Signal Classification - GATE Study Material

in PDF

In the previous articles, we discussed Time Signals & Signal Transformation as well
as some Standard Time Signals. In these free GATE 2018 Notes, we will discuss some
Signal Classification based on Properties. These study material are useful for
GATE EC and GATE EE as well as other exams like BARC, BSNL, DRDO, ISRO,
IES etc. These notes may also be downloaded in PDF so that your exam
preparation is made easy and you ace your exam.

You are strongly advised to go through previous articles before starting off with this
module.

Recommended Reading –

Laplace Transforms

Limits, Continuity & Differentiability

Mean Value Theorems

Differentiation

Partial Differentiation

Maxima and Minima

Methods of Integration & Standard Integrals

Vector Calculus

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 Vector Integration
Time Signals & Signal Transformation
Standard Time Signals

Signals are basically classified in the following categories:

1. Continuous & Discrete Time Signals

2. Deterministic & Non-Deterministic (Random) Signals
3. Left-Sided & Right-Sided Signals
4. Causal, Anti–Causal & Non-Causal Signals
5. Even & Odd Signals
6. Periodic & Non-Periodic Signals
7. Energy & Power Signal

Continuous & Discrete Time Signals

The variable of time is continuous in a continuous time signal. A speech signal as a
function of time is a continuous-time signal.

Continuous Time Signal

The variable of time is discrete. The weekly Dow Jones stock market index is an
example of discrete-time signal.

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 Discrete Time Signal

Deterministic & Non-Deterministic Signals

Signals which can be completely represented graphically or mathematically are known
as deterministic signals. This means that the nature and value of the signal can be
predicted at any point of time. For instance, x(t) = sin t and x(t) = t2
Signals which take random value i.e. signals whose occurrence is random in nature
are known as non-deterministic signals. These signals are quite irregular and we
cannot represent these signals mathematically.
Example: Noise generated in a communication channel and thermal noise generated
in an electrical circuit.

Left-Sided & Right-Sided Signal

Signal extending form -∞ to some finite point of time (let’s say t0) is known as left-
sided signal. Some of the examples of left sided signals are shown below.

Left − Sided Signal (1)

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 Left − Sided Signal (2)

Left − Sided Signal (3)

Signals extending from any finite point of time t0 to +∞ are known as right-sided
signals.
non zero ; t o < t < ∞
x(t) = {
o ; otherwise
Here are some examples:

Right − Sided Signal (1)

Right − Sided Signal (2)

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 Right − Sided Signal (3)

i. Signal extending from -∞ to +∞ is known as both-sided signal or everlasting signal.

ii. Signal that occupies finite time is time limited signal.

Causal, Anti-Causal and Non-Causal Signal

Signal which is defined only for non-negative value of time and zero for negative value
of time is known as causal signal.
x(t) = 0 ; for t < 0 → causal signal
x(t) = 0 ; for t > 0 → anti-causal signal
If x(t) is neither causal nor anti-causal then it will be non-causal.

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 Causal Signal

Anti − Causal Signal

Non − Causal Signal 1

Non − Causal Signal 2

Note:

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Every causal signal is right sided signal but every right sided signal need not be
causal signal. Every anti-causal signal is left sided signal but every left sided signal
need not be anti-causal signal.

Example 1:
Categorize the following signals according to causality and left sided or right sided
signals.

Solution:
i. Causal and right sided signal.
ii. Causal and right sided signal.
iii. Non–causal and right sided signal.
iv. Causal and time limited signal.
v. Anti–causal and left sided signal.
vi. Anti–causal and left sided signal.

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Even and Odd Signal
Also known as Symmetric and Anti-symmetric (asymmetric) signal. A signal x(t) will
be symmetric or even if it satisfies the following condition.
x(t) = x(–t) → condition for symmetry
For example, x(t) = cos(t)
x(–t) = cos(–t) = cost = x(t)
A signal x(t) is also considered symmetrical about the vertical axis then it is also
termed as an even signal.

𝐴𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 (𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐) 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙.

A signal x(t) will be anti-symmetric or odd if it follows the following condition:

x(–t) = –x(t) → condition for anti-symmetry.
For example, x(t) = sin t
x(t) =sin(–t) = –sin t = –x(t)
Hence, x(t) = sin t is odd signal.
We can also define x(t) as odd signal if it is symmetric about the origin.
Above conditions are applied to both continuous time and discrete time signals.

