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Sán d or Berecki

THE BRONZE AGE SITE


FROM LUDUŞ

with special reports by

Corneliu Beldiman & Diana-Maria Sztancs


Szilárd Sándor GÁL
Imola KELEMEN
Botond REZI
Corina Simion & Tiberiu Sava
Carmen Stâncel

Editura MEGA
Cluj-Napoca
2016
Contents

Acknowledgements 9

Foreword 11

I. Introduction 13

II. The Settlement 20


II.1. The archaeological features 21
II.2. The archaeozoological analysis of the animal bones (Imola Kelemen)  37

III. The Cemetery 44


III.1. The graves 53
III.2. The rite and ritual 58
III.3. Anthropological analysis of human bones (Szilárd Sándor Gál) 67

IV. The pottery 80


IV.1 Typology of forms and ornaments 81
IV.2. The mineralogical and petrographic characterization of ceramics (Carmen stâncel) 101

V. Bone objects (Corneliu Beldiman & Diana-Maria Sztancs) 114

VI. Metal objects (Botond rezi) 122

VII. Radiocarbon dating of the bone samples (Corina Simion & Tiberiu Sava) 130

VIII. Conclusions 134

Bibliography 143

List of illustrations 161

Plates 165
(Soroceanu–Retegan 1981, 196–197). An oval and flat pendant was found in Gr.5 in Derşida
(Chidioşan 1980, 24, pl. 7/10a) and a bone pin is mentioned from Floreşti (Rotea et al. 2008, 42).
At Luduş in Gr.15 of a child a segmented faience bead was found. The production of vitreous materi-
als was the invention of the Bronze Age, and these objects had been manufactured locally (Harding 1984,
87–88, 91; Harding 2000, 265, 268, 321; Frînculeasa 2012, 101) and not imported from the south as it
was earlier supposed. A large number of beads, all with traces of secondary burning were found in Sebeş
(Fântâneanu et al. 2013, 175; Bălan et al. 2014a, 10); eight beads in Gr.4, five in Gr.5, five whole and
at least two fragmented ones in Gr.24, 26 beads in Gr.25 and one bead in Gr.29 and Gr.41. From the 36
greenish, sometimes white or brown beads 33 were star-shaped, one was circular and two were tubular
(Fântâneanu et al. 2013, 175; Bălan et al. 2014a, 10). The closest analogy for the bead found at Luduş
was the bead from Gr.29 in Sebeş, also found solely in the urn (Fântâneanu et al. 2013, 175, fig. 8/4;
Bălan et al. 2014a, 100, nr. 47) like the one from Luduş. A small bone bead comes from Deva Gr.16
(Andriţoiu 1978, 246, 248) while a 16 mm long piece, similar to the one from Luduş was found in Gr.3 at
Derşida. From Derşida other nine beads are mentioned as found in Gr.5, while in the ploughing dentalium
beads were found (Chidioşan 1980, 10, 23, pl. 7/3a; Andriţoiu 1994, 148, fig. 5/2, 8). Two dentalium
pendants also come from Cerişor–Peştera Cauce Gr.1 (Luca et al. 2005, 42–44). A similar bead to the
one found in Gr.15 at Luduş was discovered in pit 1 from Trench 1/1998 at Giurtelecu Şimleului–Coasta
lui Damian, where fragments of an ornamented altar were also revealed (Bejinariu 2005, 367, pl. 12/2).
The sole appearance in grave inventories or cultic pits of the type of bead discovered at Luduş indicates its
probable apotropaic function.
It can be noticed that in general the inventory of the graves is not exceptional and special objects can
only rarely be documented. It seems that these bronze, bone, stone and faience artefacts were personal
items of the dead, who were perhaps the makers or the users of the object, or these might have even been
funerary gifts offered for them. All objects showed traces of secondary burning and were placed on the
pyre together with the corpse.

