1

CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTION

S. No. Name of the Sub-title Page No.

1.0 Background and Motivation 3

1.1 Composite Materials 4

1.2 Classification of Composite Materials 6

1.2.1 Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) 6

1.2.2 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) 6

1.2.3 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) 6

1.3 Advantages of Composite Materials 7

1.4 Natural Fibers 8

1.4.1 Classification of Natural Fibers 8

1.5 Sisal Fiber 11

1.5.1 Properties of Sisal Fiber 13

1.5.2 Advantages of Sisal Fiber 14

1.5.3 Applications of Sisal Fiber 14

1.6 Jute Fiber 14

1.6.1 Properties of Jute Fiber 16

1.6.2 Advantages of Jute Fiber 17

1.6.3 Applications of Jute Fiber 18

1.7 Fiber Extraction 19

1.7.1 Retting Process 19

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1.7.2 Serration Process 20

1.8 Natural Fiber Composites 21

1.8.1 Advantages of Natural Fiber Composites 21

1.8.2 Applications of Natural Fiber Composites 22

1.9 Drilling 23

1.9.1 Drilling of Composite Materials 23

1.10 Need for the Present Study 25

1.11 Scope of the Present Study 26

1.12 Objectives 28

1.13 Research Methodology 29

1.14 Thesis Outline 31

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.0 BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION

Progress in the field of materials science and technology has given

birth to fascinating and wonderful materials called composites, which are

one of the most advanced and adaptable engineering materials.

Composites are heterogeneous in nature, created by the assembly of two

or more components with fillers or reinforcing fibers and a compactable

matrix [1]. Composite materials are replacing traditional materials,

because of their superior properties, such as high strength-to-weight

ratio, high mechanical strength and minimum thermal expansion. The

development of new materials is on the anvil, and the number is growing

day by day. Natural fiber reinforced polymer composites became more

attractive due to their high specific strength, lightweight,

biodegradability, and environment friendliness. Natural fiber mixed with

synthetic fiber-reinforced polymer composites are finding increased

applications. In this experimental study, sisal–jute–glass fiber reinforced

hybrid composites are developed and their mechanical properties, such

as tensile strength, flexural strength, and impact strength are evaluated.

Drilling is the frequently used machining process and is often the

final process used during the assembling of components. The most

common problems which occur while drilling composites are

delamination, matrix cracking, and fiber pull-out. The selection of the

proper drilling parameters is still a challenging task and is not easily

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modeled and optimized. The present work is aimed at studying and

modeling of drilling parameters in drilling hybrid composites. The drilling

experiments are carried out on an auto feed drilling machine, attached

with a multi component piezo-electric dynamometer. The performance in

the drilling of hybrid composites is evaluated, using performance

indicators such as thrust force, torque and delamination. The modeling

of the machining parameters is carried out using response surface

methodology (RSM), and the validation of the model is carried out using

the analysis of variance (ANOVA). The interfacial properties, internal

cracks, internal structure of the fractured surfaces, and the internal

surfaces of the drilled holes are examined with the help of scanning

electron microscopy (SEM).

1.1 COMPOSITE MATERIALS

A composite material can be defined as a combination of two or more

materials that results in better properties than those of the individual

components used alone. In contrast to metallic alloys, each material

retains its separate chemical, physical and mechanical properties.

The reinforcing phase of the composites provides the strength and

stiffness, to make them harder, stronger and stiffer than the matrix. The

reinforcement is usually in the form of a fiber or a particulate. The

length-to-diameter ratio is known as the aspect ratio, and can vary

greatly for fibers because the length of the fiber is much greater than its

diameter. Continuous fibers have high aspect ratios, while discontinuous

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fibers have low aspect ratios, and the orientation of continuous fiber

composites normally is perfect, while discontinuous fibers generally have

a random orientation. Continuous fiber composites are often made into

laminates by stacking single sheets of fibers in different orientations to

obtain the desired strength and stiffness properties with fiber volume as

high as 60 to 70%. In general, the smaller the diameter of the fiber, the

higher its strength, but the cost increases when the diameter becomes

smaller. In addition, smaller diameter fibers have greater flexibility, and

are more amenable to fabrication processes such as weaving or forming,

across the radius.

