are used to support the work piece and impart rotation
to it. The grinding wheel is in contact with the work and revolves as well as traverse inside the hole to
ground the required length. The process is used for grinding cylinders, sleeves etc.
Advantages of internal centre less grinding:
 High degree of concentricity between bore and outside diameter.
 No work holding devices are required.
 High production rates.
 Little deflection and high degree of accuracy is possible.
 Setting comparatively simple.
Disadvantages of internal centre-less grinding
 inital costs of centreless grinders are high
 only economical for mass production.
SURFACE GRINDING MACHINES:

The surface grinding machines are used for producing flat, and usually parallel surfaces.
Depending on the arrangement of spindle, surface grinding machines are classified as :
Horizontal spindle surface grinder
(a) Reciprocating table, (b) Rotary table
Vertical spindle surface grinders
(a) Reciprocating table (b) Rotary table
Horizontal spindle reciprocating table surface grinder:
Operation: In this machine the wheel rotates on horizontal spindle and grinding is performed with
the periphery of the wheel. The work is mounted on the table. The table i.e., the work reciprocates under
the wheel. The length of stroke can be set by means of trip stops whereby table is instantly reversed. The
lateral traverse is used to cross-feed the work beneath the wheel. The required depth of cut is obtained
by downward movement of grinding wheel.
Construction details:
Base: Base is mounted on the floor and contains the drive mechanism. It has the column at the
back, providing a support for tool head.
Table: The table is mounted on the saddle. The table traverses longitudinally and laterally on the
saddle ways beneath the grinding wheel. It is usually provided with T-slots to which magnetic chuck may
be bolted or for clamping the work pieces or grinding fixtures directly.
Wheel head: The wheel head is mounted on the column which is rigidly attached to the base. The
vertical slide carrying grinding wheel can be moved up or down on the ways to accommodate different
work pieces and to obtain required depth of cut.
This machine is mostly used in tool room and is equipped with a magnetic chuck.
Vertical spindle rotary-table surface grinder: In vertical spindle machine, the grinding wheel is mounted
on vertical spindle and is much larger than that of the horizontal spindle machine. Spindle carrying the
grinding wheel rotates in a fixed position, feeding only along its axis. The work is held on a rotary
magnetic chuck. This rotates continuously in a fixed position during grinding. The table movements are
used to position the work under grinding wheel.
This type of machine is used for heavy duty operations where degree of accuracy is not important. It is
mostly employed for grinding castings and forgings.
Vertical spindle reciprocating table surface grinder: The grinding wheel is mounted on a vertical spindle
located above the reciprocating table. The table traverse is hydraulically operated and permits a step less
range of speeds unto 30 m/min. The machine produces plane surfaces in much the same way as the
vertical milling
Specification of Surface Grinder;
 Maximum diameter of the wheel that can be held on the spindle.
 The maximum size of the jobs that can be ground (length width height)
 Type of drive for the work table (Hydraulic or electrical)
TOOL AND CUTTER GRINDERS :
Tool and cutter grinders are used for resharpening the cutting edges of tools. These machines vary
in design and can be classified into two groups.
1. Universal tool and cutter grinder can be used to any cutter grinding requirements.
2. Single purpose tool and cutter grinder used in production plant for resharpening the tools such as
drills, tool bits etc. each grinder is designed for specific purpose. Example: Cranks shaft grinder, cam
grinder, tool grinder etc.
Universal tool and cutter grinder: The universal tool and cutter grinder is used for grinding of various
shapes by using special accessories and grinding wheels. The shape of grinding wheel depends on the
shape of the cutter to be sharpened.
Base: It is a heavy box like structure and is made of cast iron. The top of the base is accurately
machined to provide the ways for saddle. The base contains the gears and mechanism for controlling the
table movements.
Table: The table is composed of two units. The lower table is mounted on the saddle ways. The
upper table (work table) is fastened to the lower table and may be swivelled for grinding tapers.
Saddle: The saddle is mounted on hardened ways and provides the means for moving the work
forward and backward.
Wheelhand : The wheelhand is mounted on a column at the back of the base. It may be raised or
lowered and may be swilled on the base for various setups.
Headstock and Tailstock: The headstock and tailstock are mounted on either side of work table
(upper table) and supports the work for certain grinding operations. The distance between headstock
and tailstock can be adjusted along the table.
Grinding wheel: Grinding wheels used on universal tool and cutter grinding depends on the shape
of the cutter to be sharpened.
The three type of grinding wheels are in common use. These are :
1. Straight wheels,
2. Cup type wheels,
3. Dish type wheels.
Specification of Tool and Cutter grinder:
 maximum diameter of the wheel that can be - held in the spindle.
 maximum job that can be ground.
 type of drive, and
 number of attachments.
Cutter grinding and setting: When grinding fluted tooth it must be supported on a tooth-rest while the
wheel passes over its edge. Before grinding the tooth, it is necessary to set the center of head, the
tailstock, and the tooth-rest in line with the center of the wheel spindle.
Accessories and Attachments:
Tooth rest blades: Different types of tooth rest blades are used for supporting the tooth while
grinding. The following types are most commonly used.
1. Plain tooth rest blade is used for grinding straight tooth milling cutters.
2. Hook or L-shaped tooth rest blade are used for sharpening slitting saws and end mills.
3. Inverted V-tooth or double angled tooth rest blade are used for grinding helical teeth cutters. It is also
used for grinding the periphery of staggered tooth cutters.
4. Cutter grinding mandrels and arbors: For grinding milling cutters, it is necessary to hold them on
arbors. Shell end mill should be sharpened on the arbor which is similar to that used for milling. A
grinding mandrel should be used to hold the cutter. Its straight length is a sliding fit into cutter, and
slightly taper end will holds the cutter securely for grinding.
SPECIAL GRINDING MACHINES:

Special grinders are designed for specific work. Some of them are:
Crankshaft grinders: Cylindrical grinder operating on the principle of plunge grinding used for grinding
crank shafts
Cam grinders: Special form of cylindrical grinder used to generate cams oscillation of work towards or
away from wheel with the help of template generate the cam shape.
Roll grinder: Similar to cylindrical grinders, but they are much heavier and rigid. Used for grinding huge
rolls intended for processing steel or aluminium strips
WORK HOLDING DEVICES:
Large work pieces can be clamped to the table by using bolts or clamps. The Vices and Magnetic chucks
are used to hold small work pieces.
Vices: Vices are used to hold small work pieces. It is provided with swivelling and tilting
movements which facilitate grinding tapered and angled surfaces.
Magnetic chucks: Magnetic chucks are commonly used to hold the work pieces made of ferrous
metal i.e., magnetic material. Two types of magnetic chucks are used for this purpose.
1. Permanent magnetic chunk, and
2. Electromagnetic chunk.
Permanent magnet chuck requires no current. Electromagnetic chuck is more powerful than
permanent magnet chuck and requires direct current to acquire magnetism.
COOLANTS:
The functions of coolants or cutting fluids used in grinding are:
1. To keep the work cool and to prevent distortion.
2. To wash the metal particles and loose abrasive grains from surface of the wheel, and
3. To keep clear and free-cutting.
It is important that coolants flush and carry the dirt to the settling tank. Otherwise, the dirt which
settles on the centres, guides and chucks will affect the accuracy of the work. Soluble oils (water base
cutting fluids) are used as coolants. Sodium carbonate is added to water to prevent rusting of the
machine and work.
FINISHING OPERATIONS:
The heat generated during grinding tends to disrupt and distort the surface of the work. This
results in poor surface & finish. After machining or grinding, some components undergo a further process
in order to improve accuracy and surface finish. Such operations include lapping, honing, super finishing,
polishing, burnishing, etc.
Lapping:
Lapping is an abrasive process used to improve the surface finish and to obtain small changes in
dimensions or to obtain almost perfect contact between two mating surfaces. The process is extensively
used for the finishing of gauge blocks and flats.
Lapping consists of rubbing work surface with lap surface which is charged with fine abrasive
particles. The lap material is generally softer than the work material. Cast iron is mostly used for lap
materials. Graphite in the cast iron serves to hold the abrasive particles and provides lubricating effect.
Besides cast iron, copper alloys, lead, plastic and wool are also used as lap materials. Hard material for
lap is generally selected for soft abrasives.
The narrow grooves are cut on lap surface and is then charged by spreading and pressing the
abrasive particles (aluminium oxide or silicon carbides) over the surface of lap. Silicon carbide is used for
rapid stock removal and aluminium oxide for improved surface finish. The work piece is then held
against the lap and moved in unrepeated paths. A suitable cutting fluid (lapping vehicle) such as oil is
applied for lapping. There are two types of lapping they are hand lapping and machine lapping
In hand lapping either lap or the work is held by hand and a relative motion is produced between
them. The rubbing of contacting surfaces in the presence of abrasive medium produces the smooth
surfaces finish. This method is employed for finishing surface plate, engine valves and valve seats.
Machine lapping is performed for obtaining highly finished surfaces in mass production. Many
components like races of ball bearings, worm and worm gears and various automobile parts are finished
by machine lapping.
Advantages of lapping:
 Less heat is generated, and there is no distortion of work surface.
 Due to low temperature, there are no metallurgical changes in the work materials.
 The process is suitable for any materials, and can be used for finishing flat or cylindrical surfaces
and holes.
Disadvantages of lapping:
 The processes very slow and metal removal rate is low. Machining allowance for lapping is taken
to be
 0.005 to 0.02 mm.
 Hand lapping requires high operation skills.
 Process cost is high and should not be recommended unless very accurate surface is absolutely
necessary.
Applications: Lapping is employed for getting precise surface finish on precision tools, gauges, bearings,
valves and valve seats. The process can be applied for both metals.and non-metals.
Honing:
Honing is a finishing process in which honing tool rotates and reciprocates in the stationary hole
being honed. It is used on holes and bores, which require a fine surface finish and a high degree of
accuracy.
It can also be used to correct out of roundness, taper and distortion of a bore.
Honing tool: Honing tool is an expanding mandrel on which abrasive sticks are mounted. The
abrasives used for honing are silicon carbide, aluminium oxide, diamond or cubic boron nitrate. Silicon
carbide is used for honing castiron and non ferrous metals and aluminium oxide is used for steel parts.
Diamond is suitable for honing ceramics or hard carbides.
Honing process: For honing, the hone is inserted into the hole and adjusted to bear against the
walls. Work is kept stationary, and the metal is removed as a result of rotary as well as reciprocating
motion of the hone in the hole. A cutting fluid (kerosine) is used to remove chips and to keep temperature
low. It is important to see that the hone should not leave the work surface and stroke . length must cover
the entire work length. Depending upon the work material, honing speed may vary from 0.25 to 1 m/s
and honing pressure is in the range of 1 to 3 N/mm2. Surface roughness obtained in this process is in the
order of 0.1 to 0.8 mm.
Honing can be performed on lathe or drilling machine, but better results can be obtained on
honing machines for production work.
Advantages of horning;
 Holes of any diameter or length can be finished.
 Relatively high productivity and low cost in comparison with other hole finishing methods.
 Removes considerable amounts of material and it is faster and more accurate than internal
grinding.
Disadvantages of horning:
 Honing cannot correct diametric or axial run-out of the bore.
 Not suitable for honing of tough non-ferrous metals due to glazing or clogging of the pores of the
abrasive sticks.
Applications: Honing is employed for gun barrels, bearing holes, valve guides, bushes, diesel engine
cylinder bore, hub holes in gears and gear boxes.
Super finishing:
Super finishing is a special technique for producing fine quality surface finish by using abrasive
stick. In super finishing, tool (abrasive stick) reciprocates with short strokes across the surface of the
rotating work piece. A controlled amount of pressure is applied to the abrasive stick to affect the surface
cutting. A mixture of kerosene and oil is used as cutting fluid in super finishing. Super finishing is applied
for external or internal surfaces which have been previously ground or precision turned. Parts made
form cast iron, steel or non-ferrous metals can be successfully super finished. Surface roughness obtained
in the super finishing is in the order of 0.05 to 0.2 pm.
Advantages:
 Due to large area of contact, minute imperfections left by grinding or other machining processes
are completely eliminated.
 Low working temperatures due to low heat generation.
Disadvantages:
 Macro-geometrical errors cannot be corrected by super-finishing.
Polishing:
Polishing is a process by using wheels or belts on which fine abrasive grit is fixed. The abrasives
used for polishing are aluminium oxide or silicon carbides. Aluminium oxide is used for steels whereas
silicon carbide is recommended for brass, copper etc. and aluminium silicate based cement is used as
bonding agent for polishing abrasives. It is performed for the purpose of removing minute scratches and
tool marks. In operation, the work is held against wheel and rotated to achieve the desired finish. The
process is not intended to control the size or shape of the work piece. The parts which are to be electro-
plated are usually polished. The parts with lustrous smooth appearance such as stainless steel utensils,
surgical instruments, and bright finish hand tools are finished by polishing.
Burnishing:
Burnishing is cold working process which involves the rubbing of a smooth hard object under
considerable pressure over the work surface. Burnishing produces deep lustre, not by abrasion (as in
polishing), but by compacting the surface through the steady pressure on the burnisher which smooth’s
down small irregularities and scratch marks. The term roll burnishing Is used when internal or external
cylindrical surfaces are burnished by using hard rollers. Burnishing improves wear resistance and
surface finish. Surface finish obtained in burnishing ranges from 0.2 to 0.4 pm. Burnishing is used for
finishing crank pins, piston rods, shock absorbers and gears. It improves fatigue strength of the elements.
Buffing:
Buffing is a finishing operation intended to impart a high lustre to the part usually it has been
polished. It is performed by buffing wheels charged with extremely fine abrasives. The wheel is rotated at
high speed against the work to achieve high finish and lustre on work surface.
Tumbling:
Tumbling is the process of revolving small work pieces in a barrel with abrasive and water. It is
intended to produce a high lustre or for removing the burrs. After tumbling, the parts must be thoroughly
washed and dried to prevent the formation of rust. Parts which have been finished to a high degree may
be tumbled.
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SURFACE FINISHING METHODS BY COATING