III.3. Anthropological analysis of human bones

Szilárd Sándor Gál

The cremated human bones were relatively well preserved, in many cases cranial fragments and ends
of the epiphysis were found useful for morphological analysis. According to the examination of the burn-
ing temperature the osteological remains were combusted on an open fireplace, and the skeletons burnt
down very fast. During the morpho-taxonomical analysis several methods for different age groups could
be followed: sex and age determination, paleopathological examination, dental analysis, paleodemogra-
phy etc. In the morphological analysis of cremated bones the examination of the burnt surface could be
firstly applied (Shipman et al. 1984), followed by the measurement of the weight of the human bone
(Trotter–Hixon 1974).
The most important challenge in examination of cremated bones was the determination of sex and
age. In these cases the Dokládal (1970) method was followed, in the examination of tooth crown the
method of Lovejoy (1985) and Simpson et al. (1990) was applied, while in the case of the fragments of
unfused epiphyses and various skull vault sutures the Meindl–Lovejoy (1985), Masset (1989) and Key
et al. (1994) classification was used. The bones were only partially burnt on the pyre, but several changes
in their structure and composition occurred. Since the bones were exposed to fire they dried out and the
organic component (mainly collagen) combusted thus, only the mineral portion remained in the bones
(Mays 1998; Cox–Mays 2001). The fragmentation and distortion suffered by the bone during cremation
can probably be caused by a rapid vaporisation. Shrinkage may be associated with the structural changes
which affected the bone mineral (hydroxiapatite). The cremated bones from archaeological discoveries
have a fairly high mechanical strength and are highly resistant to destruction in the soil. The colours of
cremated bones may be attributed to the temperature attained by the bone and the length of time exposed
to heat (Bonucci–Graziani 1975; Shipman et al. 1984). Due to the small size and distorted nature of
most of the fragments their identification presented a major challenge.

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Age groups Average weight of bones (gram)
0–6 months 54
6 months–3 years 185
3–13 years 661
13–25 years 2191
Adult 1919 (M – 1530–3600), 1550 (F – 952–2278)
Table 4. Weight of the human skeleton (after Trotter–Hixon 1974).

Results of S. Mays Results of P. Shipman


°C colour °C colour
Phase 1 185 °C red, orange under 285 °C white or yellow
red-brown, red-yellow, dark
Phase 2 285 °C dark brown, black 285–525 °C
grey-brown or dark grey
Phase 3 360 °C black 525–645 °C black, blue or red-yellow
Phase 4 440 °C grey, brown
white, light grey or light blue-
grey, brown (lighter than 645–940 °C
Phase 5 525 °C grey
that observed at 440 °C)
Phase 6 645–1200 °C white, some pale yellow 940 °C white, some grey or red-yellow
Table 5. Colours observed after heating fresh goat bone (after Shipman et al. 1984).

Morpho-taxonomical analysis of the cremated human remains


Grave 1. Weight of bones: 600 g. Phases of heating on the human remains: Phase 1. Dimension of
bones: 2–61 mm. The bones show a variety of colours ranging from brown to yellowish blue. Skull: small
fragments from the occipital bone were preserved (the external occipital protuberance was accentuated
on the lower part), fragments from the parietal bones, temporal bones with internal acoustic meatus, the
sutures were opened. Situation of the teeth: one incisor and two premolar teeth from the mandible. Dental
formula: 2123. Postcranial skeleton: fragments from the cervical and thoracic vertebrae, fragments form
the diaphysis part of the long bones, diaphysis part of the ribs, proximal and distal epiphysis of the right
radius, fragments from the diaphysis of the phalanges of the hands, two fragments from the stern’s body,
one fragment from the ischium bone (part of the pelvis girdle), the head of a femur and fragments from
the diaphysis of a tibia. Sex determination: the dimension of the long bones and the character of the skull
present marks of a male. Age determination: ecto- and endocranial sutures, situation of teeth, epiphysis
ends of long bones show signs of an adult person (Adultus, 25–30 years old).
Grave 2. Weight of bones: 192 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 3. Dimension of bones:
9–56 mm. The bones show a variety of colours ranging from brown to bluish black. Skull: small fragments
from the temporal, occipital and parietal bone (with opened sutures), bones of the face and one fragment
from the mandible (the left proximal part of the bone). Situation of the teeth: root of a molar tooth (from
the maxilla – the tooth had three roots) and one canine (the colour of teeth was bluish white). Dental for-
mula: 2123. Postcranial skeleton: small fragments from the diaphysis of the ribs, diaphysis part of the long
bones (cortical layer changes between 2 and 4 mm), proximal part of the axis vertebra, fragments from the
thoracic vertebrae, one fragment from the ischium bone, proximal part of the right femur (its end was not
ossified at the moment of the death), lower epiphysis of a femur, one fragment from a calcaneus. Sex deter-
mination: not possible. Age determination: the ecto- and endocranial sutures, dimension of long bones, the
synostosis of the femur show the signs of a young person (Infans II, 14–16 years old).
Grave 3a. Weight of bones: 592 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 2. The bones show a
variety of colours ranging from brown to yellowish grey, in case of the teeth greyish white. Dimension
of bones: 2–71  mm. Skull: small fragments of the parietal, occipital and temporal bone (sutures were
opened), from the bones of the face two fragments from the mandible (ends of coronoid process and
condyle) appeared. Situation of the teeth: one molar from the mandible. Dental formula: 2123. Postcranial
skeleton: small fragments from the diaphysis part of the ribs, proximal part of the axis vertebra, fragments
from the diaphysis of the upper limbs, proxima and lower epiphysis of a radius (the cortical layer changes
between 2–3 mm), small fragments from the lower epiphysis of the phalanges, a piece from a femur’s end,