The continuous phase is the matrix, which is a polymer, metal or

ceramic. Polymers have low strength and stiffness, metals have

intermediate strength and stiffness but high ductility, and ceramics have

high strength and stiffness but are brittle. Discontinuous fiber

composites are normally random in alignment which drastically reduces

their strength and modulus. However, these composites are generally

much less costlier than continuous fiber composites. Therefore,

continuous fiber composites are used where higher strength and stiffness

are required even at a higher cost, and discontinuous fiber composites

are used where cost is the main driver and strength and stiffness are less

important.
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1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Composite materials are broadly classified into three categories as

given in Fig. 1.1.

Composites

Metal matrix Ceramic matrix Polymer matrix

composites (MMCs) composites (CMCs) composites (PMCs)

Fig.1.1: Classification of composite materials [2]

1.2.1 Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)

Metal matrix composites have many advantages over monolithic

metals, like higher specific modulus, higher specific strength, better

properties at elevated temperatures, and low coefficient of thermal

expansion. Because of these attributes metal matrix composites are

under consideration for a wide range of applications.

1.2.2 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)

One of the main objectives in producing ceramic matrix composites is

to increase the toughness. Naturally it is hoped and indeed often found,

that there is an improvement in the strength and stiffness of ceramic

matrix composites.

1.2.3 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)

In general, the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for

many structural applications, and their strength and stiffness are low

when compared to metals and ceramics. These problems are rectified by

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reinforcing different materials with polymers. The processing of polymer

matrix composites need not involve high pressure and high temperature.

Due to this reason, the usage of polymer matrix composites has grown

rapidly, and become popular for structural materials.

1.3 ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS [3]

 The tensile strength of composite materials is four to six times

greater than that of the conventional engineering materials.

 High stiffness and improved mechanical strength.

 30-40% lighter than any particular aluminium structures used for

the same operational purposes.

 Composites are less noisy materials while in operation and provide

lower vibration transmission than metals.

 Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to

fulfill the operational requirements.

 Long life offers excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resistance

and reduces maintenance.

 These materials have reduced life cycle cost when compared to

metallic materials.

 Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire

retardancy.

 Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily

incorporable integral decorative melamine are other characteristics

of composites.
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 Composite parts can eliminate joints and fasteners, providing part

simplification and integrated design compared to conventional

metallic parts.

1.4 NATURAL FIBERS

Natural fibers are renewable, cheap, completely or partially

recyclable, biodegradable, and environment friendly materials. This is a

new generation of reinforcements and supplements for polymer based

materials. Fibers from plants such as cotton, hemp, jute, sisal,

pineapple, ramie, bamboo, banana, etc., as well as wood and seeds of

flax are used as the reinforcement in polymer matrix composites. Their

availability, low density and price as well as satisfactory mechanical

properties, make them attractive alternative reinforcements to glass,

carbon and other manmade fibers.

1.4.1 Classification of Natural Fibers

Natural fibers are a class of hair-like material that are continuous

filaments, similar to pieces of thread which can be converted into

filaments. Natural fibers are grouped into different categories, based on

their origin, derivations of plant, animal and mineral types, and are

presented in Fig. 1.2. These sustainable and eco-efficient fibres have

been applied as substitutions for glass and other synthetic fibers in

diverse engineering applications. With the consideration of environmental

consciousness, natural fibres are biodegradable and hence, they can

alleviate the problem of massive solid wastes, and relieve the pressure of
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landfills, if they are used for replacing other non-degradable materials for

product development. Besides, according to their inherent properties,

natural fibres are flexible for processing, due to their being less

susceptible to machine tool damage and health hazards during

manufacture [4].
Fibers

Manmade Fibers Natural Fibers

Plant based Fibers Animal based Fibers Fibers from

(Cellulose or Lignocellulose) (Protein) Mineral

Asbestos
Brucite
Wool/ Silk Wollastonite
Wood Cane, Stalk Leaf Bast Seed Fruit Whiskers
Grass Hair
(Stem) Silicon carbide
&
Reed Wheat Tussah silk Boron carbide
Hard fibers Sisal Cotton Coir
Maize Mulberry silk
Soft Abaca Kapak Borassus
Barley Spider silk
Pineapple Ricehusk Sheep wool
Rey
Henequen Milkweed Goat hair
Oat
Palm Angora wool
Rice
Flax Cashmere
Bamboo
Harakeke Yak
Bagasse
Agave Horse hair
Esparto
Jute Bird‟s feather
Sabei
Flax Insect saliva
Phragmites
Communis Hemp
Canary grass Ramie
Elephant grass Kenaf
Snake Grass Banana
Soyabean