𝐴𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 (𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖 − 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐) 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙.

Even and odd signals are mutually exclusive. Therefore, any signal can be
represented as a sum of even and odd signals.
i.e. x(t) = xe (t) + xo (t) ------1

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xe (t) = even part of x(t)
⇒xe (–t) = xe (t)
xo (t) = odd part of x(t)
⇒ x0 (–t) = –x0 (t)
x(–t) = xe(–t) + x0(–t)
⇒ x(-t) = xe(t) – x0(–t) ------2
From equation 1 and 2
1
xe (t) = [x(t) + x(−t)]
2
1
x0 (t) = [x(t) − x(−t)]
2

Properties:
i. Even + Even = Even
ii. Odd + Odd = Odd
iii. Even + Odd = neither even nor odd
iv. Even × Even = Even
v. Even × Odd = Odd
vi. Odd × Odd = Even
vii. ∫T odd function = 0
viii. ∫T even function = 2∫T/2 even function

Example 2:
Determine even and odd parts of the following signals–
1) δ(t) 2) u(t) 3) sgn(t) 4) e-at u(t)
Solution:
1) x(t) = δ(t)
Since δ(–t) = δ(t)
Therefore δ(t) is an even signal.
Even part xe(t) = δ(t) and odd part x0(t)=0
2) x(t) = u(t)
Since u(–t) ≠ u(t) and u(–t) ≠ –u(t)

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 Therefore, u(t) is neither even nor odd signal.
u(t) = xe(t) + xo(t)
1 1
xe (t) = 2 [u(t) + u(−t)] = 2
1 1
xo (t) = 2 [u(t) − u(−t)] = sgn(t)
2

3) x(t) = sgn(t)
sgn(t) = u(t) – u(–t)
sgn(–t)= u(–t)– u(t)= –sgn(t)
sgn(−t) = −sgn(t)
sgn(t) is an odd signal.
Therefore, xe(t) = 0
xo(t) = sgn(t)

sgn(t) is symmetric about the origin.

Therefore, sgn(t) is an odd signal.
4. x(t) = e−at u(t)
x(t) = e−at u(t)
1
xe (t) = 2 [e−at u(t) + eat u(−t)]
1
xo (t) = 2 [e−at u(t) − eat u(−t)]

Important Points:
i. u (t) + u(-t)=1 and u (t)–u(–t) = sgn(t)
𝐢𝐢. u(t) = 12[1 + sgn(t)]

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Periodic and Non Periodic Signal
A signal which repeats itself after a fixed time period is known as periodic signal and
the fixed time period after which it repeats itself is known as period of the signal and
the minimum value of the period is known as fundamental time period of the signal.

Continuous Time Periodic & Non-Periodic Signal-

A signal x(t) is said to be periodic if x(t) = x(t + T) ; ∀t

Minimum value of T is known as fundamental period/periodicity of x(t).

x(t) = x(t + kT); ∀ t, k ϵ z.

If a signal does not satisfy the above condition, then that signal is known as non–
periodic or aperiodic signal.

For example: x(t) = sin(t) is a periodic signal

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑡)

Now, consider x(t) = 1+ sin(t)

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 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡)

Another important point to note here is that addition or subtraction of a DC signal

does not affect the periodicity of the signal. So, the time period for the second signal is
the same as the first.

The condition of periodicity is satisfied if and only if the signal repeats for every t 0 ϵ
{kT ; kϵz}, i.e. every periodic signal is everlasting signal. Fundamental period of non–
periodic signal is undefined or infinite. For every periodic signal fundamental period
is finite. For continuous time periodic signals, fundamental period can be both rational
number and irrational number.

Example 3:
Find period of x(t) = sin(√2t + 600 )
Solution:
Here, ω = √2 rad/sec
2π 2π
Fundamental period, T0 = = sec
ω √2

Example 4:
Test the periodicity of the following signal
1) sin(ωt + ϕ) 2) cos(ωt + ϕ). u(t) 3) e-j(at+b)
Solution:
1) x(t) = sin (ωt + ϕ)
x(t+T) = sin (ω(t+T) + ϕ) = sin (ωt + ϕ +ωT)
Since sin(t + 2π k) = sin(t) ; k =o,1,2….
Therefore sin(ωt + ϕ +ωT) = sin (ωt + ϕ ) if ωT = 2πk
2πk
⇒T= ω
2π
Fundamental period To = at k = 1
ω