Finishing is the Last stage of operations in manufacture, finishing of metals is important, not only in making
articles look more attractive but also in providing protection against corrosion Each of the finishing process
described in previous chapter removes the material to smooth or to reduce the size of the part. A number of other
techniques are used to add material to the surface of a part. If the material is deposited as a liquid or gas / from a
liquid or gas medium, the process is known as coating. If the added material is a solid during deposition, the
process is known as cladding. Surface coating is one of the surface finishing processes which improves the quality
and appearance of surface of metallic objects.
Functions of surface coatings:

1. To improve the functional properties of work piece such as hardness, heat resistance, wear and corrosion
resistance.
2. To provide a decorative as well as fine finish to the metal surfaces.
3 To rebuilt worn or under sized parts.
The application of a coating lengthen the useful life of a part manufactured from a low-cost material and
makes the surface characteristics suitable for a given service conditions.
Methods of coating on metallic objects:

1 Electro-plating – (ie, Deposition by electrolysis process.)
2 Hot-dipping – (ie, Deposition by diffusion)
(i) Galvanising (zinc coating)
(ii) Tin coating
(iii) Parkerising (phosphate coating)
3. Anodising – (ie, producing oxide film on aluminium by electro-chemical reaction)
4. Metal spraying – (ie, coated with spray of molten metal)
(i) Wire method (ii) Powder method
ELECTRO-PLATING:
Electro-plating is the most popular means of applying metallic coatings In all electroplating processes, a
protective coating is applied by electrolysis action Typical coatings include copper, nickel, chromium, cadmium,
gold, silver, tin and zinc. A high accuracy of coating thickness can be readily obtained by controlling the voltage,
current density, time of deposition, composition and temperature of electrolyte/.
Principle:
The theory of electro-plating is based on the Faraday's Laws of electrolyte. The principle of electro-plating
is that when D C is passed through electrolyte (solution containing the metallic salts) causes the metallic elements
to separate from the solution and are migrated to the cathode (workpiece), forming a deposit of pure metal The
particles from the anode (plating metal) pass into the solution to maintain the concentration of electrolyte
Processes:
Before electro-plating the work surface must be finished to remove scratches and uneven surface, and
cleaned in a suitable cleaning solution to remove all grease, dirt and finally rinsed in clean water and dried.
The four essential elements of a electro-plating are the - cathode, anode, electrolyte, and direct current at
low voltage. The article to be plated is made cathode in an electrolytic cell and is connected to negative terminal of
D.C source. The pure metal which is being deposited is made anode and is connected to positive terminal of the
source. But chromium plating makes use of inert anode (antimonial lead) during the operation. The electrolyte is
conductive, containing molten salts of the depositing metal.
A direct current applied across the terminals causes the metal particles (+ ve ions) to leave the solution and
plate the cathode he. the particles migrate to the cathode (workpiece) forming a deposit of pure metal While anode
gradually dissolves and maintains the concentration of the metal in the electrolyte as it is deposited on the article
forming the cathode.
Plating is used for protecting metals and for improving their appearance Chromium plating is widely used
because of its appearance and its resistance to corrosion and wear. The details of coatings with their application
are given below. The electrolyte used in each case is indicated within the brackets.
Metal Coating Important Applications