Fig. 1.2: Classification of natural fibers [5-8]

The natural fibers are the potential replacements for synthetic fibers

in the material selection process due to the ecological risks. Restricting

the emission of greenhouse effect causing gases such as CO2 into the
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atmosphere, and an increasing awareness of the finiteness of fossil

energy resources, lead to the development of new materials that are

entirely based on renewable resources. Factors like poor wettability, poor

bonding and degradation at the fiber/matrix interface, and damage of the

fiber during the manufacturing process, are the main causes for the

reduction of the composites strength [9]. The factors affecting fiber

quality at various stages of fiber production are presented in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Factors affecting quality of natural fiber [10]

Stage Factors affecting fiber quality

Plant growth Species of plant
stage Crop cultivation
Crop location
Fiber location in plant
Local climate
Harvesting Fiber ripeness, which affects:
stage – Cell wall thickness
– Coarseness of fibers
– Adherence between fiber and surrounding structure
Fiber Decortication process
extraction Type of retting method
stage
Supply stage Transportation conditions
Storage conditions
Age of fiber

The annual production of the major natural fibers in the world in

thousands of metric tonnes (TMT) is presented in Fig. 1.3. The data was
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adopted from the FAO-STAT information bulletin of the food and

agriculture organization from the United Nations. From the figure it can

be observed that, jute is the highest produced natural fiber in the world,

followed by flax and sisal.

Fig. 1.3: Annual world natural fiber production [11]

1.5 SISAL FIBER

Sisal fiber is obtained from the leaves of the plant Agave Sisalana,

which is grouped under the broad heading of “hard fibers”, among which

sisal is placed second to manila in durability and strength. In ancient

days, these fibers were prepared by hand, and used for making ropes,

carpets and clothing. It is one of the most extensively cultivated hard

fibers in the world, and accounts for half the total production of textile

fibers. The reason for this is the ease of cultivation of sisal plants, which

have short renewing times, and are fairly easy to grow in all kinds of

environments. A good sisal plant yields about 200 leaves and each leaf
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contains around 1000 fibers. The seasonal sisal plants are presented in

Fig. 1.4.

Rainy season plant Dry season plant

(Source : www.azizilife.com) (Source : yarnrhapsody.com)

Fig. 1.4: Sisal plants

Physically, each fiber cell is made up of the primary and secondary

cell wall and the lumen. The cell wall consists of several layers of febrile,

and the primary wall has a reticulated fibrillae structure. In the outer

secondary wall, which is located inside the primary wall, the fibrillae are

arranged in spirals with a spiral angle of 40° in relation to the

longitudinal axis of the cell. The fibrillae in the inner secondary wall of

the sisal fibers have a sharper slope of 18 to 25°. The thin, innermost,

tertiary wall has a parallel fibrillae structure and encloses the lumen.

The sisal leaf contains three types of fibers, such as mechanical

fibers, ribbon fibers and xylem fibers. The mechanical fibers are

extracted mostly from the periphery of the leaf. They are the most

commercially useful sisal fiber. Ribbon fibers occur in association with

the conducting tissues in the median line of the leaf [11]. The ribbon
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fibers are the longest fibers when compared to the mechanical fibers;

they can be easily split longitudinally during processing. Xylem fibers

have an irregular shape and occur opposite to the ribbon fibers. The SEM

micrographs of the sisal fibers are presented in Fig. 1.5, which shows the

surface features of the sisal fiber. In the case of microfibrillated sisal

fibers, the surface microfibrils and aggregates were well developed,

providing a larger contact area and introducing micro or nano-sized

reinforcement to the fiber surface as shown in Fig. 1.5(b).

