1.

Theoretical Questions (20 points)

1. Fixed Assets – definition, different types, basic statistical indicators

A fixed asset is a long-term tangible piece of property that a firm owns and uses in the production
of its income and is not expected to be consumed or converted into cash any sooner than at least
one year's time. Fixed assets are sometimes collectively referred to as «plant.» Fixed assets are
defined in national accounts as non-financial produced assets that are used repeatedly or
continuously in production for more than one year.

Fixed assets include not only dwellings, buildings, structures, machinery and equipment but also
cultivated assets such as livestock for breeding and vineyards. They also include intangible assets
such as computer software and entertainment, literary or artistic originals.

Fixed assets consist of produced assets (mostly machinery, equipment, buildings or other
structures) that are used repeatedly or continuously in production over periods of time of more than
one year.
The European system of national and regional accounts explicitly includes intangible assets (e.g.
mineral exploitation, computer software, copyright-protected entertainment, literary and artistics
originals) within the definition of fixed assets.

Fixed assets can be tangible or intangible such as:

• Tangible Assets – These include things such as land, buildings, equipment,

leaseholds on equipment, vehicles, signs, and furniture and fixtures.
• Intangible Assets – These can include goodwill, patents, registered or
trademarked names, and even telephone numbers, intellectual property, and
websites if you ever plan on selling your business.
It’s easier to place a value on and depreciate tangible fixed assets versus intangible
fixed assets.

2. Current\Working Assets - definition, different types, basic statistical

indicators
Current assets are the general inventory of a company, including cash,
accounts receivable, insurance claims, investments, and intangible or
non-physical items. Current assets account for the worth of a company,
showing the earnings-to-debt ratio by the year's end. Each current asset
has the ability to be cashed out to financially help the business or
liquidated to save the company from debt or bankruptcy.
A highly liquid, current asset. Working assets are taken in and
distributed over relatively brief periods of time. Examples of working
assets include cash, works in process and inventory. A working asset
is also called a floating asset or a circulating asset.
 To be classified as a current asset, the amounts must be cash or be
expected to turn to cash, be used up, or expire within one year of the
balance sheet date. In the rare cases where a company's operating
cycle is longer than one year, the operating cycle time is used in
place of the one-year time period.
Current Assets are ones that an entity expects to use within one-year time
from the reporting date.

Current assets are expected to be consumed within one year, and commonly
include the following line items:
▪ Cash and cash equivalents
▪ Marketable securities
▪ Prepaid expenses
▪ Accounts receivable
▪ Inventory

3. Describe different types of statistical tables and statistical graphs

Bar Graph - A bar chart is a graph with rectangular bars. Each bar’s length or height is
proportional to the bars’ represented values. In other words, the length or height of the bar is
equal to the quantity within that category. The graph usually shows a comparison between
different categories. Although the graphs can technically be plotted vertically or
horizontally, the most usual presentation for a bar graph is vertical. The x-axis represents
the categories; The y-axis represents a value for those categories. In the graph below, the
values are percentages.

A bar graph is useful for looking at a set of data and

making comparisons. For example, it’s easier to see
which items are taking the largest chunk of your
budget by glancing at the above chart rather than
looking at a set of numbers.

Segmented Bar Graph - Segmented Bar charts are

one of the most popular charts used in Statistics. They are a type of stacked bar chart. It is
used for grouping or categorizing the parts of a whole. The bars in this chart are categorized
into stacking order to represent different values. One axis will show the discrete values and
the other one will provide the variable bars in a stacking order. Different colors will show

distinctive parts of the whole bar.

Column Graph - Microsoft Excel calls a bar graph with vertical bars a column graph and a
bar graph with horizontal bars a bar graph.

Box and Whiskers Graph (also called a Box Plot) - A box and whiskers chart, sometimes
called a boxplot, is a way to highlight the middle fifty percent of a data set, including the
median. The middle fifty is also called the interquartile range. It’s called a box and
“whiskers” chart because the graph looks (vaguely!) like a box with the whiskers of a cat.
The box and whiskers chart shows you how your data is spread out. Five pieces of
information (the “five number summary“) are generally included in the chart:
• The minimum (the smallest number in the data set). The minimum is shown at the far
left of the chart, at the end of the left “whisker.”
• The first quartile, Q1, is the far left of the box (or the far right of the left whisker).
• The median is shown as a line in the center of the box.
• The third quartile, Q3, shown at the far right of the box (at the far left of the right
whisker).
• The maximum (the largest number in the data set), shown at the far right of the box.

—>
•
Minimum: 20
• Q1: 160
• Median:
200
• Q3: 330
 • Maximum: 590

Frequency Graph (Frequency Table) - Frequency tells you how

often something occurs. The frequency of an observation in
statistics tells you the number of times the observation occurs in the
data. For example, in the following list of numbers, the frequency of
the number 9 is 5 (because it occurs 5 times):
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 9, 8, 5, 1, 1, 9, 9, 0, 6, 9.

Tables can show either categorical variables (sometimes called

qualitative variables) or quantitative variables (sometimes called
numeric variables). You can think of categorical variables as being
categories (like eye color or brand of dog food) and quantitative variables as being numbers.
The following table shows what family planning methods were used by teens in London.
The left column shows the categorical variable (Method) and the right column is the
frequency — the number of teens using that particular method.

Cumulative Frequency Table - The total of a frequency and all frequencies so far in a
frequency distribution. It is the 'running total' of
frequencies.

Frequency Polygon - A frequency polygon is another

way to show the information in a frequency table. It looks a little bit like a line graph. To
make a frequency polygon, you just need to plot a few points and then join the points by
straight lines.

Funnel Chart - Funnel charts can be used

to illustrate stages in a process — usually
sales processes. However, they could be used to show anything that’s decreasing in size. For
example, you can use this type of chart to show:
• An order fulfillment process.
• A sales process from start to finish.
• Flow of information from top secret to unclassified.
• Knowledge areas from general knowledge to expert knowledge.

These charts are similar to pie charts, because the total area of the colored bars is 100%. For
example, you might have:
• One bar with an area of 40%
• The next with 30%
• Then 22%
• Then 8%.
Essentially, a funnel chart is
a differently-shaped pie
chart.

Histogram - Histogram is a plot that lets you discover, and show, the underlying frequency
distribution (shape) of a set of continuous data. This allows the inspection of the data for its
underlying distribution (e.g., normal distribution), outliers, skewness, etc. An example of a
histogram, and the raw data it was
constructed from, is shown below:

To construct a histogram from a continuous variable you first need to split the data into
intervals, called bins. In the example above, age has been split into bins, with each bin
representing a 10-year period starting at 20 years. Each bin contains the number of
occurrences of scores in the data set that are contained within that bin. For the above data
set, the frequencies in each bin have been tabulated along with the scores that contributed
to the frequency in each bin (see below):

Line Graph - A line graph is used to show how values change. For example, you could plot
how your child grows over time. Line graphs can also be used to show how functions
change. A function is just an equation that gives you a unique output for every input. For
example, y=- 4/5x + 3 is a function because you’ll get a unique value for y when you put in
any number for x.