Chromium (chronic add with some Decoration over nickel coatings, industrial applications
sulphuric acid) where wear is involved (e.g. gauges, taps, shafts etc)
Copper (copper sulphate) Under coat for plating nickel on steel or metal coloring
Nickel (nickel sulphate) Protection and decoration of steel
Silver (silver nitrate) Plating blade contacts and high quality cutlery
Tin (alkali or add solutions) Protection of steel from food acids
Zinc (cyanid solution or add zinc) Decoration and protection of steel
All metals can be electroplated to a maximum thickness of about 0.05 mm. Complex shapes may have
varying plating thickness. Plating imparts resistance to wear and corrosion, high electrical conductivity and better
reflectivity. The advantage of electroplating is that the parts to be coated may be simple or complex, and size is not
a limitation.
HOT-DIPPING:
Hot-dipping is the process of the base metal by dipping it in a molten metal bath. In hot dipping method, the
plating material is first healed to molten state Before hot-dipping the work must be properly cleaned, degreased,
pickled in dilute acid, rinsed and dried The object is then dipped into flux. The fluxing cleans the base metal and
prevents its oxidation as it enters the molten bath Fluxing also assist the formation of a good bond between the
coating and the base metal.
The following hot-dipping methods arc most commonly employed for coating iron and steel.
1. Galvanising 2. Tin coating 3. Parkerising
Galvanising:
Galvanising is the process of producing the zinc coating on iron or steel by hot-dipping i.e by immersion of
iron or steel articles in molten bath of zinc. For galvanising, the work surface must be cleaned by pickling and
fluxed by immersing the material in a solution of zinc chloride The flux prevents the oxidation of surface and assist
the formation of good bond between the coating and base metal After cleaning, the articles are dipped in a bath of
molten zinc maintained at about 450°C In galvanising the zinc coating results due to the tendency of the molten
zinc to diffuse into the base metal The time and temperature of dipping controls the character and thickness of
coating layer. The usual coating thickness of galvanised sheets various from 0 025 to 0 3 mm At higher
temperature diffusion rate is high; and long time in molten zinc increases the hardness and brittleness of coating
layer and causes subsequent difficulty in bending and forming of the final product.
Galvanising is the popular method of protecting steel sheets and formed products from atmospheric
corrosion The parts with galvanised coating of 0 01 mm will give a life of over 15 years. Galvanising is used for
outdoor hard ware, pipe, fence wire, nails, roofing, and a wide variety of sheet metal products
Tin Coating:
Tin coating is generally applied for sheet steel by hot - dipping Tin coated sheet, usually referred as tin
plate, is used for food package containers Tin coating on steel i e .tin plate provides good corrosion resistance as
long as coating is intact. For tin coating, the sheet steel is first cleaned and passed into bath of molten tin;
maintained at a temperature of 315°C A thin layer of coating about 0 0025 mm is produced on sheet steel. Tin
coating requires rigid quality control with critical surface inspection of the final coating. The tin coating is
employed for cans for food, kitchen utensils, copper wires and tubes used in refrigerator
Parkerising :
Parkerising is a process of providing phosphate coating on work surface by hot-dipping The phosphate
coating on iron and steel serves as a base for enamel and paints. For parkerising, the components must be
degreased, cleaned from rust and scale, and then dipped in a solution of manganese di-hydrogen phosphate
maintained at a temperature of 90°C The components are held for about 45 minutes During this period, the
solution decomposes and phosphate separates out and forms a thick layer on the steel components.
Phosphate coating provides reasonable corrosion protection. For good appearance and fine finish, it is
necessary to apply organic coatings. Phosphate coatings are widely employed on industrial appliances such as
automobiles, washing machines, refrigerators to prepare their surface to receive an organic finish coatings.
ANODISING:
Anodising is the process of producing oxide film on aluminium bars. It is used on aluminium both for
decoration and for protection of the base metal. The articles to be anodised are first cleaned properly. The film is
produced by electro-chemical reaction. The aluminium work piece is made anode, and cathode is made of either
lead or graphite For anodising, sulphuric acid is mostly used as electrolyte and the process may be carried with AC
or DC DC is generally employed as it generates a coating that has deeper penetration. As current is passed through
electrolyte, oxygen is liberated at the surface of the work piece (anode) and immediately combines with it to form
the oxide film The thickness of the oxide film increases with the current density and with lowering of the
temperature of the solution.
At an optimum temperature of 3°C, a very hard film of about 0.15mm thickness is produced. Above, 30°C no
anodising will take place because sulphuric acid will dissolve the oxide as soon as it is produced At 20°C, an oxide
film of 0.01 mm thickness is produced. Typical applications of amodising are aluminium furniture and utensils,
architectural shapes, automobile trim, picture frames, keys and sporting goods. Anodising surfaces also serves as a
good base for painting, especially for aluminium, which otherwise is difficult to paint.
METAL SPRAYING:
Metal spraying or metallising is used to furnish a protective coating on base metal. In this method the surface of
metal is coated with finely divided particles of metals For spraying, the surface is prepared and then the molten
metal is sprayed on the work surface. The work surface is finished with suitable techniques.
The following methods are used for metal spraying :
1. Wire method, and
2. Powder method
Wire Method:
In wire method, the coating material is in the form of wire. It is melted by means of oxy-acetylene flame.
The molten metal is fully atomised by using compressed air and atomised molten metal spray is projected on to a
prepared work surface to form adherent coating.
Metal is less expensive in wire form. It is more readily available and easily handled however it requires
gears to food the wire through the tip into the flame ns fast as it melts. With this method, the coating may be
applied successfully not only to metals but also to glass, wood, asbestos and certain plastics.
Powder Method:
In powder method, coating metal is in the powder form and is fed from the container through a rubber
hose to spray-gun. The powder-spray method uses an oxyacetylenc welding torch with modified tip which permits
the powdered metals to be sprayed through the flame A gas or compressed air convey the powder metal to the
torch tip Fuel gas can be acetylene or hydrogen.
In this case, coating metal is already in the atomized form and hence air is required to deposit the molten
metal on the surface being coated The equipment for powder method cost less It has no gears and is lighter to
handle. However, the cost of metal powders is high and metal in the powder form is not readily available. The
powder method is mostly used for hard-facing. Powders used for coatings are basically chromium-nickel
compositions to which boron or silicon and phosphorus are added. The coaling thickness ranges from 0 08 mm to
1.8 mm. If heavier deposits are required, a second pass is made. The coating forms a true bond, and can withstand
abrasion, erosion, corrosion and heat.
Applications of metal spraying; Metal spraying process is widely employed in industry because of its economy and
the rapidity with which the metal can be applied. Also there Is no distortion of the work and work surface is free
from internal stresses.
The applications of metal spraying

1 Application of aluminium and zinc on iron and steel surface to protect against corrosion.
2. Hard facing on soft material surfaces to resist wear and abrasion. Hard facing metals such as chrormiurn-nickel
base powders are readily available.
3 Copper is sprayed on non-metallic parts to render them solderable, to increase the conductivity of carbon
brushes for motors and generators, and also to increase thermal conductivity of metal surfaces.
The other applications of metal spraying include decorative films, and reflecting surfaces.
Surface preparation: Surface to be sprayed must be absolutely clean and sufficiently roughened to deposit
maximum amount of coating. The following methods are employed for surface preparation
1. Blasting and 2. Machining
The surface is prepared by blasting. Blasting with clean, sharp crushed steel grit or sharp silica sand against the
surface by compressed air will provide re-entrant angles for mechanical bonding.
The exceptionally strong bond is provided by machining grooves on the surface followed rolling down the ridges
with a knurling tool. This process is used for cylindrical surfaces.
ORGANIC COATINGS:
The following materials arc most widely used for organic coatings
1. Oil base paints 2. Lacquer 3. Varnishes 4. Enamels 5. Bituminous paints 6. Rubber base paints
Organic coatings are used to provide a decorative as well as a protective finish to the metal surface. The main
functions of organic coatings are.
 protection of material against corrosion and weathering
 improvement of visibility through hnnmeseenee and better reflectivity
 improvement of appearance
 achieve abrasion resistance

