Theory of Structures CENG 2052

Chapter 1
THEORY OF STRUCTURES AND
LOADS

1 by :Yonas G.
 Layout
 1.1. Introduction
 1.2.Structural Elements and Types of Structures
 1.3. loads on structures
 1.4. Stability and Determinacy of Structures
 1.5. Criteria for Stability and Determinacy of
Structures(trusses, beams and Frames)

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 1.1 Introduction
 A structure :refers to a system of connected parts
used to support loads &
Used to transmit loads from the point of application to the
point of support and, through the foundations to the
ground.
 Structural analysis : is the prediction of the performance of a
given structure under prescribed loads and/or other external
effects, such as support movements and temperature changes.
like
stresses or stress resultants, such as axial forces, shear
forces, and bending moments;
Deflections
support reactions
Examples: Buildings, bridges and towers
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 P

4 Yeneneh A.
5 Yeneneh A.
 Role of structural analysis in Engineering projects
 Structural engineering is the science and art of
planning, designing, and constructing safe and
economical structures that will serve their intended
purposes.
 Structural analysis is an integral part of any
structural engineering project, its function being the
prediction of the performance of the proposed
structure.

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1.2.Structural Elements and Types of Structures
1.2.1 Structural Elements.
(i) Beams
 Elements subjected to loads transverse to their axis.
 The influence of axial force is negligible in comparison to
bending (flexure) effects.
 The main members supporting floors of buildings.
Analysis of beams involves
 Determination of forces acting on any section of the beam
(bending moment and shear force)
 as well as the deflections at various sections.
 Beams are usually classified according to the way in which
they are supported
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 Beams are usually classified according to

a) the way in which they are supported.

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 Cont…..
b) their cross-sectional shapes.
 For example,
 an I beam and a T beam has cross-sections geometrically formed
like the letters I and T.

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Cont…..
c) its cross sectional variation
• Tapered element type.
• Haunched beam element.

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Cont…..
d) the size of the beam & geometry.
• girder, cross beams
• sloped beams(according to geometry)
• Deep beams

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 Cont…..
e) the nature of element
• Built up beam elements( by adding plates on top &
bottom of it.)
f) material type
• R.C beams
• Steel beams

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Cont…..
(ii) Columns
Members that are generally vertical and resist axial compressive
loads.
Subdivided into three groups:
a) Short columns- fails by crushing.
b) Intermediate columns- fails by a combination of crushing
and buckling.
c) Long columns- fail by buckling or excessive lateral
bending.

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 Cont…..

Failure by crushing

Failure by buckling
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 Cont…..
 Occasionally, columns are subjected to both an axial load
and a bending moment
These members are referred to as beam columns.

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 X- sections for different column material types.

• Metal columns (steel)

Tubes
 wide flange x-sections
• Reinforced Concrete columns
 rectangular x-section
 Circular
 square &

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Structural Elements continued...
(iii) Tie rods
 Structural members subjected to a tensile force are often
referred to as tie rods or bracing struts.
 Are often chosen from rods, bars, angles, or channels.

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18
Tie rods
 1.2.2 Types of Structures
 The combination of structural elements is referred to as
a structural system.
 Each system is constructed of one or more of four basic
types of structures.
1) Tension Structures.
The members of tension structures are subjected to pure
tension under the action of external loads.
Because the tensile stress is distributed uniformly over
the cross-sectional areas of members
composed of flexible steel cables are frequently
employed to support bridges and long-span roofs.
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 Cont…..
As an example. the suspension bridge

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 Cont…..
2) Compression Structures
mainly compressive stresses under the action of
external loads.
common examples of such structures are columns
and arches.

. arches.

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 Cont…..
3) Trusses.
Composed of straight members connected at their
ends by hinged connections to form a stable
configuration,usually arranged in triangular fashion.
When the loads are applied to a truss only at the
joints, its members either elongate or shorten (tension
or compression).
 Planar trusses are composed of members that lie in the same
plane and are frequently used for bridge and roof support,
 whereas space trusses have members extending in three
dimensions and are suitable for towers.
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 Cont…..
 Its depth is not an important criterion for design.
 Why?
 Load that cause the entire truss to bend converted to
tension & compression forces in the members.
 How ?
 It reduces the material to support a given load.

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 Cont…..

2D truss.
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 Cont…..