The most usual type of data is on a line graph is how

something changes over time. A line graph that shows
changes over time is sometimes called a Timeplot.

A line graph has characteristics that make it useful for some

situations. You would use a line graph if:
• You have a function. Line graphs are good at
showing specific data values, meaning that if you have one
variable (x) you can easily find the other (y).
• You want to show trends. For example, how your
investments change over time or how food prices have
increased over time.
• You want to make predictions. A line graph can be extrapolated beyond the data at
hand. They enable you to make predictions about the results of data.

Timeplot - A timeplot
(sometimes called a time series
graph) displays values against
time. They are similar to x-y
graphs, but while an x-y graph
can plot a variety of “x”
variables (for example, height,
weight, age), timeplots can
only display time on the x-axis.
Unlike pie charts and bar
charts, these plots do not have
categories. Timeplots are good
for showing how data changes
over time. For example, this type of chart would work well if you were sampling data at
random times.
Relative Frequency Histogram - Relative frequency is how often something happens

divided by all the possible outcomes. The relative frequency formula is:
A relative frequency table shows how often something happens compared to other things.
For example, the following table shows the frequency that books are sold at a particular
book
store. In
other
words, it
shows
you how
many
books
were
sold:
 Pie Chart - is a type of graph that displays data in a circular
graph. The pieces of the graph are proportional to the
fraction of the whole in each category. In other words, each
slice of the pie is relative to the size of that category in the
group as a whole. The following chart shows water usage
(image courtesy of the EPA).
In order to make a pie chart, you must have a list of
categorical variables (descriptions of your categories) as
well as numerical variables. In the above graph,
percentages are the numerical variables and the type of
trash are the categorical variables.
Scatter Plot - Scatter plots are similar to line graphs. A line
graph uses a line on an X-Y axis to plot a continuous
function, while a scatter plot uses dots to represent individual pieces of data. In statistics,
these plots are useful to see if two variables are related to each other. For example, a scatter
chart can suggest a linear
relationship (i.e. a straight
line).

4. Kinds of averages\means according the value of «m»

We use three different types of average in maths: the mean, the mode and the
median, each of which describes a different ‘normal’ value. The mean is what you
get if you share everything equally, the mode is the most common value, and the
median is the value in the middle of a set of data.
Here are some more in-depth definitions:
• Median: In a sense, the median is what you normally mean when you say
‘the average man in the street’. The median is the middle-of-the road number
– half of the people are above the median and half are below the median. (In
America, it’s literally the middle of the road: Americans call the central
reservation of a highway the ‘median’.)
Try remembering ‘medium’ clothes are neither large nor small, but
somewhere in between. Goldilocks was a median kind of girl.
 • Mode: The mode is the most common result. ‘Mode’ is another word for
fashion, so think of it as the most fashionable answer – ‘Everyone’s learning
maths this year!’
• Mean: The mean is what you get by adding up all of the numbers and
dividing by how many numbers were in the list. Most people think of the
mean when they use the word ‘average’ in a mathematical sense.
In some ways the mean is the fairest average –you get the mean if the
numbers are all piled together and then distributed equally. But the mean is
also the hardest average to work out.
You use the different averages in different situations, depending on what you want
to communicate with your sums.

5. Describe different types of statistical means and properties of the

arithmetic mean
The common formula of different statistical averages :

Types of statistical means :

Arithmetical mean is used in cases when the gap between max and min values of attribute is very
small. We often use it when work with interval. Everytime calculate midpoint of interval.

If the first and last intervals are open, they are conditionally closed taking the missing values of
intervals, so called adjacent interval.

Main rule of many averages :

Cubic average > Quadratic aver. > Arithmetic > Geometrical > Harmonical
( там больше или равно знак должен быть )

Properties of arithmetic averages :

6. Correlation coefficient – definition, statistical and economical essence,

basic properties
It is possible to quantify the correlation between variables. This is done by
calculating a correlation coefficient. A correlation coefficient measures the strength
of the linear relationship between variables. Correlation coefficients can range from
–1 to +1. A value of –1 represents a perfect negative correlation and a value of +1
represents a perfect positive correlation. If a data set has a correlation coefficient of
zero there is no correlation
between the variables.
The most widely used type of correlation coefficient is Pearson’s, r , simple linear
correlation. The value of r is determined
with the formula below:

This formula uses the sums of deviations from the means in both the X values and Y
values. However for ease of
calculation the following calculation
formula is often used.

Properties of correlation :

r r
1. The correlation coefficient is symmetrical with respect to X and Y, i.e xy = yx
2. The correlation coefficient is the geometric mean of the two regression coefficients.
3. The correlation coefficient is independent of origin and unit of measurement, i.e
rxy=ruv
4. The correlation coefficient lies between -1 and +1
 7. Linear and standard deviation – definitions, formulas, properties
Standard deviation is a measure of the
dispersion of a set of data from its mean. If the
data points are further from the mean, there is
higher deviation within the data set. Standard
deviation is calculated as the square root of
variance by determining the variation between
each data point relative to the mean. Its symbol
is σ (the greek letter sigma). Low SD indicates
that the data points tend to be closed to the
mean ( expected value ). High SD indicates that
the data points are spread out of wide range of
values. SD random variable - is a square route
of the variance. Using SD we can analyse such

a relative indicator as a coefficient of variation.

4-5 properties of deviation:

1. Standard deviation - is a measure of variation of all values from the mean.

2. The value of SD is positive. It is zero only, when all of data values are the
same number.
3. Larger values of SD indicates greater amount of variation.
4. The value of SD can increase dramatically with the inclusion of one or more
outliers.
5. The units of SD ( such as bounds, fit ) are the same as the units of original
data values.
Linear deviation. This indicator is arithmetic mean of absolute values of the deviation from the
arithmetic mean.

We use simple formula in Linear ( Mean ) deviation :

The linear deviation gives us or help us to calculate the average amount by which the values in the
population or sample vary from their mean.

Mean Deviation is the arithmetic mean of absolute values of the deviations from the arithmetic
mean.

8. Indexes and coefficients of natural movement of population

Population indexes
• Population statistics.

We have two groups of indexes:

1) consist of indexes of natural movement of population

First of all, we have such attributes as present population:

1) Present population = permanent population - temporary absent + temporary residing.
2) Permanent population = present population + temporary absent population - temporary
residing.
3) Temporary residing (проживающий) population = N

4) Temporary absent population = M

The coefficient of futility. We have amount of population in the end Coefficient of mortality - death
rate

Coefficient indicator of natural growth rate

Index of marriage or the rate of marriage
Index of divorce and the rate of divorce.
Number of births for a period and number of deaths for the period.
The average population Saver = (популяция в начале + в конце)/2 = (Sb-Se)/2

• Coefficient of fertility = Number or amount of birth /the average population of the year. = N/S
*100%

Coefficient of mortality = M/S * 100%

Coefficient of natural growth = Kf – Km

Sometimes, coefficient of growth rate = Kng/Saver *1000

2) consist of indicators of migration the population.