 provide electrical and thermal insulation
 sealing of porous castings and weldmates
Ingredients; Organic coatings always contains a vehicle, pigments and drier. Vehicle contains a binder that forms
the film and holds the pigments. It also contains thinner that assist in the application of coatings Driers are
catalysts that hardness the film after it has been applied Pigment performs number of functions in addition to their
effect on appearance and colour Thee improve the durability and strength of the film.
1. Oil base paints: This paint consists of linseed oil, pigments (while lead, red lend, Prussian blue) and thinner
(turpentine or other solvents). Coating film dries by evaporation of the solvent, but mainly by oxidation of the
vehicle (linseed oil) Oil base paint makes an excellent coaling for wood and in sometimes used on stool structure. It
completely covers the surface and a variety of colours can be obtained to enhance the appearance of the finished
product.
2. Lacquers: Lacquers are quick drying coatings The film formed by lacquer drives by evaporation of a solvent Most
lacquers are made of nitrocellulose dissolved in solvent, with pigment added for colour. However, modified
lacquers (Ethyle cellulose-for alkali resistance, cellulose acetate for heat and oil resistance) are developed to obtain
desired characteristics. The main drawback is the lower coverage and at least two coats are required The
durability of the film is poor as compared with other coatings
3. Varnish: Varnish is a resin (natural or synthetic) dissolved in oil (tung oil) and does not contain pigments. The
solvents such as turpentine art added to increase fluidity Sometimes drier is added during cooking. Varnish
produces hard film which can have toughness and durability suited for electrical equipment Varnish characteristics
can be modified by changing the ratio of resin and oil or by using other resins. The alkyd types of varnish modified
with silicone have good adherence to smooth surface. Their durability is very satisfactory, making them ideally
suited for vehicle finishes.
4. Enamels: Enamels arc varnishes in which pigments are added. This provides a coating that is harder and more
abrasion resistance than many of the other types of coatings. Thu enamel coating mostly used on automotive,
electrical and domestic appliances,
5. Bituminous paints: It Is a solvent-type materials in which coal tar is dissolved. The solvent evaporates, leaving a
bituminous film on the surfaces. Fillers are added when heavier coatings are needed Coal-tar paints have high
resistance to water, and due to low permeability they afford excellent protection for submerged items. However,
when exposed to the sun, the film buckles and cracks.
6. Rubber-base coatings: Rubber-base coatings consist of rubber dissolved in solvent. They are used for protection
reasons and decorative purpose. The important types of rubber-base coating are:
(a) Chlorinated rubber
(b) Neoprene
(c) Hypalon
Chlorinated rubber materials have high resistance to water They also resist acids, alkalies salts, alcohol,
and mineral oil. They are not resisting to oils and greases, and have limited range of colours. Chlorinated rubber
paints are used for protective reasons rather than decorative ones.
A neoprene coating consists of neoprene dissolved in a solvent. They dry by evaporation of the solvent,
leaving a film Neoprene coatings resist alkalies, many acids, alcohol, salts and oils.
Hypalon is a chlorosulfonated polyethylene. It provides resistance to oxidizing agent. It has good

temperature resistance from 60° to 150°C. They are available in many colours. Hypalon coatings are used for
protective reasons as well as decorative purposes.
FINISH SPECIFICATIONS
Many methods are used in writing finish specifications. The simplest specification such as Finish blue,
colour number 87 puts the greatest responsibility on foreman to select primer, thinner, coating thickness, and
methods of application The best specification must indicate the type of colour of the top coat, final grade of
appearance for a prepared standards, and optional primer surfaces for a compatible system.
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NON CONVENTIONAL MACHINING

INTRODUCTION:
In a conventional machining the cutting tool is in direct contact with the work piece, and removes
work piece material in the form of chips. The conventional machining processes such as turning, milling,
shaping, drilling and grinding are widely used efficiently. However, machining certain materials is
extremely difficult or even impossible by these processes Further more conventional machining do not
always suitable for machining certain parts which are used in aerospace and other technological fields
such as space research, nuclear industries, etc. There are situations where these processes are not
suitable for the following reasons.
 The hardness and strength is very high or material is two brittle.
 The work piece is flexible and delicate to withstand cutting force.
 The shape of the part is complex or diameter of hole is two small such as fuel - injection nozzle.
 Residual stresses in the work piece are undesirable or unacceptable
These requirements led to the development of modern machining processes and are effectively used for
machining hard and brittle materials by direct utilization of some form of energy. These processes are
generally
ELECTRICAL - DISCHARGE MACHINING:

Electrical discharge machining is also known as spark erosion. With this process soft or extremely
hard work pieces such as tungsten carbides can be machined.
Principle: In this process the metal is removed by intense heat of electric spark. The tool and the
work piece are submerged in dielectric fluid The spark- discharges (flow of a stream of electrons) are
created by maintaining sufficient potential difference between tool and work piece, separated by a
dielectric in a very small gap A large number of electrons emitted from tool (cathode) impinges on work
material (anode) and thus develop a very high temperature This temperature is sufficient to melt and
even vaporise a part of the metal. In this way metal is removed from the work piece.
EDM Equipment: The main components of EDM machine are.

1 Work table
2 Tool holder
3 Servo control system
4 Dielectric tank, and
5. D.C. power
Tool materials : EDM tools may be made from metal (copper, brass and aluminum) or graphite Tool
intending for finishing is made of silver-tungsten or copper-tungsten alloys. Cast iron can also be used as
tools for rough machining.
Dielectric fluid: The dielectric fluid commonly used is paraffin, kerosene and transformer oil. Dielectric
fluid should possess the following characteristics.
♦ must remain non conducting until critical voltage is reached.

♦ Latent heat of vaporization must be high
♦ must have low viscosity to flow easily.
The dielectric fluid has the following functions