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fragments from the diaphysis part of a femur (cortical layer changes between 5–6 mm), lower epiphysis of
the left tibia, the left talus and one piece from the left calcaneus. Sex determination: the skull’s character,
the dimension of long bones indicate a woman. Age determination: ecto- and endocranial sutures, the syn-
ostosis phases of epiphysis ends show the age of a young woman (Iuvenis, 22–25 years old).
Grave 3b. Weight of bones: 7 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 2. Most part of the skel-
eton was missing. One fragment from the mandible (right part with the alveola), two fragments from the
diaphysis of the long bones and one fragment from a cervical vertebra could be identified. The dimensions
of long bones show signs of a small child (Infans I).
Grave 4. Weight of bones: 796 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 2. The bones show a
variety of colours ranging from brown to yellowish grey, in case of the teeth greyish blue. Dimension of
bones: 2–94 mm. Skull: fragments from the occipital, parietal and temporal bones, one fragment from the
internal acoustic meatus (right side), from bones of the face one fragment from the mandible. Situation of
the teeth: by examining the roots, two premolars, one canine and one molar tooth came from the mandi-
ble. Dental formula: 2123. Postcranial skeleton: fragments from the cervical and thoracic vertebrae, frag-
ments from the diaphysis part of the ribs, diaphysis part of the long bones (cortical layer varies between
2 and 6 mm), one fragment from the right humerus’ end, lower epiphysis of the left and right humerus,
fragments from diaphysis of the lower limbs (legs), fragments from metacarpal bones, fragments from
iliac and ischium bones (parts of pelvis girdle), end of the right and left femurs (diam. of head 44 mm),
fragments from the diaphysis part of the femurs, distal epiphysis of a femur, patella (both sides), fragments
from the diaphysis of the tibia, fragments from the talus and calcaneus (heel bone), metatarsal bones,
distal epiphysis of the phalanges. Sex determination: the dimensions of long bones present the characters
of a male. Age determination: the ecto- and endocranial sutures, situation of teeth, ossification phases of
epiphysis ends show the age of a young person (Iuvenis, 18–21 years old).
Grave 5. Weight of bones: 201 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 1. The bones show a
variety of colours ranging from brown to yellow. Most part of the skeleton was missing. Skull: small frag-
ments from the parietal bones and temporal bones with internal acoustic meatus could be identified.
Situation of the teeth: one canine and one molar from the mandible were preserved. Dental formula: 2123.
Postcranial skeleton: fragments from the epiphysis part of the upper limbs (arms, cortical layer changes
between 3–4 mm), proximal epiphysis of a radius, two fragments from the thoracic vertebrae. Sex deter-
mination: not possible. Age determination: the dimension of long bones and situation of teeth indicate an
adult defunct (Adultus).
Grave 6. Weight of bones: 406 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 1. Dimension of bones:
3–76 mm. The bones show a variety of colours ranging from brown to gray. Skull: small fragments from
the parietal, occipital and temporal bones with internal acoustic meatus. Postcranial skeleton: small frag-
ments from the diaphysis of the ribs, fragments from the diaphysis of the left and right humerus (cortical
layer changes between 2–3 mm), proximal and distal epiphysis of a femur (not ossified), distal epiphysis of
the left and right tibia, right talus and calcaneus (length of bone: 52 mm). Sex determination: not possible.
Age determination: the ecto- and endocranial sutures, the synostosis of the epiphysis ends show the age of
a young child (Infans II, 8–9 years old).
Grave 7. Weight of bones: 74 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 4. The bones show a variety
of colours ranging from brown to gray, in case of the teeth greyish blue. Skull: one fragment from the frontal
bone, temporal bones with internal acoustic meatus and parietal bones. Situation of the teeth: two M1 and
one M2 without root, they were in the alveola at the moment of death. Dental formula: 2102. Postcranial
skeleton: small fragments from the diaphysis part of the long bones (one fragment from the diaphysis of a
radius), diaphysis part of the ribs. Sex determination: not possible. Age determination: the eruption phases
of teeth (Lovejoy 1985; Miles 1963), the dimension of long bones (Stloukal–Hanáková 1978) and
weight of bones (Trotter–Hixon 1974) show the age of a child (Infans I, 6 months–2 years old).
Grave 8. Weight of bones: 24 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 1. Skull: fragments from
the mastoid process, one fragment from the cranium. Situation of the teeth: root of a premolar from max-
illa. Postcranial skeleton: small fragments from the diaphysis of the long bones, one fragment from a cal-
caneus (the proximal part of the bone). Sex determination: not possible. Age determination: the teeth show
the age of an adult defunct (Adultus).