Coefficients of the second group of indexes are connected with the indexes of migration and
population. Number of arrivals - number of immigrants is so called the migration growth.

Coefficient of growth rate = number of migration growth / the average number of population for
the year.

Coefficient of total population growth = migration growth for a year / the average population for
a year.

Ratio of intensity of turnover is = (number of arrivals for a

period + number of emigrants) / average amount of population * 1000

Coefficient of migrations = natural growth for a period / ration of intensity of population.

9. Indexes and coefficients of labor resources and employment statistics

Statistics of labour resources
In this part we calculate the number of economically active population.

• Number of economical efficiency of population, Number of employed.

The employment - to – population

The number of unemployed.

The employment rate and unemployment rate. Number of economically inactive population.

Using this attributes, we may calculate the next indexes:

Number of employed in economic = it is number of employed + number of self employed +

family business helping persons + members of producers cooperatives.

Number of unemployed in economy = persons engaged in home making and child care + first
time job siekers.
Economically active population = Number of employed in economic - Number of unemployed in
economy

Economically inactive population = persons less than 16 years + students of working age
without of any job + persons engage in home making and child care + non-working pensioners and
disables + non-working persons of working age.
Working age in RF: 55 women, 60 - men.

One more indicator:

Level of economic activity = is the number of economically active population / the number
population between 50 and 72 years.

The level of employment = is number of employed people in economy / number of economically

active population.

The unemployment rate = the number of unemployed / number economically active population.
The number of population of working age = number of men from 16 to 59 years + number of
women between 60-65 years.

Number of able-body of working age = number of population - number of unemployment

disabled people - number of persons of working age who receive a pension on preferential terms.

Number of human resources = number of abled-body population of working age + number of

employed teens + number of working persons of retirement age.

We have some coefficients which characterise the demography burden of the working age
population.

Child depending ratio = (number of children from 0 to 15 years) / (population of working age)

Pension of age dependency = (number of population of over pension aged) / (number of

population of working age)

Ratio of total load = (number of population 0 -15 years + number of over pension age population)
/ (population of working age)

Population is divide in 2 big clusters :

1) working, employed
2) non-working, unemployed

Labour potential of a country includes: business activities, forms of ownerships, according to global
monetary statistics, we have 4 types of ownership : public, stock, private, joined ownership.
Labour productivity - is output per worker; when workers are more productive the demand for their
services will be higher and therefore, they will be able to commend higher wages. High productivity
is a source of high wages, when the output per hour of worker is high, the real wages workers also
will be high.

So, we have 3 basic connected to labour productivity.

1) a slowdown in the rate of capital information has retarget the growth or productivity. Both sharply
higher energy prices and increase in environmental regulations usually reduce the productivity the
capital beginning 1 year
2) reduction in average achieving level of the new labour force may have retarget growth.
 10. Describe the economic content of moda and mediana
T professionals need to understand the definition of mean, median, mode and range to plan
capacity and balance load, manage systems, perform maintenance and troubleshoot issues.
These various tasks dictate that the administrator calculate mean, median, mode or range, or often
some combination, to show a statistically significant quantity, trend or deviation from the norm.
Finding the mean, median, mode and range is only the start. The administrator then needs to apply
this information to investigate root causes of a problem, accurately forecast future needs or set
acceptable working parameters for IT systems.

Mode
The mode is the number that occurs most often within a set of numbers. For the server power
consumption examples above, there is no mode because each element is different. But suppose
the administrator measured the power consumption of an entire netowork operations center (NOC)
and the set of numbers is 90 W, 104 W, 98 W, 98 W, 105 W, 92 W, 102 W, 100 W, 110 W, 98 W,
210 W and 115 W. The mode is 98 W since that power consumption measurement occurs most
often amongst the 12 servers. Mode helps identify the most common or frequent occurrence of a
characteristic. It is possible to have two modes (bimodal), three modes (trimodal) or more modes
within larger sets of numbers.

Median
In the data center, means and medians are often tracked over time to spot trends, which inform
capacity planning or power cost predictions.The statistical median is the middle number in a
sequence of numbers. To find the median, organize each number in order by size; the number in
the middle is the median. For the five servers in the rack, arrange the power consumption figures
from lowest to highest: 90 W, 98 W, 100 W, 102 W and 105 W. The median power consumption of
the rack is 100 W. If there is an even set of numbers, average the two middle numbers. For
example, if the rack had a sixth server that used 110 W, the new number set would be 90 W, 98 W,
100 W, 102 W, 105 W and 110 W. Find the median by averaging the two middle numbers: (100 +
102)/2 = 101 W.
11. Statistical indexes – definition, groups of different indexes, some
formulas and relationship between them

Statistical index - is a measure of changes in a representative group of individual data, so its

compound measure that aggregates multiple indicators.

We have different types of indexes:

1. individual
2. combined
3. chaine/ absidal indexes
4. aggregate indexes
5. average of individuals indexes
6. average levels
7. index of variable composition
8. fixed composition
9. structural fix index
Aggregate index and index of physical volume of production shows how many times cost of
production is increased or decreased in current period, compared to basic period as a result of
change only the physical volume.

The difference between the numerator and dominator of the formula of the index of production
prices and physical volume will show the absolute change in the volume of production as a whole
and due to studied production.

Formulas 2 shows us how many times the cost and volume of production ( price and quantity of
production) changed in current period in comparison with basic period.

Formula 3 shows how many times the cost is changed, the price is changed.

Three different formulas which shows us the relationship between quantity of product and price of
product in current period is changed compared to the quantity and price in base period.

In 1 time we have the level of increasing or decreasing of quantity if our price remains on the level
of base period. 2 formula we have change of quantity and price in the current period comparing
quantity and price in base period. We move quantity and price.

12. How many kinds of forming the sample population you know?
Population sampling is the process of taking a subset of subjects that is representative of the entire
population. The sample must have sufficient size to warrant statistical analysis.

1) Non-Probability Sampling- In this type of population sampling, members of the population do

not have equal chance of being selected. Due to this, it is not safe to assume that the sample fully
represents the target population. It is also possible that the researcher deliberately chose the
individuals that will participate in the study. Non-probability population sampling method is useful
for pilot studies, case studies, qualitative research, and for hypothesis development.
2) Probability Sampling- In probability sampling, every individual in the population have equal
chance of being selected as a subject for the research. The advantage of using probability sampling
is the accuracy of the statistical methods after the experiment. It can also be used to estimate the
population parameters since it is representative of the entire population.

Stratified sampling – when sub-populations within our overall population ; its advantages to sample
each sub-population independently.

Stratification is a process of dividing members of the population into homogeneous sub-groups

before sampling. The strater should be mutually exclusive. Every element in the population must
be assigned to only one strata , this process often improves the representativeness of the sample
by reducing sampling error. It can produce wheighed mean or average that has lessvariability than
the arithmetic mean of a sample and a random sample of the population.