♦ When ionised, it initiate discharge and conveys the spark to workpiece.
♦ It concentrates the energy to a very narrow region.
♦ It acts as a coolant and carries away eroded metal.
Process Description:
The work is placed in a tank, containing dielectric fluid, and the tool is mounted above the workpiece. The
constant gap between tool and workpiece is maintained by servo-system The dielectric fluid is circulated
through a pump at a pressure of 0 2 N/mm2 or less.
The work is connected to positive terminal to form anode and the tool is made cathode The current is
varied within a wide range from 0 5 to 400 amps, at 40-300 dc volts The circuit consists a capacitor in
parallel with spark gap At low voltage the dielectric acts as an insulator i e spark gap behaves as an open
circuit; as the voltage in the capacitor builds up; the fluid suffers dielectric breakdown and spark passes
through the gap. The spark generates localized heat which melts and vaporise the metal to form crater on
work surface The form of the tool is reproduced in the work piece The condenser discharges, the
deionizes of the dielectric reestablishes the insulating film, the current flow drops to zero and the
capacitor can be given charging again. The cycle is repeated at a frequency of 200-500000 Hz. Material
removal is not confined to the work piece, the tool is also wear out. Discharge is always takes place at the
closet gap, the electrode is fed continuously to cut the desired shape.
Application:
 Machining dies for forging, blanking, extrusion
 Drilling fine deep holes in fuel injector nozzle
 Machining hard alloys
 Removal of taps without damaging from the work piece.
Advantages:
 Hardness is never a limitation for machining
 High degree of surface finish can be obtained
 Any complicated shapes can be produced on the work piece.
 The process is readily adapted to automatic operation
 The process is compatible with CNC control system.
 EDM may be the only process available for machining some of the more difficult aerospace alloys.,
Disadvantages:
 The metal removal rate is low
 Only suitable for electrically conducting metals
 High heat produced at work surface may change the metallurgical properties (structive, grain size
etc)
 Excessive tool wear
 High specific power consumption.
CHEMICAL MACHINING:
Certain chemicals attack metals and etch them, thereby removing small amounts of materials from the
surface. Based on this, chemical machining was developed whereby the material is removed by using
chemical reagents or etchants. Chemical machining is used for engraving metals and hard stones,
production of printed circuit boards and microprocessor chips Parts can also be deburred by chemical
means.
Chemical machining may be classified as
1. Chemical milling, and
2 Chemical blanking
Chemical milling is used for producing shallow cavities on plates, sheets, forgings and extrusion.
Chomical blanking is similar to blanking of Sheet metal with the exception that the material Is removed
by chemical dissolution rather than by shearing.
Chemical Milling:
Chemical milling (CHM) involves removing the workpiece materials by chemicals.
Principle of chemical milling: In chemical milling the port to be machined is immersed in a chemical
etchant that removes the desired metal The areas not subjected to machining arc protected by the
materials resistant to reactive solution
Principle of Chemical Milling: In chemical milling the part to be machined is immersed in a chemical
etchant that removes the desired metal. The area not subjected to machining is protected by a matereial
resistant solution.
Process: In chemical milling the workpiece is first thoroughly cleaned. All oil and grease must be
completely removed and dried. Portions which are not to be machined are coated or covered with a
materials resistant to the chemicals These chemical resistant materials are called maskants and include
materials like vinyl plastics and neoprene rubber with a resin base After maskant coating is cured, the
maskant is cut and stripped off over the portions to be machined with the help of a scribing knife and a
template.
The workpiece is then dipped completely into a tank containing chemical etchant. This etchant attack
exposed surface and dissolve away the metal. After removing the material to a required depth, the
workpiece is removed from the bath, demasked and cleaned thoroughly
Advantages:
 The process is very efficient for making intricate or complex surface on very large work piece
 A number of parts or surfaces of a part may be machined at a time
 Can be used with almost any metal and alloy.
 Can be used for hardened materials.

 Does not leave any residual stress
Disadvantages:
 Safety in handling and storing chemicals is essential
 Needs adequate ventilation and good circulation of air
 Some surface damage may be occurs because of preferential etching and intergranular attack.
 Production rates are very slow compared with conventional machining or blanking.
 The process is limited to metals only
POWDER METALLURGY
Powder metallurgy Is n process of making components from metallic powders Initially, it was
used to replace castings for metals which were difficult to melt because of high melting point The
development of technique made it possible to produce a product economically, and today it occupies an
important place in the field of metal process The number of material products made by powder
metallurgy is increasing and includes tungsten filaments of lamps, contact points, self-lubricating
bearings and cemented carbides for cutting tools.
IMPORTANCE OF POWDER METALLURGY:

Powder metallurgy is useful in making parts that have irregular curves, or recesses that arc hard
to machine. It is suitable for high volume production with very little wastage of material Secondary
machining is virtually eliminated. Typical parts that can be made with this process include cams, ratchets,
sprockets, pawls, sintered bronze and iron bearings (impregnated with oil) and carbide tool , tips.
CHARACTERISTICS OF METAL POWDER:
The performance of metal powders during processing and the properties of powder metallurgy are
dependent upon the characteristics of the metal powders that arc used. Following arc the important
characteristics of metal powders
(a) Particle shape (b) Particle size (c) Particle size distribution (d) Flow rate (e) Compressibility
(f) Apparent density (g) Purity
(a) Particle Shape: The particle shape depends largely on the method of powder manufacture The
shape may be special nodular, irregular, angular, and dendritic. The particle shape influences the flow
characteristics of powders. Special particles have excellent sintering properties. However, irregular
shaped particles are good at green strength because they will inter look on computing
(b) Particle Size: The particle size influences the control of porosity, compressibility and amount of
shrinkage. It is determined by passing the powder through standard sieves or by microscopic
measurement
(c) Particle Size Distribution: It is specified in term of a sieve analysis, the amount of powder passing
through 100, 200 etc., mess sieves. Particle size distribution influences the packing of powder and its
behavior during molding and sintering,
(d) Flow Rate: It is the ability of powder to flow readily and confirm to the mould cavity. It determines
the rate of production and economy.
(c) Compressibility: It is defined as volume of initial powder (powder loosely filled in cavity) to the
volume of compact part. It depends on particle size, distribution and shape
(f) Apparent Density: It depends on particle size and is defined as the ratio of volume to weight of
loosely filled mixture.
(g) Purity: Metal powders should be free from impurities as the impurities reduce the life of dies and
effect sintering process. The oxides and the gaseous impurities can be removed from the part during
sintering by use of reducing atmosphere.
BASIC STEPS OF THE PROCESS:

The manufacturing of parts by powder metallurgy process involves the following steps:
(a) Manufacturing of metal powders
(b) Blending and mixing of powders
(c) Compacting
(d) Sintering
(e) Finishing operations
(a) Manufacturing of Metal Powders: There are various methods available for the production of powders,
depending upon the type and nature of metal. Some of the important processes are:
1 Atomization 2 Machining
3 Crushing and Milling 4. Reduction
5 Electrolytic Deposition 6. Shotting
7. Condensation
1 Atomization: In this method molten metal is forced through a small orifice and is disintegrated by a
powerful jet of compressed air, inert gas or water jet. These small particles are then allowed to solidify.
These ate generally spherical in shape Atomization is used mostly for low melting point metals / alloys
such as brass, bronze, zinc, tin, lead and aluminum powders,
2Machining:l this method first chips are produced by filing, turning, etc and subsequently pulverized by
crushing and milling. The powders produced by this method are coarse in size and irregular in shape
Hence, this method is used for special cases such as production of magnesium powder.
3. Crushing and Milling: These methods are used for brittle materials Jaw crushers, stamping mills, ball
milk are used to breakdown the metals by crushing and impact. In earlier stages of powder preparation
gyratory crushers are used to crush brittle metals. For fine powder, the metal particles arc fractured by
impact A ball mill is a horizontal barrel shaped container holding a quantity of balls which are free to
tumble about as the container rotates, crushes and abrade the powder particles that are introduced into
the container.
4. Reduction: Pure metal is obtained by reducing its oxide with a suitable reducing gas at an elevated
temperature (below the melting point) in a controlled furnace. The reduced product is then crushed and
milled to a powder. Sponge iron powder is produced this way
Fe304 + 4C = 3Fe + 4CO
Fe304 + 4CO = 3Fe + 4C02
Copper powder by
Ci2O + H2 = 2Cu + H2O
Tungsten, Molybdenum, Ni and Cobalt are made by the method.
5. Electrolytic Deposition: This method is commonly used for producing iron and copper powders. This
process is similar to electroplating. For making copper powder, copper plates are placed as anodes in the
tank of electrolyte, whereas the aluminium plates are placed into electrolyte to act as anode When D C.
current is passed through the electrolyte, the copper gets deposited on cathode. The cathode plates are
taken out from electrolyte tank and the deposited powder is scrapped off. The powder is washed, dried
and pulverised to produce powder of the desired grain size. The powder is further subjected to heat
treatment to remove work hardness effect. The cost of manufacturing is high.
6. Shotting: In this method, the molten metal is poured through a siever or orifice and is cooled by
dropping into water. This produces spherical particles of large size. This method is commonly used for
metals of law melting points.
7. Condensation: In this method, metals are boiled to produce metal vapours and then condensed to
obtain metal powders; this process is applied to volatile metals such as zinc, magnesium and cadmium
(b) BLENDING AND MIXING OF POWDERS:

Powder blending and mixing of the powders are essential for uniformity of the product Lubricants
are added to the blending of powders before mixing. The function of lubricant is to minimize the wear, to
reduce friction. Different powder in correct proportions are thoroughly mixed either wet or in a ball mill.
(c) COMPACTING:
The main purpose of compacting is converting loose powder into a green compact of accurate
shape and size. The following methods are adopted for compacting;
1. Pressing
2. Centrifugal compacting
3. Slip casting
4. Extrusion
5. Gravity sintering
6. Rolling
7 Isostatic moulding
8 Explosive moulding.
conventional die compaction The main drawback of this process is relatively slower process because it
takes larger lime for the fluid to be absorbed by the method
4. Extrusion : This method is employed to produce the components with high density Both cold and
hot extrusion processes are for compacting specific materials In cold extrusion, the metal powder is
mixed with binder and this mixture is compressed into billet. The binder is removed before or during
sintering. The billet is charged into a container and then forced through the die by means of ram The
cross-section of product depends on the opening of the die Cold extrusion process is used for cemented
carbide drills and cutters of ram. The cross-section of products depends on the opening of the die. Cold
extrusion process is used for cemented carbide drills and cutters.
In the hot extrusion, the powder is compacted into billet and is heated to extruding temperature in non-
oxidising atmosphere. The billet is placed in the container and extruded through a die This method is
used for refractive berium and nuclear solid materials.
5. Gravity Sintering : This process is used for making sheets for controlled porosity. In this process,
the powder is poured on ceremic tray to form a uniform layer and is then sintered up to 48 hours in
ammonia gas at high temperature. The sheets are then rolled to desired thickness.
Porous sheet of stainless steel are made by this process and popularly used for fitters.
6. Rolling : This method is used for making continuous
strips and rods having controlled porosity with uniform
is fed between two rolls which compress and interlock
tin’ powder particles »o form o sheet of sufficient Strength os shown in Fig 13 3. It then situated, rerolled
and heat treated if necessary The metals that can be rolled are Cu, Brass, Bronze, Ni, Stainless steel and
Monel.
7- Isostntic Moulding : In this method, metal powder is placed in an elastic mould which is subjected to
gas pressuie in the range of 65-650 Mpa from all sides After pressing, the compact is removed from gas
chamber If the fluid is used as press medium then it is called as hydrostatic pressing The advantages of
this method are: uniform strength in all directions, higher green compact strength and low equipment
cost This method is used for tungsten, molybdenum, niobium etc
8. Explosive Compacting : In this method, the pressure generated by an explosive is used to compact the
metal powder Metal powder is placed in water proof bags which are immersed in water container
cylinder of high wall thickness. Due to sudden deterioration of the charge at the end of the cylinder, the
pressure of the cylinder increase This pressure is used to press the metal powder to form omen compact.
D. Sintering
Sintering involves heating of (lie green compact at high temperatures in a controlled atmosphere
[reducing atmosphere which protects oxidation of metal powders) Sintering increases the bond between
the particles and therefore strengthens the powder metal compact Sintering temperature and time is
usually 0 6 to 0 8 times the melting point of the powder In ease of mixed powders of different melting
temperature, the sintering temperature will usually be above the melting point of one of the minor
constituent [Ex cobalt and cemented carbides) and other powders remain in solid state The important
factors governing sintering are temperature, time and atmosphere.
The sintering temperature and time of sintering for different metal powders are given below
Hot Pressing : Hot pressing Involves applying pressure and temperature simultaneously, so that the
compacting and sintering of the powder takes place at the same time in a die Its application is limited and
can be used for compacting Fe and Brass powders at much lower pressure than conventional pressing
and sintering operations
(c) Finishing Operations :