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 2π
Therefore sin(ωt + ϕ ) is a periodic signal with fundamental period To = ω

2) cos (ωt + ϕ) u(t)

x(t) = cos(ωt +ϕ) u(t)
x(t + T) = cos(ω(t + T) + ϕ ) u(t + T)
Since u(t+T) ≠ u(t) ∀ TϵR
Therefore cos(ωt + ϕ +ωT) u(t + T) ≠ cos(ωt + ϕ) u(t)
Hence cos(ωt + ϕ)u(t) is not a periodic signal.
M.II: x(t)=cos(wt + ϕ) u(t)
Since x(t) is not an everlasting signal.
Therefore, x(t) will be non-periodic signal.
3) x(t) = e-j(at+b)
x(t+T) = e-j(a(t+T)+b)
= e−j (at+b) . e−j aT
x(t + T) = x(t) ; If e−j aT = 1 = e−j 2πk
⇒ aT = ± 2π k
2πk
⇒T = ± a
2π
Therefore, x(t) = e−j (at+b) is a periodic signal with fundamental period T0 = ± a

Procedure to Find Periodicity of Signals Containing Combination of Two

or More Frequency Components
If we have a combination of two or more signals, then we can find the fundamental
period of the combination through any of the two methods given below.

(i) From fundamental period

(ii) From fundamental frequency

Method1- (From Fundamental Period)

Step 1. Find the fundamental period of each signal component
i.e. T1, T2, T3,……
T T T
𝐒𝐭𝐞𝐩 𝟐. Find all the ratios. T1 , T2 , T3 , − − − −
2 3 4

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Step 3. If all the above ratios are rational then the signal is periodic otherwise signal
is aperiodic.
𝐒𝐭𝐞𝐩 𝟒. If signal is periodic then the fundamental period is given by
L.C.M of numerators of T1 ,T2 ,T3
T0 = G.C.D of denominators of T1 ,T2 ,T3

Method 2- (From Fundamental Frequencies)

Step 1. Find the fundamental frequency of each signal.
i.e. ω1, ω2, ω3, ……
Step 2. Find all the ratio.
ω1 ω2 ω3
i. e. , ,
ω2 ω3 ω4

Step 3. If all the above ratios are rational then the signal is periodic otherwise signal
is non–periodic.
Step 4. If signal is periodic then the fundamental frequency is given by.
G.C.D of numerators of ω1 ,ω2 ,ω3
w0 = L.C.M of denominators of ω1 ,ω2 ,ω3

And fundamental period is given by

2π
T0 = ω
0

Example 5:
5π 2π
Find fundamental period of x(t) = 2sin ( 2 t) + 5 cos ( 3 t + 600 )

Solution:
5 2
𝐌𝐞𝐭𝐡𝐨𝐝 𝟏: ω1 = 2 π, ω2 = 3 π
ω1 15 G.C.D.of {5π,2π} π
= = rational, ω0 = =
ω2 4 L.C.M.of {2,3} 6

T0 = 2π⁄ω0 = 2π⁄(π⁄6) = 12

Method 2:
2π
Fundamental time period of sine and cosine = ω
2π 2π
T1 = = 4/5, T2 = (2π⁄3)
=3
(5⁄2)

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T1 4
= = rational
T1 15

⇒ x(t) is periodic.
L.C.M.of {3,4} 12
Fundamental period of x(t) = T0 = =
G.C.D.of {5,1} 1

T0 = 12

Example 6:
π
Find fundamental period of x(t) = 5sin(√2 t + 300 ) − 7 cos ( 2 t + 200 )

Solution:
Method 1:
2π 2π
T1 = , T2 = π⁄ =4
√2 2
T1 2π π
= = = irrational
T2 √2 ×4 2√2
T1
Since is irrational, therefore x(t) is non − periodic
T2

Method 2:
π
ω1 = √2, ω2 = 2
ω1 √2 2√2
= π⁄ =
ω2 2 π
ω1
Since is irrational, therefore x(t) is non – periodic
ω2

Example 7:
Find fundamental period of x(t) = sin t + cos πt
Solution:
ω1 = 1, ω2 = π
ω1 1
= = irrational
ω2 π

⇒ x(t) is non-periodic

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Energy and Power Signal
A signal x(t) is said to be energy signal if its energy is finite and power is zero, i.e.
∞
0 < E < ∞ and P = 0 → conditions for energy signals or 0 < ∫−∞[x(t)]2 dt < ∞
1 ∞
and lim T ∫−∞|x(t)|2 dt = 0
T→∞

