CH.

22/23 WARM-UP

1. What is the evidence for evolution?

2. (Review) What are the 3 ways that sexual

reproduction produces genetic diversity?

3. What is 1 thing you are grateful for today?

 CH. 23 WARM-UP

1. In a population of 200 mice, 98 are homozygous

dominant for brown coat color (BB), 84 are
heterozygous (Bb), and 18 are homozygous (bb).
a) The allele frequencies of this population are:
B allele: ___ b allele: ___
b) The genotype frequencies are:
BB: ___ Bb: ___ bb: ___
2. Use the above info to determine the genotype
frequencies of the next generation:
B (p): ___ b (q): ___
BB (p2): ___ Bb (2pq): ___
bb (q2): ___
 CH. 23 WARM-UP

Use the following information to help you answer the question

below:
Population = 1000 people
AA = 160 Aa = 480 aa = 360
1. What are the genotype ratios? Allele frequencies?

2. Use directional, stabilizing or disruptive selection to answer

the following:
a) The mice in the Arizona desert have either dark or light
fur.
b) Birds produce 4-5 eggs per clutch
c) Average human baby weighs 7 lbs.
d) Darwin's finches and beak size during drought
THE EVOLUTION OF
POPULATIONS
CHAPTER 23
 WHAT YOU MUST KNOW:

• How mutation and sexual reproduction

each produce genetic variation.
• The conditions for Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium.
• How to use the Hardy-Weinburg equation to
calculate allelic frequencies and to test
whether a population is evolving.
SMALLEST UNIT OF EVOLUTION

Microevolution: change in the allele

frequencies of a population over generations
• Darwin did not know how
organisms passed traits to
offspring
• 1866 - Mendel published his
paper on genetics
• Mendelian genetics supports
Darwin’s theory  Evolution is
based on genetic variation
SOURCES OF GENETIC VARIATION

• Point mutations: changes in one base (eg.

sickle cell)
• Chromosomal mutations: delete, duplicate,
disrupt, rearrange  usually harmful
• Sexual recombination: contributes to most
of genetic variation in a population
1. Crossing Over (Meiosis – Prophase I)
2. Independent Assortment of
Chromosomes (during meiosis)
3. Random Fertilization (sperm + egg)
Population genetics: study of how
populations change genetically over
time

Population: group of individuals that

live in the same area and interbreed,
producing fertile offspring
• Gene pool: all of the alleles for all genes in
all the members of the population
• Diploid species: 2 alleles for a gene
(homozygous/heterozygous)
• Fixed allele: all members of a population
only have 1 allele for a particular trait
• The more fixed alleles a population has,
the LOWER the species’ diversity
 HARDY-WEINBERG THEORM

Hardy-Weinberg Theorm: The allele and

genotype frequencies of a population will
remain constant from generation to
generation
…UNLESS they are acted upon by forces
other than Mendelian segregation and
recombination of alleles
Equilibrium = allele and genotype
frequencies remain constant
CONDITIONS FOR HARDY-WEINBERG
EQUILIBRIUM

1. No mutations.
2. Random mating.
3. No natural selection.
4. Extremely large population size.
5. No gene flow.

If at least one of these conditions is NOT met,

then the population is EVOLVING!
 Hardy-Weinberg Principle
Allele Frequencies:
• Gene with 2 alleles : p, q
p = frequency of dominant allele (A)
q = frequency of recessive allele (a)

Note:
p+q=1 1–p=q
1–q=p
 Hardy-Weinberg Equation
Genotypic Frequencies:
• 3 genotypes (AA, Aa, aa)

p 2 + 2pq + q2 =1
p2 = AA (homozygous dominant)
2pq = Aa (heterozygous)
q2 = aa (homozygous recessive)
 ALLELE
FREQUENCIES
 GENOTYPIC
FREQUENCIES
STRATEGIES FOR SOLVING H-W PROBLEMS:

1. If you are given the genotypes (AA, Aa, aa),

calculate p and q by adding up the total # of
A and a alleles.
2. If you know phenotypes, then use “aa” to find
q2, and then q. (p = 1-q)
3. To find out if population is evolving, calculate
p2 + 2pq + q2.
• If in equilibrium, it should = 1.
• If it DOES NOT = 1, then the population is
evolving!
HARDY-WEINBERG PRACTICE PROBLEM #1

The scarlet tiger moth has the following genotypes.