Clusters sampling is an example of two stage sample or multistage sampling. In the first stage a
sample error is chosen. In the second stage a sample of respondents
Sometimes it is easier and cheaper by selecting errors by selecting responds from certain areas
only or certain time series only.

Matched random sample- is a sample of assigning participants to group in which pairs of

participants are first match and then individually assigned randomly to groups.

The procedure for matched random sampling can be briefed with the following sampling:

A) Two sampling in which 2 samples are paired

B) Those samples in which the same attribute or variable is measured twice
Convenient sampling is a type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being drawn
from the port of the population which is closed to hand.
This is sample population selected because readily available and convenient.

13.
How many
types of variable
series you know?
Dependent and idependent

Independent variable is a variable that is being manipulated in experiment in order to observe the
effect on dependent variable.

Categorical and continuous variables

Categorical variables : ( qualitative)

Nominal-variables that have 2 or more categories but don’t have an intrinsic order

Dichotomous – variables (NOMINAL) vhich have only 2 categories or levels

Ordinal have 2 or more categories which can be ordered

Continuous (quantitive)variables:

Interval (THEIR CENTRAL CHARACTERISTIC IS THAT THEY can be measured along and they
have a numerical value)

Ratio (are interval but with added condition that 0 of the measurement indicates that there’s none
of that variable.

14. Structure of Non-financial Assets according SNA 2008 (System of

National
Accounts)
 A non-financial asset is an asset with a physical value, such as real
estate, equipment, machinery, or a vehicle

15. Describe the difference between replicate and non-replicate sample

In statistics, replication is the repetition of an experimental condition so that the variability
associated with the phenomenon can be estimated. Replicate samples defined as independent
samples that are collected as close as possible to the same point in space time. They are 2 separate
samples taken from the same source, stared in separal containers and analyzed independently.
Non- replicate samples are samples which are not random and not representative of the continuous
nor batch processing.

16. Statistical sampling – definition and economical content, different

methods of forming the sample populations

In statistics, sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a
statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. Sampling is the process by
which inference is made to the whole by examining a part. The purpose of sampling is to provide
various types of statistical information of a qualitative or quantitative nature about the whole by
examining a few selected units.

Simple random sampling

 Systematic sampling

Stratified sampling

And others :
Cluster sampling
Quota sampling
Minimax sampling
Accidental sampling

17. Specify the difference between coverage error, systematic error and
random error in sampling
Coverage error – is an error that occurs in statistical estimates of a survey. It results from gaps between
the sampling frame and the total population. This can lead to biased results and can affect the variance of
results. Coverage error is a kind of nonsampling error.

Systematic error – Systematic error is a type of error that deviates by a fixed amount from the true

value of measurement.
As opposed to random errors, systematic errors are easier to correct. There are many types of systematic
errors and a researcher needs to be aware of these in order to offset their influence.
Systematic error in physical sciences commonly occurs with the measuring instrument having a zero error. A
zero error is when the initial value shown by the measuring instrument is a non-zero value when it should be
zero. EXAMPLE:

1. The cloth tape measure that you use to measure the length of an object had been stretched out from
years of use. (As a result, all of your length measurements were too small.)

2. The electronic scale you use reads 0.05 g too high for all your mass measurements (because it is
improperly tared throughout your experiment).

Systematic errors are difficult to detect and cannot be analyzed statistically, because all of the data is off in
the same direction (either to high or too low). Spotting and correcting for systematic error takes a lot of care.

Random error – A random error, as the name suggests, is random in nature and very difficult to
predict. It occurs because there are a very large number of parameters beyond the control of the
experimenter that may interfere with the results of the experiment. Random errors are caused by sources
that are not immediately obvious and it may take a long time trying to figure out the source. Random error is
also called as statistical error because it can be gotten rid of in a measurement by statistical means because
it is random in nature.

Unlike in the case of systematic errors, simple averaging out of various measurements of the same quantity
can help offset random errors. Random errors can seldom be understood and are never fixed in nature - like
being proportional to the measured quantity or being constant over many measurements.
The reason why random errors can be taken care of by averaging is that they have a zero expected value,
which means they are truly random and scattered around the mean value. This also means that
the arithmetic mean of the errors is expected to be zero.
For example, a biologist studying the reproduction of a particular strain of bacterium might encounter random
errors due to slight variation of temperature or light in the room. However, when the readings are spread
over a period of time, she may get rid of these random variations by averaging out her results.

18. Describe the relationship between the value of confidence level and the
coefficient of confidence

The value of confidence is the confidence level in most cases = 95%

The confidence coefficient is the probability that a confidence interval will contain the true value of
the population parameter. For example if the confidence coefficient is 95% 95% of confidence
intervals so calculated for each of a large number of samples would contain the parameter.

The value of confidence level – In survey sampling, different samples can be randomly selected from the
same population; and each sample can often produce a different confidence interval. Some confidence
intervals include the true population parameter; others do not.
A confidence level refers to the percentage of all possible samples that can be expected to include the true
population parameter. For example, suppose all possible samples were selected from the same population,
and a confidence interval were computed for each sample. A 95% confidence level implies that 95% of the
confidence intervals would include the true population parameter.
The coefficient of confidence – A confidence coefficient, or confidence level, is a measure of the
accuracy and repeatability of a statistical test. Researchers often decide how confident they need to be in
their results and set the confidence level accordingly. Together with margin of error, a confidence coefficient
defines the expected results of subsequent tests. For example, say the results of a political poll have a 95%
confidence coefficient with a 5% margin of error. If that poll were performed 100 more times, 95 of those
times the results would fall within the margin of error. The confidence coefficient can be thought of as the
percentage of confidence in a finding. In other words, how confident the researcher is in the results.

19. Describe the economic essence of H. Paasche’s index, E. Laspeyres’

index and the statistical relationship between them
Paashe’s price index — index developed by German economist Hermann Paasche for measuring
current price or quantity levels relative to those of a selected base period. It differs from
the Laspeyres index in that it uses current-period weighting. The index is a ratio that compares the
total purchase cost of a specified bundle of current-period commodities (commodities valued at
current prices) with the value of those same commodities at base-period prices; this ratio is
multiplied by 100. The Paasche price index tends to understate price increases, since it already
reflects some of the changes in consumption patterns.

числитель -fact price

знаменатель - the cost of the goods realized in the reporting period

The price index of Paashe characterizes the change in price of the reporting period in comparison
with basic on the goods realized in the reporting period. That is the price index of Paashe shows on
how many goods fell in price or rose in price.

Economic contents
The price index of Laspeyres - index proposed by German economist Étienne Laspeyres (1834–
1913) for measuring current prices or quantities in relation to those of a selected base period. A
Laspeyres price index is computed by taking the ratio of the total cost of purchasing a specified
group of commodities at current prices to the cost of that same group at base-period prices and
multiplying by 100. The base-period index number is thus 100, and periods with higher price levels
have index numbers greater than 100.

числитель - the cost of production realized in the (previous) period at the prices of the reporting
period.
знаменатель - the actual cost of production in the basic period.