25 3D truss .
 Cont…..
4) Shear Structures
 Shear structures develop mainly in plane shear, with
relatively small bending stresses under the action of
external loads.
Used to reduce lateral movements due to wind loads and
earthquake . Example Shear wall.

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5) Bending Structures
Develop mainly bending stresses under the action of
external loads.
i) Beams
Beams are structural elements subjected to loads transverse to
their axis.

ii) Rigid frames

composed of straight members connected together
either by rigid (moment-resisting) connections or by hinged
connections
to form stable configurations.
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 Cont…..

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Cont…..
6) Surface Structures
 Surface structures are made from materials having very
small thickness compared to its other dimensions
 They may also be made of rigid materials like reinforced
concrete
 These structures act like cable or arches because they
support load primarily in tension or compression with very
little bending.
 Such structures are generally difficult to analyze due to
the 3-D geometry of their surface

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Cont…..

 The main quality of these structures is the large clear spans which
can be roofed without internal supports and is economical.

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 Shell structures
Folded plate structure

31 Yeneneh A.
 Shell structures Membrane structure
1.3 Loads on structures

Loads are the external forces acting on a structure.

It is the anticipation of the various loads that will be imposed on
the structure.
 .Stress resultants are induced.
 Axial Stress
 Shear stress
 Flexural (Bending) stress
 Tensional stress
Is the one factor for the selection of structural type,size of
the elements and shapes.
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 Cont…..
 high rise buildings endure large lateral load
caused by wind.
 shear wall & tabular frame system is necessary
Building located in area prone to earth quick.
 must have ductile frames & connections.
• Load flow has an effect on the design process.
 from top to foundation.

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 Depending on the manner in which the loads are applied,
they tend to deform the structure and its components.

 Tensile forces tend to stretch,

 Compressive forces to squeeze together,

37 Yeneneh A.
  Torsional forces to twist,

 shearing forces to slide parts of the structure pass each

other

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  The loads that act on a structure can be classified into three
categories:
Dead loads(DL)
live loads and(LL)
Environmental loads(EL)
1) Dead Loads
 Dead loads are those that act on structures as a result of the
weight of the structure itself and of components that are
permanently fixed.
 Can be determined from the materials self weight and x-
sectional dimension of members

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 2) Live Loads
 Are temporary loads that act on structures during
construction and due to use
 Their magnitude or direction is not fixed.
 Recommended live load magnitudes are available in building
codes, design specifications and research reports

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 ) Environmental Loads
3

 Loads that a structure experiences as a result of the environment

conditions in which it exists.
 Examples:
 Snow loads,
 Wind loads and
 Earthquake loads etc...
General building codes:
 Requirement of governmental bodies for minimum design loads & minimum standards for construction.
Design codes:
 provide detail technical standards & used to establish the requirements for the actual structural design.
Examples:-
ERA……
EBCS……..
AASHTO…
ACI…….American concrete institute
AISC…American institute steel construction
AFPA…American forest & paper association
AREA…. American rail way association

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43 Yeneneh A.
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45 Yeneneh A.
 1.4. Stability and Determinacy of Structures
Stability of Structures
 In structural analysis a structure is said to be stable when it
can support any possible system of applied loads.

Instability of Structures

External Internal

 Can be checked by inspection (using concept of stability which

is the most usual & perfect method) and mathematical
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formulation statement.
 External stability:
It is probability of stable and unstable condition of
structures due to nature of constraints for the external
applied load.
Ensuring the external equilibrium of a structure….How?
 not only necessary to satisfy the equation of
equilibrium
 Member must also held or restrained by their
supports
 Proper arraignment of reactions should be
maintained.

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 Cases for proper constraint have not been met

1.Partial constraints

2) Improper constraints
 concurrency of reaction forces

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 When All reaction forces are parallel

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EXERCISES
 What will be the solution for the above cases to be stable?
 Check the external stability of it & remade it if it is unstable.

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51 Yeneneh A.
. Displaced shape method:
It give a clue for checking external stability of systems using
inspection method .
How it work???
If the displaced shape can’t be drawn with out causing a member to
deform , the structure is stable.
And if it is the reverse of the above it is unstable.

