Interior Ballistics

 Interior ballistics is the study of a projectile's behaviour from the time its propellant's
igniter is initiated until it exits the gun barrel. The study of internal ballistics is
important to designers and users of firearms of all types.
 The first step to firing a firearm of any sort is igniting the propellant. The three systems of
self-contained metallic cartridge ignition which have survived the test of time are the rimfire,
the Berdan centrefire primer, and the Boxer centrefire primer.
 The identifying feature of centerfire ammunition is the primer -- a metal cup containing
primary explosive inserted into a recess in the center of the base of the cartridge. The
firearm firing pin crushes this explosive between the cup and an anvil to produce hot gas and
a shower of incandescent particles to ignite the powder charge. Berdan and Boxer cartridge
primers are both considered "centerfire".

Single-Base Propellants.

 Nitrocellulose or "guncotton" is formed by the action of nitric acid on cellulose

fibers. It is a highly combustible fibrous material that deflagrates rapidly when heat is
applied. It also burns very cleanly, burning almost entirely to gaseous components at
high temperatures with little smoke or solid residue. The size and shape of the
propellant grains can increase or decrease the relative surface area, and change the
burn rate significantly. Additives and coatings can be added to the propellant to
further modify the burn rate. Normally, very fast powders are used for light-bullet or
low-velocity pistols and shotguns, medium-rate powders for magnum pistols and light
rifle rounds, and slow powders for large-bore heavy rifle rounds.

Double-Base Propellants.

 To further increase the energy of smokeless powder, nitroglycerin can be added in

amounts up to 50%. These powders are called "double-base powders", since both
their main components actively produce energy, and they have similar basic physical
properties to single-base powders. Double-base powders burn faster than single-
base powders of the same shape, though not as cleanly, and in general the higher the
nitroglycerin content of a powder, the faster the burn rate.

1. Load density is the percentage of the space in the cartridge case that is filled with
powder. Magnum pistol cartridges reverse this power/accuracy tradeoff by using
lower-density, slower-burning powders that give high load density and a broad
pressure curve. The downside is the increased recoil and muzzle blast from the high
powder mass, and high muzzle pressure. The advantage is that the magnum pistol
rounds can generate accuracy comparable to a good hunting rifle, and energy
sufficient to take medium game at ranges out to 100 yards (100 m) and beyond.

2. Most rifle cartridges have a high load density with the appropriate powders. Rifle
cartridges tend to be bottlenecked, with a wide base narrowing down to a smaller
diameter, to hold a light, high-velocity bullet. These cases are designed to hold a
 large charge of low-density powder, for an even broader pressure curve than a
magnum pistol cartridge. These cases require the use of a long rifle barrel to extract
their full efficiency, although they are also chambered in rifle-like pistols (single-shot
or bolt-action) with barrels of 10 to 15 inches (25 to 38 cm).

3. The bullet must tightly fit the bore to seal the high pressure of the burning gun
powder. This tight fit generates a large quantity of friction. The friction of the bullet
in the bore does have a slight impact on the final velocity, but that is generally not
much of a concern. Of greater concern is the heat that is generated due to the
friction. At velocities of about 1,000 ft/s (300 m/s), lead begins to melt, and deposit
in the bore. This lead build-up constricts the bore, increasing the pressure and
decreasing the accuracy of subsequent rounds, and is difficult to scrub out without
damaging the bore. Rounds, used at velocities up to 1,500 ft/s (460 m/s), can use wax
lubricants on the bullet to reduce lead build-up. At velocities over 1,500 ft/s (460
m/s), nearly all bullets are jacketed in copper, or a similar alloy that is soft enough
not to wear on the barrel, but melts at a high enough temperature to reduce build-
up in the bore. Copper build-up does begin to occur in rounds that exceed 2,500 ft/s
(760 m/s), and a common solution is to impregnate the surface of the bullet with
molybdenum disulfide lubricant. This reduces copper build-up in the bore, and
results in better long-term accuracy.