These arc secondary operations intended to provide dimensional tolerances, physical and better surface
finish They are
1 Sizing 2 Coining
3 Machining 4 Impregnation
5 Infiltration 6 Heat treatment
7 Plating
1 Sizing It is repressing the sintered component in the die to achieve the required accuracy.
2, Coining • It is repressing the sintered components in the die to increase density and to give
additional strength.
3 Machining Machining operation is carried out on sintered part to provide under cuts, holes,
threads etc which can not be removed on the part in the powder metallurgy process
4 Impregnation ; It is filling of oil, grease or other lubricants in a sintered component such as
bearing
5 Infiltration : It ts filling of pores of sintered product with molten metal to improve physical
properties
6 Heat Treatment The process of heating and cooling sintered parts are to improve (i) Wear
Resistance (ii) Grain Structure (iii) Strength
The following heat treatment processes are used to the parts made by powder metallurgy
1 Stress relieving 2 Carburising 3 Nitriding 4 Induction Hardening
7 Plating Plating is carried out in order to:
1 Import a pleasing appearance (Cr plating)
2 Protect from corrosion (Ni plating)
3 Improve electrical conductivity (Cu and Ag plating)
13.5 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR POWDER * METALLURGY PARTS :
In designing of powder metallurgy parts, fhe following are the some of tooling and pressing
considerations.
1 Side holes and side ways are very difficult to achieve during pressing and must be made by
secondary machining operations.
2 Threads, kurling and other similar shapes should not be formed compacting They should be
produced by machining
3 Abrupt changes in section thickness and narrow and deeper sections should be avoided as far as
practicable.
d It is recommended that sharp corners be avoided wherever possible Fillets with generous radii are
desirable
5 Chambers can be made.
6. Under cuts that are perp mdicular to the pressing direction can not be made, since they prevent
the part
ejection,
13.6 ADVANTAGES OF POWDER METALLURGY :
1 Although the cost of making powder is high there is no loss of material The components produced are
clean, bright and ready for use.
2. The greatest advantage o( this process is the control of
the composition of the product. Has the intrinsic ability to produce a brood spectrum of alloy
compositions, including composites, with unique properties
3 Components can be produced with good surface finish and close tolerance
4. High production rates.
5 Complex shapes can be produced
6. Wide range of properties such as density, porosity and particle size can be obtained for particular
applications.
7. There is usually no need for subsequent machining or finishing operations
8. This process facilitates mixing of both metallic and non- metallic powders to give products of
special characteristics.
9 Porous parts can be produced that could not be made any other way.
10 Impossible parts (cutting tool bits) can be produced.
11. Highly qualified or skilled labour is not required
12. Ability to optimize the complete process, from material selection through manufacturing, to
properties of the finished product.
2. The greatest advantage o( this process is the control of

the composition of the product. Has the intrinsic ability to produce a brood spectrum of alloy
compositions, including composites, with unique properties
3 Components can be produced with good surface finish and close tolerance
4. High production rates.
5 Complex shapes can be produced
6. Wide range of properties such as density, porosity and particle size can be obtained for particular
applications.
7. There is usually no need for subsequent machining or finishing operations
8. This process facilitates mixing of both metallic and non- metallic powders to give products of
special characteristics.
9 Porous parts can be produced that could not be made any other way.
10 Impossible parts (cutting tool bits) can be produced.

11. Highly qualified or skilled labour is not required
12. Ability to optimize the complete process, from material selection through manufacturing, to
properties of the finished product.
13.8 APPLICATIONS OF POWDER METALLURGY :
Powder metallurgy techniques are used for making large number of components. Some of the
applications are as follows
1. Self-Lubricating Bearing and Filters : Porous bronze bearings are made by mixing copper and tin
powder in correct proportions, cold pressed to the desired shape and then sintered These bearings soak
up considerable quantity’ of oil Hence dunng service, these bearings produce a constant supply of
lubricant to the surface due to capillary action These are used where lubricating is not possible Porous
Filters can be manufactured and are used to remove, undesirable materials from liquids and cases
2. Friction Materials : These are made by powder metallurgy Clutch liners and Brake bands are the
example of friction materials.
3. Gears and Pump Rotors : Gears and pump refer for automobile oil pumps are manufactured by
powder metallurgy. Iron powder is mixed with graphite, compacted under a pressure cf 40 kg/ cm and
sintered in an electric furnace with an atmosphere and hydrocarbon gas These are impregnated with oil
4. Refractoyr Materials r Metals with high melting points are termed as refractory mefals These
basically include four metals tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum and niobium.. Refractory metals as well as
therr alloys are manufactured by powder metallurgy1 The applications are not limited to lamp filaments
and heating elements, they also in dude space technology and the heavy metal used in radioactive
shielding.
5. Electrical Contacts and Electrodes : Electrical contacts and resistance welding electrodes are made
by powder metallurgy A combination of copper, silver and a refractory metal like tungsten, molybdenum
and nickel provides the required characteristics like wear resistant, refractory and electrical conductivity
6. Magnet Materials : Soft and permanent magnets are manufactured by this process. Soft magnets
arc made of iron, iron-silicon and iron-nickel alloys These are used in D.C motors, or generators as
armatures and in measuring instruments Permanent magnets known as Alnico which is a mixture of
nickel, aluminum, cobalt, copper and iron are manufactured by this technique
7. Cemented Carbides : These are very important products of powder metallurgy and find wide
applications as cutting tools, wire drawing dies and deep drawing dies. These consist of carbides of
tungsten, tantalum, titanium and molybdenum The actual proportions of various carbides depend upon
its applications, either cobalt or nickel is used as the bonding agent while sintering.
8. Diamond Impregnated Tools : These are made from a mixture of iron powder and diamond dust.
Diamond dust acts as a cutting medium and iron powder acts as the bond. These tools are used for
cutting porcelain and glass. These bits are welded or brazed to a steel shank.

Advanced Production and Process3

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Advanced Production Process 1 Module III

Different types of grinding wheels

CHARACTERISTICS OF GRINDING WHEEL

Marking for grinding wheel (Coding of a Grinding Wheel)

W: Symbol for Manufacturer’s Abrasive Type (Prefixed)

Cylindrical grinding machines are classified into two types:

Plain cylindrical grinding machines:

Universal cylindrical grinding machines:

INTERNAL GRINDING MACHINES:

CENTRELESS GRINDING MACHINES:

Grinding wheel: It is a conventional type straight grinding wheel. It is rotated in a clockwise

Types of centreless grinding:

Advantages of Centre less grinding:

♦ Work centre holes are not necessary.

INTERNAL CENTRELESS GRINDING MACHINES:

SURFACE GRINDING MACHINES:

SPECIAL GRINDING MACHINES:

SURFACE FINISHING METHODS BY COATING

Functions of surface coatings:

Methods of coating on metallic objects:

Metal Coating Important Applications

The applications of metal spraying

 achieve abrasion resistance

Hypalon is a chlorosulfonated polyethylene. It provides resistance to oxidizing agent. It has good

NON CONVENTIONAL MACHINING

ELECTRICAL - DISCHARGE MACHINING:

EDM Equipment: The main components of EDM machine are.

♦ must remain non conducting until critical voltage is reached.

The dielectric fluid has the following functions

Chemical milling (CHM) involves removing the workpiece materials by chemicals.

 Can be used for hardened materials.

IMPORTANCE OF POWDER METALLURGY:

BASIC STEPS OF THE PROCESS:

(b) BLENDING AND MIXING OF POWDERS:

6. Rolling : This method is used for making continuous

strips and rods having controlled porosity with uniform

is fed between two rolls which compress and interlock

(c) Finishing Operations :

2. The greatest advantage o( this process is the control of

10 Impossible parts (cutting tool bits) can be produced.

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