Fishers index

Represents average geometrical of works of two modular price indexes of Laspeyres and Paashe:

Ideality is that the index is reversible in time, that is at shift of the basic and reporting periods the
return index turns out (an inverse value to the size of an initial index). Price indices are used to
monitor changes in prices levels over time. This is useful when separating real income from
nominal income, as inflation is a drain on purchasing power. They work by dividing expense on a
specific basket in the current period (the sum of p*q for each product in the basket considered when
calculating the index) by how much the same basket would cost in the base period (period 0). The
main difference is the quantities used: the Laspeyres index uses q0 quantities, whereas the Paasche
index uses period n quantities.

20. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) – definition, methods of calculating,

economical essence
Gross domestic product (GDP) is the monetary value of all the finished goods and services
produced within a country's borders in a specific time period. Though GDP is usually calculated on
an annual basis, it can be calculated on a quarterly basis as well. GDP includes all private and
public consumption, government outlays, investments and exports minus imports that occur within
a defined territory. Put simply, GDP is a broad measurement of a nation’s overall economic activity.
Gross domestic product can be calculated using the following formula:
GDP = C + G + I + NX

where
C is equal to all private consumption, or consumer spending, in a nation's economy, G is the sum
of government spending, I is the sum of all the country's investment, including businesses capital
expenditures and NX is the nation's total net exports, calculated as total exports minus total
imports (NX = Exports - Imports).

GDP is commonly used as an indicator of the economic health of a country, as well as a gauge of
a country's standard of living. Since the mode of measuring GDP is uniform from country to
country, GDP can be used to compare the productivity of various countries with a high degree of
accuracy. Adjusting for inflation from year to year allows for the seamless comparison of current
GDP measurements with measurements from previous years or quarters. In this way, a nation’s
GDP from any period can be measured as a percentage relative to previous years or quarters.
When measured in this way, GDP can be tracked over long spans of time and used in measuring a
nation’s economic growth or decline, as well as in determining if an economy is in recession.

21. Structure of Financial Assets according SNA 2008 (System of National

Accounts)
 To reflect the innovations in the financial market and also maintain its relevance in a time of rapid
economic and institutional change the financial asset classification has been changed in the
2008 SNA.

Monetary gold and SDRs

Monetary gold . SDRs
Currency and deposits
Currency . transferable deposits . Other deposits
Debt securities
Short-term . Long-term
Loans
Short-term . Long-term
Equity and investment fund shares
Equity (listed/unlisted/other shares) . Investment fund shares/units
Insurance, pension and standardised guarantee schemes
Non-life insurance technical provisions
Life insurance and annuity entitlements
Pension entitlements
Financial derivatives and employee stock options
Financial derivatives (options/forwards) . ESO
Other accounts receivable/payable
Trade credits and advances . Other accounts receivable/payable

22. Describe the difference between frequency and shares. How we calculate
shares in a variable series?

Frequency is an event {\displaystyle i} is the number {\displaystyle n_{i}}of times the

event occurred in an experiment or study. These frequencies are often graphically represented
in histograms.
The cumulative frequency is the total of the absolute frequencies of all events at or below a certain
point in an ordered list of events.
The relative frequency (or empirical probability) of an event is the absolute frequency normalized by
the total number of events:
A histogram is a representation of tabulated frequencies, shown as
adjacent rectangles or squares (in some situations), erected over discrete intervals (bins), with an area
proportional to the frequency of the observations in the interval. The height of a rectangle is also equal
to the frequency density of the interval, i.e., the frequency divided by the width of the interval. The total
area of the histogram is equal to the number of data. A histogram may also be normalized displaying
relative frequencies. It then shows the proportion of cases that fall into each of several categories, with
the total area equaling 1. The categories are usually specified as consecutive, non-
overlapping intervals of a variable. The categories (intervals) must be adjacent, and often are chosen to
be of the same size. The rectangles of a histogram are drawn so that they touch each other to indicate
that the original variable is continuous.
Shares A unit of ownership that represents an equal proportion of a company's capital. It entitles
its holder (the shareholder) to an equal claim on the company's profits and an equal obligation for the
company's debts and losses.
Two major types of shares are (1) ordinary shares (common stock), which entitle the shareholder to
share in the earnings of the company as and when they occur, and to vote at the company's annual
general meetings and other official meetings, and (2) preference shares (preferred stock) which entitle
the shareholder to a fixed periodic income (interest) but generally do not give him or her voting rights.
 23. Describe the economical content of the density distribution if you
analyze variable series
For the analysis of the statistical data containing in a variation row it is expedient to enter such
numerical characteristic as distribution density. If in an interval variation row width of an interval
is other than unit, determine absolute and relative density of distribution.
The interval ni frequency relation to width of hi of this interval is called the absolute density of
distribution for interval i-go. We will designate it a pi symbol:

The absolute density of distribution is the frequency falling on interval width unit.

24. Describe the economical content of the cumulative frequency if you

analyze variable series

The cumulative frequency — this number received by consecutive summation of frequencies in the
direction from the first interval to the last to that interval inclusive for which the cumulative
frequency is defined. It’s main aim to control data by showing , which share of sample units doesn't
exceed this value.

25. Describe on a statistical graph a less-than cumulative frequency and

more-than cumulative frequency
Less than are in ascending order. The cumul. Freq. Of each class is plotted against the upper limit
of the class interval.

More than are in descending order. The curr. Freq of each class is plotted against the lower limit of
the class interval.

The total frequency of all classes less than the upper class boundary of a given class is
called the cumulative frequency of that class. “A table showing the cumulative frequencies
is called a cumulative frequency distribution”. There are two types of cumulative frequency
distributions. The graph for the cumulative frequency is called an ogive.
Less than cumulative frequency distribution:
It is obtained by adding successively the frequencies of all the previous classes including the
class against which it is written. The cumulate is started from the lowest to the highest size.
The less than cumulative frequencies are in ascending order. The cumulative frequency of
each class is plotted against the upper limit of the class interval in this type of ogive and
then various points are joined by straight line.
More than cumulative frequency distribution:
It is obtained by finding the cumulate total of frequencies starting from the highest to the
lowest class. The cumulative frequencies in this type are in the descending order. The
cumulative frequency of each class is plotted against the lower limit of the class interval.
From the standpoint of graphic presentation, the ogive is especially used for the following
purposes:
To determine as well as to portray the number of proportion of cases above or below a given
value. To compare two or more frequency distribution. Generally there is less overlapping
when comparing several ogives on the same grid than when comparing several simple
frequency curves in this manner. Ogives are also drawn for determining certain values
graphically such as median, quartiles, deciles, etc.

26. Describe the economical difference between simple means and weighted
averages
'Weighted Average'-An average in which each quantity to be averaged is assigned a weight. These
weightings determine the relative importance of each quantity on the average. Weightings are the
equivalent of having that many like items with the same value involved in the average.

• Average is the sum of all individual observations divided by the number of observations.