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Grave 9 (Pl. 9/8). Weight of bones: 402 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 1. The bones
show a variety of colours ranging from brown to blue. Dimension of bones: 2–74 mm. Skull: fragments
from the parietal bones, temporal bones and two pieces from sphenoid bone. Situation of the teeth: one
incisor (I) and one premolar (PM) from the mandible, the crown of a molar (M), and another molar situ-
ated in the cell. Dental formula: 2122. Postcranial skeleton: fragments from the diaphysis part of the ribs,
fragments from the diaphysis of the upper limbs (cortical layer 3 mm), fragments from the metacarpal
bones, fragments from the iliac bone (part of pelvis girdle), proximal part of the left femur (the head is not
ossified), distal epiphysis of the left and right femur (not ossified), distal part of the left and right tibia (the
distal epiphysis of the bones were not ossified), one small fragment from a talus. Sex determination: not
possible. Age determination: the eruption phases of the teeth, the synostosis of the epiphysis ends indicate
the age of a child (Infans II, 10–11 years old).
Grave 10A. Weight of bones: 391 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 2. The bones show a
variety of colours ranging from brown to gray. Dimension of bones: 2–47 mm. Skull: fragments from the
occipital bone (the external occipital protuberance was accentuated), fragments from the parietal bones
(cortical layer 4 mm), temporal bones, one piece from the internal acoustic meatus, one fragment from
the frontal bone with the roof of the orbits (bony sockets) of the eyes, with opened sutures, from the bones
of the face the mandible – right part without teeth – is preserved. Situation of the teeth: based on the roots
three premolars and one molar from the mandible could be identified. Dental formula: 2123. Postcranial
skeleton: the proximal part of the axis vertebra, fragments from the body of the thoracic vertebrae, dia-
physis part of the ribs, proximal and distal epiphysis of a radius and fragments from the end of a femur.
Sex determination: characters of the skull and the dimensions of the long bones indicate a male. Age deter-
mination: ecto- and endocranial sutures (Nemeskéri et al. 1960) and the situation of the teeth (Miles
1963) show an adult (Adultus, 35–40 years old).
Grave 10B. Weight of bones: 1600 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 1. The bones show
a variety of colours ranging from brown to gray. The biggest quantity of human bones was collected from
this grave. Dimension of bones: 2–76 mm. Skull: could be observed fragments from the parietal bones,
temporal bones with the mastoid process and internal acoustic meatus (left side), fragments from the
sphenoid bone, frontal bone with the roof of orbits, from the bone of the face one fragment from the
zygomatic bone was recovered, one fragment from the maxilla and two fragments from the mandible.
Situation of the teeth: based on the roots eleven teeth were identified: canine (C), two premolars (PM),
M1, M2 from maxilla, two incisors (I) and one premolar (PM) from the mandible. Dental formula: 2123.
Postcranial skeleton: fragments were recovered from the epiphysis of the ribs, fragments from the diaphy-
sis of the long bones, one piece from the head of a humerus, distal epiphysis of an ulna, distal epiphysis
of a radius, three phalanges from the hands, fragments from the body of the cervical and thoracic verte-
brae (6 pieces), one fragment from the iliac bone (part of pelvis girdle), distal epiphysis of a femur, frag-
ments from the diaphysis of a tibia and fibula, fragments from talus and calcaneus. Sex determination:
the character of the skull (mastoid process) and the dimension of the long bones indicate a female. Age
determination: the ecto- and endocranial sutures, dimension of long bones show an adult (Adultus, over
30 years old).
Grave 11. Weight of bones: 9 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 2. Since only a few bones
were recovered – few small fragments from the skull (without clear signs) and small pieces from cortical
layer of long bones – a precise examination was not possible. Based on the dimension of the bones, the
deceased was a small child (Infans I).
Grave 12. Weight of bones: 310 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 1. The bones show
a variety of colours ranging from brown to gray. Skull: fragments from the occipital, parietal, frontal,
sphenoid and temporal bones with internal and external acoustic meatus, roof of the orbits, sutures were
opened. Situation of the teeth: roots of a canine (C) and a fragment from a molar (M). Dental formula:
2123. Postcranial skeleton: one fragment from a scapula, the diaphysis part of the left humerus (cortical
layer changes between 3–4 mm), distal epiphysis of a humerus, one fragment from the body of a lumbar
vertebra (on the proximal part of the bone marks of spondylitis were observed), fragments from the iliac
and ischium bones (part of pelvis girdle), fragments from the diaphysis of the long bones, one piece from
a femur’s end, fragments from the talus and calcaneus. Sex determination: applying K. Éry’s method (Éry