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 Internal stability:
 It is related with the arrangement of members of a structure
 A structure is to be stable internally , if it maintains its shape &
remains a rigid body when it detached from support.
 Internal instability is occurred specially when systems are
compound.
 To make them stable they can be remade by modifying internal
joints type as well as number & arrangement of members.
 It is checked by detaching the structure from its support.
 It can be proofed by mathematical formulae of checking
determinacy . But it is not always sufficient.

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54
 Continu…
 General procedures for the analysis of structures.
1) understand the types of structural elements,systems and their
response or behavior due to different load applications.
2) checking the external and internal stability of the element or
systems because of the excitation.
3) because of the above steps identify whether the structure or part of it is
statically or kinematically determinate or not
4) depending on the degree of indeterminacy (kinematically or statically) select
the advisable method of analysis & analyze it
5) based on the analysis out put and codal provision design the structure or
part of it with the manner of economical ,safety and serviceability aspect .

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 DETERMINACY OF STRUCTURES
 Determinacy is the matter of dealing with whether or not the reaction
forces, member forces and free displacements (joint displacements)
because of the external excitation can be computed with equilibrium
condition or not.
 Classification:

External
statical
Internal
Determinacy

Related to joint
Kinematical
56 displacements
 Static indeterminacy of structures:-
 When there are more members and supports reactions than necessary
for stability.
 identifying degree of indeterminacy is the initial coming task in
the analysis of indeterminacy of structures.
 Degree of indeterminacy(DOI) is the number of unknowns in excess of
static equilibrium .
 Why most of the time in real situation indeterminate structures are
common???

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 Advantage & dis advantage of indeterminate structures.
 Advantages:
1.small stresses:
 the maximum stress as compared to determinate structures is smaller.

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 2.Greate stiffness:
 As compared to determinate structures have high stiffness.
( i.e. smaller deformation) .

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 3. Redundancies :
The capacity of redistributing loads when certain structural portion
becomes over stressed or collapse in case of overloads due to earth quake
, vehicular impact & other sudden loads .
 because of there are more number of members and reaction forces
than required for stability.

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 Main disadvantages:-
1. Stresses due to support settlement :

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 2.Stress du to temperature change and fabrication error

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 Continued…
Mathematical formulae for stability and determinacy of structures
 for the external case
 for the internal case
for the external case :
Static determinacy of internally stable structures
(single rigid body)
 To be considered as externally determinate structures all its supports should be computed with
equation of equilibrium.
 At least it should be supported by three reactions that satisfies the three equilibrium
equations.

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Continued…

Scenario 1:-
 R< 3 ……the structure is unstable externally
Scenario 2:-
 R=3…….the structure is statically determinate externally
Scenario 3:-
 R> 3…… the structure is indeterminate externally
Where R is the number reaction forces due to constraints.
What is the number “3” ??
note:- the mathematical statement is not always sufficient but it is
necessary.

64 Yeneneh A.
Continued…
 Some examples and exercises .

65 Yeneneh A.
Continued…

66 Yeneneh A.
continued…

A
B C

F
D

E
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 Static determinacy of internally unstable structures(compound
body structures)

 Number of single rigid bodies connected by an internal roller ,vertical or

horizontal bars and hinges ( act as a pine connection but it is internal).
 Internal roller support has one reaction force
 Internal hinge support has two reaction forces

68 Yeneneh A.
Continued…

 Case of internal roller support:

№ of condition in the case of hinge: 1*(№ of members connected-1)

№ of condition in the case of roller : 2*(№ of members connected-1)

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 Continued…

mathematical statements for checking determinacy

 R< 3 + ec……the structure is statically unstable externally
 R = 3 + ec…………statically determinate externally
 R > 3 + ec…………statically indeterminate externally
where:
ec…..equation of conditions , two because of internal roller existence &
one equation because of internal hinge support existence .
R…….number of unknown reaction forces due to constraints
Note:- for an externally indeterminate structures degree of
indeterminacy(DOSI) is expressed by subtracting the number of available
unknowns from number of available equation.

70 Yeneneh A.
Continued…

71 Yeneneh A.
Continued…

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Continued…

Examples:

A E
F

H
73 Yeneneh A.
D
Continued….
Alternative approach :
 the method which is based on the idea of dismembering of the system at the internal non rigid
supports.
 R+fi < 3*nr ………the structure is statically unstable externally
 R+fi = 3*nr ……..the structure is statically determinate externally
 R+fi > 3*nr……….the structure is statically indeterminate externally

Where;
R…..support reaction forces
fi…..total number of internal forces transmitted through internal hinge & roller
supports.Which means for roller; one forces and for hinges ;two forces
nr………total number of rigid bodies or portion s of the given system
3……..the number of three equilibrium equations those should be maintained for
portion of the given system.