• Weighted average is also an average with a slight difference that not all observations carry
equal weights. If different observations carry different importance, or weights in this case,
each observation is multiplied by its weight and then added up. This is done to take into
account importance of different observations as they carry significance more than others

1. Unlike simple average, where all the observations carry same value, in weighted average,
every observation is assigned a different weightage and thus the average is calculated
keeping in mind the importance of each observation.
2. Simple Average is used in mathematical equations, while the weighed average is applied
in the daily activities of a persons life, like finance.
3. Simple Average is the main representation of a data set, while weighted average needs to
be evaluated first to arrive at a certain solution to a certain problem.
4. You can solve the simple average of a data set by using arithmetic formulas like finding
the median, while in weighted average, components are given weight of value to arrive in a
certain answer.

(Other variant)

- When simple average is used as a mathematical term, it is finding the middle value of the
data set. It is also called the central tendency, because it is used to find the central tendency
of a certain group of data. Methods of statistics are usually the medium in finding the
central tendency of a certain data group. The average value is simply the representation of
the entire data set. If the number is in a certain data set, then that number is the average of
that set.
- Weighted average on the other hand is used in many different fields, but it is used most
especially in the field of accounting. It is normally used in fields where mathematical
evaluations and analysis is needed. The main purpose of weighted average is to put value or
weight on certain components so that you will be able to come up with the right solution
with the problem that you are solvingWhen it comes to the financial aspect, the weighted
average is the average value of the principal repayments of a certain bond or loan until the
principal value is paid.

27. Describe difference between linear and non-linear correlation

Linear Correlation:
Correlation is said to be linear if the ratio of change is constant. The amount
of output in a factory is doubled by doubling the number of workers is the
example of linear correlation.
In other words it can be defined as if all the points on the scatter diagram
tends to lie near a line which are look like a straight line, the correlation is
said to be linear, as shown in the figure. For example, suppose an airline
wants to estimate the impact of fuel prices on flight costs. They find that for
every dollar increase in the price of a gallon of jet fuel, the cost of their LA
NYC flight increases by about $3500. This describes a linear relationship
between jet fuel cost and flight cost. Could be strong positive, strong negative
and weak.
Non Linear Correlation:
Correlation is said to be non linear if the ratio of change is not constant. In
other words it can be defined as if all the points on the scatter diagram tends
to lie near a smooth curve, the correlation is said to be non linear, as shown
in the figure.

28. Economical content of Ordinary Least Squares

Ordinary Least Squares or OLS is one of the simplest methods of linear
regression. It does so by minimising the sum of squared errors from the data.
We use OLS for estimating the unknown parameters in a linear
regression model. The goal is minimizing the differences between
the collected observations in some arbitrary dataset and the
responses predicted by the linear approximation of the data. It does
so by minimising the sum of squared errors from the data.

• Ordinary least squares - A statistical technique to determine the line of best fit for a model.
The least squares method is specified by an equation with certain parameters to observed
data. This method is extensively used in regression analysis and estimation.
• In the most common application - linear or ordinary least squares - a straight line is sought
to be fitted through a number of points to minimize the sum of the squares of the distances
(hence the name "least squares") from the pointsto this line of best fit.
• Example: Okun's law in macroeconomics states that in an economy the GDP growth
should depend linearly on the changes in the unemployment rate. Here the ordinary least
squares method is used to construct the regression line describing this law
29. Describe difference between multiple and partial coefficient of
correlation
Multiple linear regression coefficient and partial correlation are directly
linked and have the same significance (p-value). Partial r is just another
way of standardizing the coefficient, along with partial coefficient. So, if
the dependent variable is Y and the independents are x1 and x2 then:
We see that the numerators are the same which tell that both formulas
measure the same unique effect of x1.

• Partial correlation analysis involves studying the linear relationship

between two variables after excluding the effect of one or more
independent factors. Simple correlation does not prove to be an all-
encompassing technique especially under the above circumstances. In
order to get a correct picture of the relationship between two variables,
we should first eliminate the influence of other variables. It's measured
from -1 to 1. If it's >0, than relationship is is direct-increase in factor
variable X leads increase in dependent variable Y,, if it's <0 the
relationship is inverse.
• Multiple Correlation is a technique used to overcome the drawbacks of
simple correlation is multiple regression analysis.
• In statistics, the coefficient of multiple correlation is a measure of how
well a given variable can be predicted using a linear function of a set of
other variables. It is the correlation between the variable's values and
the best predictions that can be computed linearly from the predictive
variables.
• Here, we study the effects of all the independent variables
simultaneously on a dependent variable. This coefficient takes value
between 0 and +1. The more coefficient is approaching to 1 the stronger
the linear relationship is.

30. Economic essence of «distribution»

Distribution in economics refers to the way total output, income, or wealth is distributed among
individuals or among the factors of production (such as labour, land, and capital). In general theory
and the national income and product accounts, each unit of output corresponds to a unit of income.
One use of national accounts is for classifying factor incomes and measuring their respective shares,
as in National Income. But, where focus is on income of persons or households, adjustments to the
national accounts or other data sources are frequently used. Here, interest is often on the fraction of
income going to the top (or bottom) x percent of households, the next y percent, and so forth (say in
quintiles), and on the factors that might affect them (globalization, tax policy, technology, etc.).

31. Economic essence of «frequency» and «cumulative frequency»

Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time.
In statistics the frequency (or absolute frequency) of an event i is the number ni of times the event
occurred in an experiment or study. These frequencies are often graphically represented in
histograms. Cumulative frequency refers to the total of the absolute frequencies of all events at or
below a certain point in an ordered list of events

Frequency is the number of times a specific value appears in a data set or list. To find the
frequency of these values, one constructs a frequency table and inputs all the different
values from the set. The frequency of a class divided by the total frequency is called the
relative frequency of that particular class. Frequency distribution is a representation, either
in a graphical or tabular format, that displays the number of observations within a given
interval. The intervals must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive, and the interval size
depends on the data being analyzed and the goals of the analyst. Frequency distributions are
typically used within a statistical context. As a statistical tool, a frequency distribution
provides a visual representation for the distribution of a particular variable. Analysts often
use it to show or illustrate the data collected in a sample. The most important factors are that
the intervals used must be non-overlapping and must contain all of the possible
observations.
Frequency distributions can be presented as a frequency table, a histogram or a bar chart.
Both histograms and bar charts provide a visual display using columns, with the y-axis
representing the frequency count, and the x-axis representing the variable to be measured. In
a histogram, the height of the column represents the range of values for that variable.
Frequency distribution is one of the simplest methods employed to describe populations of
data and can be used for all four measurement scales - indeed, it is often the best and only
way to describe data measured on a nominal, ordinal or interval scale. Frequency
distributions are sometimes used for equity index returns over a long history - e.g. the S&P
500 annual or quarterly returns grouped into a series of return intervals.
Frequency distributions are not commonly used in the world of investments. However,
traders use an approach to trading based on frequency distribution. The frequency chart is
referred to as a point-and-figure chart and was created out of a need for floor traders to take
note of price action and to identify trends. The y-axis is the variable measured, and the x-
axis is the frequency count. Each change in price action is denoted in X's and O's. Traders
interpret it as an uptrend when three X's emerge; in this case, demand has overcome supply.
In the reverse situation, when the chart shows three O's, it indicates that supply has
overcome demand.
Cumulative Frequency is the total number of data values that are less than or equal to a
certain value. The cumulative frequency of a class divided by the total frequency is called
relative cumulative frequency. Cumulative frequencies can also be represented by graphs.
The most popular graph is known as a cumulative frequency graph or ogive. The simple
cumulative frequency, as in the case of ogive, we take the ordinate as the percentage
cumulative frequency, we shall get a percentage cumulative frequency curve. Such a curve
is useful for comparing different frequency distributions as they are adjusted to a uniform
standard. It is to be noted that the ogive for a discrete series is drawn on the assumption that
the data is continuous. When the class frequencies run up to a maximum at one end of the
range, they form a J-shaped curve. A cumulative frequency plot also is a way to display
cumulative information graphically. It shows the number, percentage, or proportion of
observations in a data set that are less than or equal to particular values. From economic
essence, this concept is important for analysis of total values, which are connected by
specific criteria. For example, if you want to open a shop, you can calculate how many
people will buy something there according to their willingness to pay.