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.5: SEM images of sisal fiber [12, 13]

1.5.1 Properties of Sisal fiber [14]

 Each leaf of a sisal plant has a composition of 4% fiber, 0.75%

cuticle, 8% other dry matter and 87.25% moisture.

 A normal leaf weighing about 600g yields about 3% by weight of

fiber.

 It has high tensile strength when compared to the other natural

fibers.
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 It has low specific weight resulting in a higher specific strength

and stiffness.

1.5.2 Advantages of Sisal Fiber [15]

 It is a renewable source, the production requires little energy and

CO2 is consumed andO2 is given back to the atmosphere.

 It has good thermal and acoustic insulating properties.

 The thickness of the fiber is high when compared to the other

natural fibers.

 It is a short natural fiber when compared to jute, and this confers

very good impact strength.

1.5.3 Applications of Sisal Fiber [15]

 Manufacturing of post-boxes, grain storage silos, bio-gas

containers, etc.

 Manufacturing of chairs, tables, showers, bath units, etc.

 Making of electric devices, electrical appliances, pipes, etc.

 Used in everyday applications, such as lampshades, suitcases,

helmets, etc.

 Used for making automobile interiors and panels.

1.6 JUTE FIBER

Jute is a long, soft, shiny fiber that can be spun into coarse and

strong threads. It is one of the cheapest natural fibers, and is composed

primarily of the plant materials cellulose, lignin and pectin. Both the

fiber and the plant are commonly called jute; it is a rainy season crop
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that grows best in the warm, humid climates in India, China, and

Bangladesh. Jute grows in alluvial soil, sand or loam soil, in areas with

high temperatures and an annual rainfall of over 1000mm, and can

survive in heavy flooding. Jute takes about three to four months after

planting, and the harvesting begins after it blooms, but before the

blossoms go to seed. People used to consume its leaves as vegetable and

also a household herbal remedy. When the plants are about 6feet tall,

they are thinned out and graded according to their colour, strength and

fiber length. The fiber is off white or brown in colour about 3 to 6feet

long, and pressed into bales for shipment to manufacturers. More than

97% of the world‟s jute is produced in Asia, including 65% in India and

28% in Bangladesh. Jute in India provides livelihood to around 4 million

farmers and 362 thousand workers [16].

The rapid depletion of forests, causing environmental pollution, has

forced people to use substitute material for wood. So on one hand, there

is a great demand for a wood substitute, and on the other hand, for jute

fiber due to its stiff competition in the traditional field with synthetic

fibers. These two counter facts make enough sense to develop jute

composite as a wood substitute. Both jute and wood have the same

chemical composition, as they are very close to each other. The main

difference between them is that, one is flexible and the other is rigid. The

very flexible nature of jute fiber allows the scientists to develop moulded

composites, and at the same time to eliminate the fabrication cost. The
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jute plantsare presented in Fig. 1.6 and the SEM images of the jute fiber

are presented in Fig. 1.7. From the SEM images it can be clearly seen

that the fiber has a coarse structure, and impurities are formed on the

surface of the fiber.

(Source:www.janata-sadat-jute.com) (Source:www.yarnrhapsody.com)

Fig. 1.6: Jute plants

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.7: SEM images of the jute fiber [17, 18]

1.6.1 Properties of Jute Fiber [19]

 Jute fiber is 100% biodegradable, recyclable and environment

friendly.

 Jute is a very good insulator of heat and electricity.

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 It is the second most important vegetable fiber in terms of usage,

global consumption, production and availability.

 Jute stem has a very high volume of cellulose that can be procured

within 4-6 months, and hence, it can also save the forest and meet

the cellulose and wood requirements of the world.

 Jute is a highly hygroscopic fiber.

 Its breaking elongation under normal condition is 1-1.2%.

 The chemical composition of the jute is different from that of linen,

cotton and a modified form of cellulose called lignocellulose.

 Jute is coloured yellow by iodine and sulphuric acid, and gives a

blue colour with dilute chromic acid in the presence of

hydrochloric acid.