Note:-
DOSI = (R+fi ) – (3*nr)
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Continued…

Examples:-
Check the stability ,determinacy of the previous examples using this one method. If
it is indeterminate identify the degree of indeterminacy.
Exercises:-

75 Yeneneh A.
 INTERNAL CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Q.Is it true that all structures are statically determinate internally if they are
determinate externally???
 Structure is internally determinate if the forces and moments in all of the members
can be determined based only on the static equilibrium equations.
 In addition to the inspection method for checking the internal stability and
determinacy, mathematical statement also there is.
 Mathematical statement is differ for different structural types.

76 Yeneneh A.
Continued…

Truss structures
 An assemblage of straight members connected at their ends by flexible
connections to form a rigid configuration as a form of triangular fashion.
 Mathematical formulation not sufficient for stability check due to the
existence of poor internal member arrangement and constraints of internal
&external case respectively.
 For applying mathematical statements in truss analysis existence of zero force
members will no have an effect to the degree of indeterminacy.
 Why the reason for the above statement and what is zero force members???

77 Yeneneh A.
 Continued….

Mathematical formula:
Derivation of the statement:

78 Yeneneh A.
Continued…

Since every component of the truss should be in equilibrium

 two equations at every joints can be developed.
∑Fx =0 & ∑Fy=0
 The analysis in trusses are mainly for member forces and reaction
forces.

 excess number of reactions & members

….redundancy(DOSI)…(
Yeneneh A.
2j) - (m + r) = M
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Continued…

 Since formula regarding to the arrangement of members does not give an

indication the analysis result for the system will be infinite .
 Member For stability & determinacy: mr = 2j-r
 Based on this….

Examples:

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81 Yeneneh A.
Exercises:
check internal , external determinacy & stability of trusses below. If it
is unstable make it stable and if it is indeterminate what is the DOSI?

82 Yeneneh A.
 Frames and beam structures

It is useful to classify beam and frame structures using overall statical

classification
three member forces for any beam or frame member can be determined.
axial force,
shear force and
bending moment

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Continued…

 Mathematical formula for the statical classification of internal

stability & determinacy of beams and frames.

 (3ma + ra) > or = (3j + ec) is necessary but not sufficient condition for
statical classification stability.

How the above formula developed???

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Continued…

85 Yeneneh A.
Continued…

 Formula for the computation of number of condition equation(ec)

because of the internal supports:

At joint H connected
members are not
independent to the
moment equation.

At least two
of them
moment
equations
are enough

№ of condition in the case of hinge: 1*(№ of members connected-1)

№ of Yeneneh
condition
A. in the case of roller : 2*(№ of members connected-1)
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Continued…

Note:
 Examples
Check the internal stability & determinacy of beams and frames.

87 Yeneneh A.
Continued…

 Alternative formula:
It is the most convenient means of determining the static indeterminacy of
multi story with multi bays frames.
Can be used for determining the degree of static indeterminacy of the system
just by
a) cutting enough number of the system
b) removing enough number of support reaction
to render the structure should be stable and statically determinate.
 The total number of internal & external restraints thus removed are
equals the degree of static indeterminacy.

88 Yeneneh A.
Continued…

 There are many possible choices regarding the restraints that can be
removed from the system to render stable & statically determinate
system. How?
Example:

Stable &
determinate

Stable &
determinate

89 Yeneneh A.
Continued…

From choice one:

number of removed constraints( internal reactions) =degree of
indeterminacy (DOSI) = 3
From choice two:
number of removed constraints( external reactions) =degree of
indeterminacy (DOSI) = 3
Example 2 A B

90 Yeneneh A.
Continued…

 Note: ends of the member attached to the supports as well as

any free ends are treated as joints.
during applying this approach for frames(multi) the frame does not contain
any internal hinge or roller.
Exercises:

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Continued…

exercise
 Analyze the following beam, frame and truss if they are statically determinate and stable
. If it is unstable(externally) make it stable then analyze.

92 Yeneneh A.
 ?

93 Yeneneh A.
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