A signal x(t) is said to be power signal if its power is finite and energy is infinite.
∞ 1 –T/2
i. e. E = ∞ and 0 < P < ∞, or ∫−∞[x(t)]2 dt = 0 and lim T ∫–T/2 [x(t)]2 dt = 0
T→∞

i. Power signals and energy signals are mutually exclusive.

ii. The signal for which both the power and energy tends to infinite is neither power
P= ∞
nor energy signal, i. e. ⇒ neither energy nor power signal
E= ∞
Energy for 1 cycle W
𝐢𝐢𝐢. Power = or P = for uniform energy
Time t
dW
𝐢𝐯. p = ; for non uniform W.
dt
dW dq d(qv) dq
𝐯. p = . dt = . dt = v. i
dq dq

For DC electrical signal -

𝐷𝐶 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙

V2dc 2
Pdc = Vdc . Idc = = Idc R
R

For AC electrical signals-

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 𝐴𝐶 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠

v2 (t)
p(t) = ν(t). i(t), Pac = v(t). i(t) = R
1 T/2
Time averaged power Pavg = T ∫–T/2 p(t)dt

Or
1 T/2 v2 (t) 1 T/2 2
Pavg = T ∫–T/2 dt = ∫ i (t)R dt
R T –T/2

For normalized time averaged power we take R = 1 (normalized)

1 T/2
Pavg = T ∫–T/2 v 2 (t)dt
1 T/2
= T ∫–T/2 i2 (t)dt
1 T/2
Therefore, Pavg = T ∫–T/2 x 2 (t)dt for real valued signal x(t)
1 T
And, Pavg = T ∫–T/2|x(t)|2 dt for complex valued signal x(t)

𝑁𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙

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 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙

x(t) = lim y(t)

T→∞

Non periodic signal = lim periodic signal

T→∞

Therefore, non–periodic signals can viewed a special case of periodic signal in which
T→∞
Power of periodic signals
1 T/2
P = T ∫–T/2 x 2 (t)dt

Power of non-periodic signals

T/2
P = lim T1 ∫–T/2 x 2 (t)dt
T→∞

RMS value/effective value – DC equivalent of the AC signal is known as RMS value

i.e. Pdc = Pac
V2dc T 2
= T1 ∫2Tν R(t)dt
R –
2

2 T/2 2
Vdc = T1 ∫–T/2 ν (t)dt

T/2
vdc = √T1 ∫–T/2 ν2 (t) dt = νrms

For any signal x(t)

1
xrms (t) = √T ∫ x 2 (t)dt = √Pavg

RMS value depends on the nature of the signal.

For example – rms value of sine and cosine signals is –
maximum value of signal
rms =
√2

Example 8:
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Find power of A sin(ωt+θ).
Solution:
x(t)= A sin(ωt + θ)
T/2 2 T/2 1−cos(2ωt+2θ)
Pavg = T1 ∫−T/2 A2 sin2 (ωt+θ)dt =
A
T
∫−T/2 2
dt
A2 T/2 T/2
= [t | − ∫−T/2 cos(2wt + 2θ)dt]
2T −T/2
A2 A2
= 2T × T = 2
A2
⇒ Pavg = 2

2
Rms value = √Pavg = √A2 = √2
A

Note:
i. Signal power is independent of frequency and phase. It depends only on amplitude.
ii. Total Power of any signal is equal to sum of the powers associated with individual
signals if the individual signals are orthogonal to each other.

Example 9:
Find the power and energy of the following signals.
1)A 2) Au(t) 3) Ar(t)
Solution:
1) x(t) = A
∞
Energy of signal x(t) = E = ∫−∞ x 2 (t)dt
∞
E = ∫−∞ A2 dt = A2 [t|∞
−∞ = ∞

T/2
Power of signal x(t) = P = lim T1 ∫−T/2 x 2 (t)dt
T→∞
T/2 T/2
P= lim T1 ∫−T/2 A2 dt = lim T1 × A2 [t]|−T/2
T→∞ T→∞

= lim T1 × A2 × T = A2
T→∞

P = A2
Hence, a DC signal is a power signal

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2) x(t) = A u(t)
∞ 2 ∞ 2
E = ∫−∞(A u(t)) dt = A2 ∫0 (1) dt = ∞ ⇒ 𝐄 = ∞
1 T/2 2
P = lim T ∫−T/2
(A u(t))2 dt= lim AT ∫0T/2(1)2 dt
T→∞
T→∞
T
A2 2
P = lim [t|0 = lim AT ×
2 T
T→∞ T T→∞ 2

⇒ A unit step signal is a power signal.