 Jute is more sensitive to the action of chemicals than cotton or

linen.

1.6.2 Advantages of Jute Fiber [16]

 The mechanical properties of the jute fiber are the most favourable

for its load bearing applications.

 Jute is environment friendly and gives off a very low level of

harmful substances, and leaves no residues when incinerated.

 Renewable and inexpensive material.

 Resistant towards fracture, non-abrasive, has low density, high

strength, low elongation, no health hazard, and absorbs

atmospheric carbon dioxide to grow.

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 Due to its lower specific gravity, its specific properties are

favourable when compared to glass. The specific strength of the

jute fiber is 303MPa, about 22.5% that of glass and specific tensile

modulus is 38.4GPa which is about 35% more than that of glass.

 The choice of jute as a reinforcing fiber is mainly due to its good

specific mechanical properties, low cost and good availability.

 The long fiber and its flexibility also confer very good impact

strength.

 Its less abrasive nature augments the machinery life.

1.6.3 Applications of Jute Fiber [19]

 It has high tensile strength, low extensibility, and ensures better

breathability of fabrics. Therefore, jute is very suitable in

agricultural commodity bulk packaging.

 It is one of the most versatile natural fibers that have been used in

raw materials for packaging, textiles, non-textile, construction and

agricultural sectors.

 Jute is used mainly to make cloth for wrapping bales of raw cotton

and to make coarse cloth.

 The fibers are also woven into curtains, chair coverings, carpets,

floor rugs, hessian cloth etc.

 Jute butts, the coarse ends of the plants are used to make

inexpensive cloth.
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 Traditionally jute was used in making of hand bags, ornaments,

fancy articles, technical dresses etc.

1.7 FIBER EXTRACTION

There are many methods available to extract fibers from the

respective plants. Jute fibers are extracted from the bast or stem of the

jute plant by the retting process, and sisal fibers are extracted from the

leaves of the sisal plant by the serration process.

1.7.1 Retting Process

Jute fibers are extracted from the stem of the plant by a process

known as retting. Retting is a process in which the tied bundles of jute

stalks are taken to the tank by which the fiber gets loosened and

separated from the woody stalk. The separated plants are immersing

slowly in flowing or stagnant water for about 2 to 3 weeks for wetting.

The process of wetting makes fiber extraction easy from the jute stem, as

it softens and dissolves the sticky substances, especially pectin. During

retting, the disintegration of the tissues starts from the interior of the

stem and extends to the outside, liberating the fiber bundles from the

wood. The extraction of the fiber is done manually, followed by washing

and drying, to make the fibers suitable for commercial use. The dark

colour of the fibers can be removed by dipping them in tamarind water

for 15 to 20 minutes, and again washing them in clean water. The retting

process is depicted in Fig. 1.8.

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Source: jutecomm.gov.in

Fig. 1.8: Retting process

1.7.2 Serration Process

Sisal fibers are extracted from the leaves of the sisal plant by means

of the serration process. The fibers are extracted through the hand

extraction machine, composed of either serrated or non serrated knives.

The serration process is depicted in Fig. 1.9.

Source: www.chazz.squidoo.com, www.ecotouristadventure.wordpress.com

Fig. 1.9: Serration process

The peel is clamped between the wood plank and knife, and hand-

pulled through, removing the resinous material. A bunch of fibers are

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mounted or clamped on a stick to facilitate segregation. Each fiber is

separated according to the fiber size and grouped accordingly. To knot

the fiber, each fiber is separated and knotted to the end of another fiber

manually. The separation and knotting is repeated until the bunches of

unknotted fibers are finished, to form a long continuous strand. This

sisal fiber can be used for making a variety of products.

1.8 NATURAL FIBER COMPOSITES

In the last two decades, there has been a dramatic increase in the use

of natural fiber composites, and there is tremendous potential for future

growth in this area both in terms of their industrial applications and

research aspects. The reason for this is mainly to resist deforestation,

and there is demand of new materials due to the growth in the world‟s

population. The natural fiber composites are environment friendly and

biodegradable materials (somehow these composites are called „„Green

Composites‟‟). Recent studies in natural fiber composites offer significant

improvement in materials from renewable sources, with enhanced

support for global sustainability.