32. Explain the difference between coefficient of regression and coefficient

of elasticity.

Coefficients of population regression is the parameters of the population regression line. In the
linear regression model with a single regressor, coefficients of population regression are the
intercept b0 and the slope b1 of this line.

Coefficient of elasticity of Y with respect to X is the percentage change in the Y resulting from a 1%
increase in X. The most common elasticity used in econometrics is the price elasticity of demand,
which is the percentage change in the quantity demanded caused by a 1% increase in price.

When the regression model is log-log function form, the slope b1 of this line is equal to the
elasticity of Y with respect to X, it means that b1 is the percentage change in Y caused by a 1%
change in X.
Price elasticity is important in business to determine in a given market whether an increase (or
decrease) in prices will generate an increase (or decrease) in revenues.

33. Describe the economical content of the cumulative frequency if you

analyze time series
Cumulative frequency is used to determine the number of observations that lie above (or below) a
particular value in a data set. The cumulative frequency is calculated using a frequency distribution
table, which can be constructed from stem and leaf plots or directly from the data.
The cumulative frequency is calculated by adding each frequency from a frequency distribution
table to the sum of its predecessors. The last value will always be equal to the total for all
observations, since all frequencies will already have been added to the previous total.

34. Difference between dependent and independent\non-dependent

indicators\factors in correlation analysis?
The goal of correlation analysis is to see if a change in the dependent item will result in change in
dependent item.
A coefficient +1.0= perfect correlation means that changes in the indep. Item will result in
an identical dependent item.
If r = -1= perfect negative correlation means that changes in the independent item will
result in an identical dependent item but the change will be in opposite direction.
If r =0 = there’s no relationship between 2 items and that a change in the indep.item will
have no effect in the dep.item. A low r (less than ±0.10) Suggests that relationship
between 2 items is weak or non-existent.
A high r (close to ±1) indicates that dependent variable will usually change when the
independent variables changes.(dependent V usually represent the outcome whose
variation is studied) ( indep. V represents inputs of causes potential reasons for variation)

35. Difference between dependent and independent\non-dependent

indicators\factors in regression analysis?
Regression analysis focuses on the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more
independent variables. The variable whose value is to be predicted is dependent and the one
whose known value is used for prediction is known as independent variable

36. Describe the economical difference between indexes of variable and

fixed composition
Indexes of variable composition calculated on the basis of variable structures of phenomena are
compared while indexes of fixed composition calculated on the basis of their constant structure sre
compared.

37. National wealth – definition, structure, statistical indexes

Total monetary value of the capital, goods and services, including net foreign
balance and tangible assets, owned by a nation at a particular period of time. Used
in a nation's overall economic analysis and planning. Net worth or net wealth given
by gross assets minus liabilities. Also called national net worth.

National wealth has the following three components.

1. Financial wealth - is fixed and working capital society, and working capital.
The capital - means of labor, buildings, structures, machines, equipment and so on. Working
capital - objects of labor, raw materials, energy resources, processed human labor. By working
capital includes finished products and premiums.
The structure of this wealth are all social wealth, universities and schools, hospitals and health
centers, cultural facilities and sports, housing, public property, state reserves, natural
resources are involved in the production process. In fact, the real wealth is accumulated labor
society, expressed in material goods for a certain long historical period. The content structure
of the material wealth is constantly changing under the influence of the STR and socio-
economic changes. With the development of society proprietary wealth of the nation
increases.
2. intangible wealth. It includes the value of cash in the form of cash, securities and all human
abilities and achievements in science, culture, sport, art, society accumulated production
experience, expressed in common human knowledge.
3. The natural wealth - is made known (disclosed) natural resources: land, water, air, forest,
minerals explored climate. Diverse elements of nature is a natural gift from the nature of man
and to the point - the potential wealth of the nation. Nature - the material conditions of
production and environment of life of the nation. Most elements of the natural wealth is not
increased, but decreased as a result of human impact. Therefore, there is the problem of saving
and austerity elements of the natural wealth.
With the instability of the economy, restructuring the existence of conditions for the
development of market relations should create an optimal relationship between all elements
of the structure of national wealth. It is necessary to develop and implement the most rational
structure of the reproduction process using elements of national wealth. This will increase the
wealth of the nation.
38. Explain economical and statistical content of the components of
next regression equation: Y = α ± βx + ε
Y=α±βx+ε is the regression equation

Y is the value of the Dep. var ehat is being predicted or explained α a constant;Y is the value of thr
Indep.variables ;ε- error regression equation is often used to estimate economic statistics such as
inflation and GDP growth.In statistics it helps to estimate the strength and the direction of the
relation between 2 or more variables.

39. Statistical observation – economical mean, basic steps of performing the

statistical observation
The first stage of statistical research statistical observation, which is organized on a single data
collection program on socio-economic processes. It is carried out by recording the essential features
of the phenomena being studied in order to obtain primary statistical information.
The study includes the following steps
1) the development of statistical research hypothesis,
2) statistical observation or a collection of primary statistical information
3) a summary of the group and the primary information
4) analysis of the statistical information
5) economic interpretaschio noluchennyh results

40. Statistical observation – economical mean, kinds of statistical

observation
The first stage of statistical research statistical observation, which is organized on a single data
collection program on socio-economic processes. It is carried out by recording the essential features
of the phenomena being studied in order to obtain primary statistical information.
types of statistical observation
1) on the frequency of: a one-time, current, periodic solid
2) the extent of coverage of population units: discontinuous (including sampling aimed equity
selection (quota method), questionnaire, the main array, monographic.