Calculate the allele and genotype frequencies (%)
for a population of 1612 moths.
AA = 1469 Aa = 138 aa = 5
Allele Frequencies:
A= a=

Genotypic Frequencies:
AA =
Aa =
aa =
HARDY-WEINBERG PRACTICE PROBLEM #2:
PTC TASTERS

• Taster = AA or Aa Nontaster = aa
• Tasters = ____ Nontasters = ___
q2 = q=

p+q=1 p=1–q=

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
CAUSES OF EVOLUTION
CONDITIONS FOR HARDY-WEINBERG
EQUILIBRIUM

1. No mutations.
2. Random mating.
3. No natural selection.
4. Extremely large population size.
5. No gene flow.

If at least one of these conditions is NOT met,

then the population is EVOLVING!
Minor Causes of Evolution:
#1 - Mutations
• Rare, very small changes in allele
frequencies
#2 - Nonrandom mating
• Affect genotypes, but not allele
frequencies
Major Causes of Evolution:
• Natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow
(#3-5)
 MAJOR CAUSES OF EVOLUTION

#3 – Natural Selection
• Individuals with variations better suited to
environment pass more alleles to next
generation
 MAJOR CAUSES OF EVOLUTION

#4 – Genetic Drift
• Small populations have greater chance of
fluctuations in allele frequencies from one
generation to another
• Examples:
• Founder Effect
• Bottleneck Effect
Genetic Drift
 FOUNDER EFFECT

• A few individuals isolated from larger

population
• Certain alleles under/over represented

Polydactyly in Amish population

 BOTTLENECK EFFECT

• Sudden change in environment drastically

reduces population size

Northern elephant seals hunted

nearly to extinction in California
 MAJOR CAUSES OF EVOLUTION

#5 – Gene Flow
• Movement of fertile
individuals between
populations
• Gain/lose alleles
• Reduce genetic
differences between
populations
HOW DOES NATURAL SELECTION BRING
ABOUT ADAPTIVE EVOLUTION?
Fitness : the contribution an individual makes to
the gene pool of the next generation

Natural selection can alter frequency

distribution of heritable traits in 3 ways:
1. Directional selection
2. Disruptive (diversifying) selection
3. Stabilizing selection
Directional Selection: Disruptive Selection: Stabilizing Selection:
eg. larger black bears eg. small beaks for eg. narrow range of
survive extreme cold small seeds; large human birth weight
better than small ones beaks for large seeds
 SEXUAL SELECTION

• Form of natural selection – certain individuals

more likely to obtain mates
• Sexual dimorphism: difference between 2 sexes
• Size, color, ornamentation, behavior
 SEXUAL SELECTION

• Intrasexual – selection within same sex (eg. M

compete with other M)
• Intersexual – mate choice (eg. F choose showy
M)
PRESERVING GENETIC VARIATION

• Diploidy: hide recessive alleles that are less

favorable
• Heterozygote advantage: greater fitness than
homozygotes
• eg. Sickle cell disease
NATURAL SELECTION CANNOT FASHION
PERFECT ORGANISMS.

1. Selection can act only on existing variations.

2. Evolution is limited by historical constraints.
3. Adaptations are often compromises.
4. Chance, natural selection, and the
environment interact.
 SAMPLE PROBLEM

Define the following examples as directional,

disruptive, or stabilizing selection:
a) Tiger cubs usually weigh 2-3 lbs. at birth
b) Butterflies in 2 different colors each
represent a species distasteful to birds
c) Brightly colored birds mate more
frequently than drab birds of same species
d) Fossil evidence of horse size increasing
over time