1.8.1 Advantages of Natural Fiber Composites [15]

 Producible with low investment at low cost, which makes the final

product an interesting one.

 Reduced wear of tooling, healthier working condition and no skin

irritation.
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 Thermal recycling is possible, while synthetic fibers cause

problems in combustion furnaces.

1.8.2 Applications of Natural Fiber Composites

Natural fiber composites can be very cost effective materials, and the

potential applications of these composites in various fields are

summarized in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Potential applications of natural fiber composites [20–22]

Application Examples
Automobile, Door panels, seat backs, headliners, dash boards, car
transportation door, pallets, trunk liners, decking, parcel shelves,
and aviation spare tyre covers, spare-wheel pan, automobile and
industry railway coach interior, boats, Interior paneling
Building and Railing, bridge, panels for partition and false ceiling,
construction partition boards, wall, floor, window and door frames,
industry mobile structures which can withstand the natural
calamities.
Household Tables, chairs, fencing elements, door panels, interior
and utility paneling, door-frame profiles, food trays, partitions,
products bath units, lampshades, suitcases, helmets
Electronics Mobile cases, laptops cases
appliances
Sports & Tennis racket, ball, bicycle, frames, snowboards
leisure goods
Storage Storage silos, post-boxes, fuel containers, etc.
devices
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1.9 DRILLING

Drilling is one of the most common machining operations and is an

economical way of removing large amounts of material to form a cavity.

Drilling allows making holes through boards, metals and other materials,

and is accomplished most typically by using a tool called “drill”. It is a

more cost effective process than other machining processes. Some of the

factors which influence the drilling operations are, spindle speed, feed

rate, drill geometry and work material properties.

1.9.1 Drilling of Composite Materials

With the advent of composite materials and their wide use in

structural applications, it has become necessary to drill holes into the

laminates, to facilitate bolting or riveting to the main load bearing

structure. In drilling, the chisel edge of the drill point pushes aside the

material at the centre as it penetrates into the hole [23]. The drilling of

the composite materials is significantly affected by the tendency of the

materials to delaminate under the action of the machining forces. To get

better quality characteristics of drilled composites, some problems were

encountered such as surface delamination, fiber/resin pull out,

delamination etc [24]. However, the experience acquired from metal

cutting cannot be directly transplanted to the fiber reinforced polymer

matrix without considering the peculiar material response to machining.

Some of these challenges faced during machining include the following

[25]:
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 Machining of composites makes the fibers discontinuous, which

affects the performance of the machined part.

 Dimensional deviations may occur during the drilling of composites

because these materials are anisotropic, and there is a variation in

the coefficients of thermal expansion.

 The cutting temperature should be within limits, since a higher

temperature can cause disintegration of the material or affect the

areas around the hole surface.

 Polymer based composites can have very low melting points. While

machining, if the temperature at the cutting point is higher than the

melting temperature of the polymer, the tool can has been clogged

when the resin melts.

 The thermal conductivity of the composites is very poor therefore,

heat can build up at the cutting edge of the tool during machining.

 The tool life might be reduced due to the abrasive nature of the

composites.

 The sequence in a lay-up composite and the orientation are very

important factors during machining. Knowing these might help to

reduce delamination at the edges during machining.

It is necessary to model the machining parameters in order to

improve the drilling performance. In this experimental work, the

modeling of the drilling parameters was carried out using RSM. Hence,
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there is a good scope for carrying out a detailed modeling and analysis

on the drilling of hybrid composites.

1.10 NEED FOR THE PRESENT STUDY

Now-a-days, natural fiber reinforced composite materials are

replacing the conventional, synthetic and manmade fiber reinforced

composites, due to their easy availability, biodegradability, eco-

friendliness, in-homogeneity, non-ductility, renewable nature and user-

friendly characteristics [26, 27, 31 and 32]. Glass fiber reinforced

composites have excellent mechanical properties, but the process of

disposal is very difficult due to severe environmental concerns, and the

process of recycling these composites has been a serious problem [28].