41. Statistical observation – economical mean, steps\algorithm of statistical

observation
The first stage of statistical research statistical observation, which is organized on a single data
collection program on socio-economic processes. It is carried out by recording the essential features
of the phenomena being studied in order to obtain primary statistical information.
The study includes the following steps
1) the development of statistical research hypothesis,
2) statistical observation or a collection of primary statistical information
3) a summary of the group and the primary information
4) analysis of the statistical information
5) economic interpretaschio noluchennyh results

42. Describe the economical difference between index of fixed\constant

composition and index of structural shifts
43. Describe the economical difference between index of variable
composition and index of structural shifts

44. Describe the difference between histogram and polygon

1. A histogram is two-dimensional while a polygon has more than four dimensions.
2. A histogram may be drawn from a histogram by joining the mid points of upper
horizontal sides of each rectangle. But a histogram can not be drawn from a
polygon.
3. The frequency polygon of several distributions can be plotted on the same axis
while more than one histogram can not be drawn on the same axis.
4. It is possible to compare the polygon of several distributions as they can be
plotted on the same axis. But to compare histogram we must have a graph for each
distribution.
5. Polygon an outline of data pattern is sketched more clearly than histogram.
45. Describe the economical difference between individual and aggregate
indexes
The individual indexes one defined by means of division of quantity V1 of some
element of a complex phenomenon Vi2 a current period by its quantity V0 in a
basic period. I Idx(V) =V1/V0. IIdx is a relative quantity of dynamics and can be
both chain and basic ;these indexes in the form of factors percents or percentiles
appear. Individ. Indexes are unfit for characteristic of hetexog. (?) populations
owing to their specificity . The aggr. Indexes – the basic form of general indexes . It
characterizes relative changes of an indexed quantity in a current period concerning
basic period. It combines 2 or more individual showings into a single index.

46. Describe the difference between linear and square standard deviation
Linear (mean) deviation (MD, L ,̅ d ̅) this indicator is the arithmetic mean of
absolute values of the deviations from the arithmetic mean. The linear
deviation helps us to calculate the average amount by which the values in the
population or sample vary from their mean.
If the data set is not grouped, we use simple mean
 MD = L ̅ = d ̅ = (∑_(x=1)^n▒〖(xi- (x)) ̅ 〗)/n
xi = [(x1;xn) ̅] – value of each observation arithmetic mean of the values
n – number of observations
If we have a data set consisting of variables with not equal frequencies, we
use weighted frequency of this mean deviation
MDW = L ̅ w= d ̅ w= (∑_(x=1)^n▒〖(xi- (x)) ̅ 〗 "fi" )/(∑_(i=1)^n▒fi)
fi – frequency of every variable
Sometimes it is necessary also to calculate relative linear deviation
VL = L ̅/x ̅ × 100%

Square standard deviation / variance (σ2) is a measure of the difference

between the observed value of the variable and some other value often that
variables mean. It is a square of standard deviation.
The sign of positive or negative deviation reports the direction of that
difference. If the deviation is positive, the observed value exceeds the
reference value. If negative, it is less than observed value. The magnitude of
the value indicates the size of this difference (deviation = observed value –
estimated true value).
Simple variance
σ2= (∑_(i=1)^n▒〖(x-x ̅ ) 〖^2〗〗)/n
Weighted variance
σ2= (∑_(i=1)^n▒〖(x-x ̅ ) 〖^2〗fi〗)/(∑▒fi)
Properties of SD:
measure of variation of all values from the mean
the value is positive, is 0 only when all of data values are same number.
larger values of SD indicate great amount of variation
value of SD can increase dramatically with the inclusion of 1/ more outliers.
units of SD (pounds ex) are same as the units of original data values

47. Describe the difference between qualitative homogeneous and

heterogeneous data set
In data analysis, a set of data is also considered homogeneous if the variables
are one type; if the variables are mixed, then the data set is heterogeneous
A data set is homogeneous if it is made up of things (i.e. people, cells or
traits) that are similar to each other. On the other hand, a heterogeneous
population or sample is one where every member has the same characteristic
you’re interested in.
Homogeneous systems are much easier to design and manage. This approach
provides incremental growth, making the addition of a new site to the
database management system easy, and allows increased performance by
exploiting the parallel processing capability of multiple sites.
Heterogeneous system usually result when individual sites have implemented
their own database and integration is considered at a later stage. In a
heterogeneous system, translations are required to allow communication
between different database management systems.
 It is necessary to understand some level of their dispersion in case of which
the calculated statistics (average and so forth) will give the reliable and
quality characteristic of the analyzed set as uniform data. The dispersion (and
uniformity) data with the help variation indicators is measured: dispersion,
average quadratic deviation, average linear deviation. But the basic in
measurement of uniformity is the variation coefficient (V).
V = σ/x ̅

48. Describe different kinds of statistical groups.

Statistical grouping – is a statistical method consisting of the segmentation or
dismemberment of the population in homogeneous groups by significant for
them signs.
When we have primary information, we must find grouping characteristics,
symptoms of the group (quantitative, numerical expressing or qualitative
attribute) and base of the group.
The number groups depends on amount of population, which is grouped.
Formula: n=1+3,222*lgN
n – number of groups; N- amount of population
Statisticians aslo distinguish three main types of grouping:
Typological (separation of heterogeneous population into groups with same
qualitative features, that differ in manifestation)
For example: Dividing the population according to the level of education
Structural (separation of a homogeneous population into groups that
characterize group's structure using any variable feature)
Analytical - aims to identify relationships and dependencies between features
within the target population. (For example, the level of education of women
and children in the family)
(это уже полу левое дерьмо, так, для объема)
Construction of Combination grouping requires a large population
(совокупность), otherwise, the formation of a large number of groups leads
to appearance of small of empty intervals. The lack of Combination grouping:
eliminates multi-dimensional grouping, appeared in the 60-70s of the last
century.
Multidimensional groupings were designed to highlight groups,
homogeneous by set of attributes. Various mathematical algorithms are used
to solve this problem, the general the idea of which is to divide the original
set into disjoint subsets (clusters, taxa(таксоны)), elements that are either
similar to each other, or less removed from each other in the N-dimensional
feature space

49. National welfare - definition, structure, statistical indexes

National welfare – level of prosperity and standard of living of either and individual
or a group of persons. In the field of economics, its specifically refers to utility
gained through the achievement of material good/service. It refers to that part of
social welfare that can be fulfilled through economic activity.
National welfare is measured in different ways depending on different national
markets of different countries.
Factors, used to measure the economic welfare of population:
GDP
literacy to assist to healthcare
assessment of environmental quality

50. What you understand under statistical consolidation?

Statistical consolidation is an operation of summarizing the data obtained in the
process of statistical observation.
It describes every unit of monitoring phenomenon and the results are presented in
different tables or graphs, which reflect the typical characteristics or attributes of
the studied phenomenon.
Statistical consolidation takes data from different systems, entities (and possibly
formats) and combines that information to create a unified view.
Statistical consolidation does not create links between the original and the summary
sheet.

Methods of data consolidation in Excel:

-Using formulas, where the links are used;

- According to the location of data for equally organized sources (fixed);

- According to categories of data fields with different strustures;

- Use a PivotTable;

- Combining external data.

 Ответы
на 42, 43