3) x(t) = Ar(t) = Atu(t)
∞ ∞ 3 ∞
E = ∫−∞(Atu(t))2 dt = A2 ∫0 t 2 dt = A2 dt = A2 t3 |
0
E=∞
T/2
P = lim 1 T/2
T ∫−T/2
(Atu(t)2 dt= lim T1 ∫0 A2 t 2 dt
T→∞ T→∞
T
2 3 2 3
= lim AT [t3 ]2 = lim AT × T24
T→∞ 0 T→∞

P=∞
Therefore, x(t) = Ar(t) is neither energy nor power signal.

Note:
i. Every energy signal is non–periodic but every non-periodic signal need not be an
energy signal.
ii. Every periodic signal is power signal but every power signal need not be periodic.
iii. If any signal is neither energy nor power signal then it is always non–periodic.
iv. For every energy signal, amplitude of the signal tends to zero as |t| → ∞
v. If the signals have the common limits then the total energy is not same as the sum
of the energies of individual signals.

Example 10:
Find energy of the signal x(t) = e-2t u(t) + e-3t u(t)
Solution:
Let’s consider
x1 (t) = e−2t u(t)
x2 (t) = e−3t u(t)
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 ∞ 2 ∞ 1
E1 = ∫−∞(e−2t u(t)) dt = ∫0 e−4t dt = − 14e−4t |∞
0 = −4(e
1 −∞
− e0 ) = 4
∞ 2 ∞
E2 = ∫−∞(e−3t u(t)) dt = ∫0 e−6t dt = − 16e−6t |∞
0
1
= −16(e−∞ − e0 ) = 6
∞ 2
E = ∫−∞(e−2t u(t) + e−3t u(t)) dt
∞ ∞ ∞
E = ∫−∞ e−4t u(t) dt + ∫−∞ e−6t u(t) dt + 2 ∫−∞ e−2t e−3t u(t)dt
∞ ∞ ∞
= ∫0 e−4t dt + ∫0 e−6t dt + 2 ∫0 e−5t dt
1 ∞ 1 ∞ 2 ∞
= [e−4t |0 + [e−4t |0 + [e−5t |0
−4 −6 −5
1 1 2 37
= 4 + 6 + 5 = 60
1 1 5
E1 + E2 = 4 + 6 = 12

E ≠ E1 + E2

Note:
i. Signal energy is independent of location. If depends only height of the signal and
width of the signal.
ii. Signal energy is directly proportional to width of the signal and square of the
amplitude of signal.

Example 11:
If energy of x(t) is E then find the energy of the following signals in terms of E.
1) x(t-T) 2) x(-t) 3) x(T-t) 4) x(4t)
t
5) x (− 5) 6)10x(−t/3) 7) 2x(2t + 5)

Solution:
1) Since signal energy is independent of location of the signal and x(t-T) is shifted
version of signal x(t).
Therefore energy of x(t-T) will be same as energy of x(t)
i.e. E1 = E
2) x2 (t) = x(-t)
x2 (t) is inverted version of x(t)
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And by time reversal, height and width of the signal are not changed.
Therefore, signal energy will remain same / unchanged.
i.e. E2 = E
3) x3 (t) = x(T-t)
E3 = E (reason – refer to 1 and 2)
4) x4 (t) = x(4t)
x4 (t) = x(4t) is compressed version of signal x(t) by a factor 4.
b
Hence, width of the signal x(4t) b’ = 4
E
Therefore, E4 =
4

5) x5 (t) = x(-t/5) → expanded and reversed signal

b’ = 5b, E ∝ b
E5 = 5E
6) x6 (t) = 10x(-t/3) → Scaled, expanded and reversed signal
New amplitude A’ = 10 A, and new width b’ = 3b
E ∝ A2 and E ∝ b
E6 = 102 × 3E ⇒ E6 = 300E
7) x7 (t) = 2x(2t+5)
b
A’ = 2A, b’ = 2

E ∝ A2 , E ∝ b
b
E7 = (2)2 × 2 E = 2E

With this, we conclude the basics of signal. In next article, we will start with the
systems.

Do you like this article on Signal Classification? Let us know in the comments. You
may also like to learn –

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