Though glass and other synthetic fiber reinforced composites possess

high strength, the field of their application is restricted, because of their

higher cost of production and low biodegradability [29]. The usage of

natural fiber based composite materials is growing during recent years,

due to their specific properties, positive environmental impact,

economical production and processing, and their safe handling and

working conditions [30, 31].

To take advantage of both sisal and jute fibers, they have been added

with glass fibers, conjointly to the matrix, so that an optimal, superior

but economical composite can be obtained. The hybrid effect of sisal and

jute fibers with glass fibers on the mechanical properties and machining

characteristics, have been discussed for reference.

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This research work focuses on the analysis of the mechanical

properties and drilling parameters. The glass, sisal and jute fiber

reinforced composites are fabricated by using the hand lay-up method,

and pressure is applied by using the compression moulding machine.

The mechanical properties of these hybrid composites have been

evaluated and the drilling is carried out in an auto feed drilling machine.

The drilling responses are evaluated with the help of the dynamometer

attached with the set up. The delamination of the drilled holes is

assessed by using the profile projector. The drilling parameters are

modeled by using response surface methodology (RSM), and the analysis

of variance (ANOVA) technique. The effect of the process parameters,

such as spindle speed, feed rate and drill diameter on the output

responses, such as thrust force, torque and delamination at the entry

and exit of the drill are studied. The fractured surfaces of the specimen

due to mechanical loading, and the inner surfaces of the drilled holes,

are assessed by using the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis.

1.11 SCOPE OF THE PRESENT STUDY

Natural fibers are readily available in many countries, and can be

obtained using locally available manpower and technology. The latest

development in the use of composites is to protect man against fire,

impact and a tendency to a more environment friendly design, leading to

the introduction of natural fibers in composite technology. These include

the process of extraction of fibers from the respective plants, then, the
 27

extracted fibers could be added alone with resin or in the hybrid

composites by substituting industrial fibers.

The evaluation of the mechanical properties of hybrid composites is to

find their potential applications; and the drilling of this composite

material is an important area of research, that is of current interest.

From the available literature, it has been known that the comprehensive

analysis of the mechanical testing and machining of hybrid composites is

still a valid problem, and hence, there is a need for carrying out such

studies on composite materials with different tool diameters and other

parameters. In this study, the mechanical properties and machining

characteristics of the hybrid composites are studied to understand the

strength of the materials and influence of process parameters.

It is necessary to model the drilling parameters in order to reduce the

torque and thrust force during drilling. The machining of composite

materials causes fiber pullout, particle fracture, excessive tool wear,

delamination, debonding at the fiber and matrix interface, and serious

environmental, health hazards. Therefore, the selection of the

reinforcement type, fiber orientation, tool type and material, and

machining parameters are very important, while machining composite

materials [33-35].

From the available literature it can be identified that the thrust force,

torque and delamination are very important parameters, and need to be

modeled. Many researchers assessed the above parameters by taking the

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cutting speed, feed rate, tool geometry, work piece geometry, fiber

orientation and fiber volume fraction as the input variables. In this work,

the modeling of machining parameters is carried out using response

surface methodology, and the analysis of the process parameters, by

using the analysis of variance.

1.12 OBJECTIVES

In recent years, there has been a tremendous growth in the field of

natural fiber reinforced composites, and lot of research work has been

carried out. From the literature review, it is understood that studies on

the mechanical properties and machining characteristics of hybrid

composites are necessary, and there is a good scope for carrying out a

detailed analysis on the modeling of the drilling parameters using

response surface methodology. This work aims to assess the mechanical

properties and drilling characteristics of the hybrid composites with the

following objectives:

 To evaluate the mechanical properties, such as tensile, flexural

and impact strengths of sisal-glass fiber reinforced polymer

(SGFRP) hybrid composites, jute-glass fiber reinforced polymer

(JGFRP) hybrid composites and sisal-jute-glass fiber reinforced

polymer (SJGFRP) hybrid composites.

 To examine the different input parameters, such as spindle speed,

feed rate and drill diameter that contribute to the responses.

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 To evaluate the machining characteristics such as torque, thrust

force and delamination at the drill entry and exit for different feed

rates, spindle speeds and drill diameters.