4. In the first few inches (centimeters) of travel down the bore, the bullet reaches a
significant percentage of its final velocity, even for high-capacity rifles, with slow
burning powder. The acceleration is on the order of tens of thousands of gravities,
so even a projectile as light as 40 grains (2.6 g), can provide hundreds of pounds-
force (over 1000 newtons) of resistance, due to inertia. Changes in bullet mass,
therefore, have a huge impact on the pressure curves of smokeless powder
cartridges, unlike black powder cartridges. The loading or reloading of smokeless
cartridges thus requires high-precision equipment, and carefully measured tables of
load data for given cartridges, powders, and bullet weights.

5. The purpose of the barrel is to provide a consistent seal, allowing the bullet to
accelerate to a consistent velocity. It must also impart the right spin, and release the
bullet consistently, perfectly concentric to the bore. The residual pressure in the
bore must be released symmetrically, so that no side of the bullet receives any more
or less push than the rest. The muzzle of the barrel is the most critical part, since
that is the part that controls the release of the bullet.

6. To keep a good seal, the bore must be a very precise, constant diameter, or have a
slight decrease in diameter from breech to muzzle. Any increase in bore diameter
will allow the bullet to shift. This can cause gas to leak past the bullet, affecting the
velocity, or cause the bullet to tip, so that it is no longer perfectly coaxial with the
bore. High quality barrels are lapped to remove any constrictions in the bore which
will cause a change in diameter.
7. Another issue that has an effect on the barrel's hold on the bullet is the rifling. When
the bullet is fired, it is forced into the rifling, which cuts or "engraves" the surface of
the bullet. If the rifling is a constant twist, then the rifling rides in the grooves
engraved in the bullet, and everything is secure and sealed. If the rifling has a
decreasing twist, then the changing angle of the rifling in the engraved grooves of the
bullet causes the rifling to become narrower than the grooves. This allows gas to
blow by, and loosens the hold of the bullet on the barrel. An increasing twist,
however, will make the rifling become wider than the grooves in the bullet,
maintaining the seal. When a rifled-barrel blank is selected for a gun, careful
measurement of the inevitable variations in manufacture can determine if the rifling
twist varies, and put the higher-twist end at the muzzle.

8. The muzzle of the barrel is the last thing to touch the bullet before it goes into
ballistic flight, and as such has the greatest potential to disrupt the bullet's flight. The
muzzle must allow the gas to escape the barrel symmetrically; any asymmetry will
cause an uneven pressure on the base of the bullet, which will disrupt its flight. The
muzzle end of the barrel is called the "crown", and it is usually either beveled or
recessed to protect it from bumps or scratches that might affect accuracy. A sign of
a good crown will be a symmetric, star-shaped pattern on the muzzle end of the
barrel, formed by soot deposited, as the powder gases escape the barrel. If the star
is uneven, then it is a sign of an uneven crown, and an inaccurate barrel.

9. Before the barrel can release the bullet in a consistent manner, it must grip the
bullet in a consistent manner. The part of the barrel between where the bullet exits
the cartridge, and engages the rifling, is called the "throat", and the length of the
throat is the freebore. In some firearms, the freebore is all but nonexistent — the
act of chambering the cartridge forces the bullet into the rifling. This is common in
low-powered rimfire target rifles. The placement of the bullet in the rifling ensures
that the transition between cartridge and rifling is quick and stable. The downside is
that the cartridge is firmly held in place, and attempting to extract the unfired round
can be difficult, to the point of even pulling the bullet from the cartridge in extreme
cases.

10. With high-powered cartridges, there is an additional disadvantage to a short

freebore. A significant amount of force is required to engrave the bullet, and this
additional resistance can raise the pressure in the chamber by quite a bit. To mitigate
this effect, higher-powered rifles tend to have more freebore, so that the bullet is
allowed to gain some momentum, and the chamber pressure is allowed to drop
slightly, before the bullet engages the rifling. The downside is that the bullet hits the
rifling when already moving, and any slight misalignment can cause the bullet to tip as
it engages the rifling. This will, in turn, mean that the bullet does not exit the barrel
coaxially. The amount of freebore is a function of both the barrel and the cartridge.

11. The manufacturer or gunsmith who cuts the chamber will determine the amount of
space between the cartridge case mouth and the rifling. Setting the bullet further
forward or back in the cartridge can decrease or increase the amount of freebore,
but only within a small range. Careful testing by the ammunition loader can optimize
the amount of freebore to maximize accuracy, while keeping the peak pressure
within limits.