 To develop the machining model for describing the relationship

between independent machining variables and responses, using

response surface methodology.

 To evaluate the influence of the drilling parameters on the

machining of the hybrid natural fiber composites.

 To analyze the delamination in the drilling of hybrid natural fiber

composites with the help of the profile projector.

 To observe the interfacial properties of the fractured specimen due

to mechanical loading, and the internal structure of the drilled hole

surfaces, by using scanning electron microscopy(SEM).

1.13 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In the present study, the sisal, jute and glass fiber reinforced polymer

composites have been prepared by the hand lay-up method, with two

different fiber orientations of 0° and 45°. The tensile, flexural and impact

strengths of these composites have been evaluated. The influence of

various cutting parameters, such as spindle speed, feed rate and tool

diameter on the thrust force, torque and delamination are examined in

the drilling of composites. The scheme of the present research work is

presented in Fig.1.10.
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Studies on Mechanical and Machining Characteristics of Hybrid

Natural Fiber Composites

1. Sisal-Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (SGFRP) composites

2. Jute-Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (JGFRP) composites
3. Sisal-Jute-Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (SJGFRP)
composites

Mechanical properties Drilling

1. Tensile properties 1. Spindle speeds (1000, 2000, 3000 rpm)

2. Flexural properties 2. Feed rates (0.04, 0.06, 0.08 mm/rev)
3. Impact properties 3. Drill diameters (6, 9, 12 mm)

Observation

1. Tensile strength 1. Thrust force

2. Flexural strength 2. Torque
3. Impact strength 3. Delamination

Results and discussion

1. Analysis of mechanical properties
2. Analysis of thrust force, torque and delamination
3. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis
4. Modelling of drilling parameters using RSM and ANOVA
techniques

Conclusion

Fig. 1.10: The scheme of the research work

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1.14 THESIS OUTLINE

The thesis has been organized into seven chapters.

Chapter 1 Introduces composites, gives the classification of

composites, natural fibers, natural fiber based composites and their

properties, types of natural fibers, fiber extraction methods, factors

affecting fiber quality, advantages, disadvantages and potential

applications of natural fiber reinforced polymer composites.

Chapter 2 reviews the literature on the research topic, viz, the

mechanical properties and drilling characteristics of natural fiber

reinforced composites. The tensile, flexural, impact and other properties

of the composites are reviewed in detail. The influence of various process

parameters on thrust force, torque and delamination at the entry and

exit of the drill, in the drilling of composites is also reviewed. The various

modeling techniques used for modeling the drilling parameters,

developing a model, and predicting the influence of the control

parameters, are reviewed using the available literature.

Chapter 3 discusses the materials, and methodology for fabricating

composite samples, polyester resin and its properties, resin preparation,

fiber preparation and hybridization, reinforcement arrangement, layer

sequence, fiber content, processing of composite samples by the hand

lay-up method and specimen preparation according to ASTM standards.

Chapter 4 describes the equipment for the mechanical strength test,

experimental strength values, experimental set up for drilling, machining

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conditions and assignment of levels to the factors, experimental thrust

force, torque, delamination at the entry and exit of the drill in detail. The

equipment used for analyzing the morphological properties of the

fractured and drilled surfaces of the composite specimen is also

explained in this chapter.

Chapter 5 explains the importance of the models, developed by using

response surface methodology (RSM), the RSM models developed for

different hybrid composites, correlation plots for the output responses,

and comparison of the models with experimental results. The values

selected for the confirmation experiments and confirmation test plots are

also discussed in detail.

Chapter 6 deliberates the results obtained during the mechanical

strength testing, and the cutting forces during the drilling of composites.

The load vs. displacement curves, stress vs. strain curves and load

comparison of different composites, are analyzed and discussed

elaborately in this chapter. The mechanism of drilling, and the effect of

the drilling parameters on the output responses, has been analyzed from

the RSM surface plots and ANOVA. The fractured surfaces of the

specimen due to mechanical loading and the inner surfaces of the drilled

holes are examined, using the SEM images.

Chapter 7 summarizes the discussions and findings in the previous

chapters, and presents the experimental conclusions, recommendations,

and scope for further extensions.