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et al. 1963), the marks of both sexes could be observed. Age determination: the ecto- and endocranial
sutures, dimension of the long bones and synostosis of epiphysis ends show the age of a young person
(Iuvenis, 16–19 years old).
Grave 13. Weight of bones: 700 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 2. Dimension of bones:
2–44 mm. The bones show a variety of colours ranging from brown to greyish black. Skull: fragments
from the parietal, occipital and temporal bones with mastoid process (length of bone 12 mm and 14 mm),
and internal acoustic meatus, fragments from the sphenoid and frontal bone with opened sutures. From
the bones of the face two fragments from the maxilla and three fragments from the mandible were recov-
ered. Situation of the teeth: one incisor and a molar from the mandible. Dental formula: 2123. Postcranial
skeleton: the proximal part of the axis vertebra, four thoracic vertebrae (on a thoracic vertebra the signs
of spondylitis could be observed), one fragment from a humerus’ end, distal epiphysis of a humerus, frag-
ments from the diaphysis part of the phalanges, fragments from diaphysis part of the ribs, fragments from
the diaphysis of the lower limbs (cortical layer 3–5 mm), one fragment from the distal epiphysis of a femur,
right talus. Sex determination: the characters of the skull (external protuberance of the occipital bone, the
mastoid process and the mandible) as well as the dimension of the long bones are characteristic to females.
Age determination: ecto- and endocranial sutures, situation of the teeth indicate an adult (Adultus, 25–30
years old).
Grave 14. Weight of bones: 390 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 2. Dimension of bones:
3–85 mm. The bones show a variety of colours ranging from brown to gray. Skull: fragments from the
parietal, occipital bone (the external protuberance of the occipital bone was massive), temporal bones
with accentuated mastoid process and internal acoustic meatus (on both sides), small fragments from the
sphenoid bone with opened sutures, from the bones of the face: one fragment from the zygomatic bone
with the lower roof of the orbits. Postcranial skeleton: fragments from the diaphysis of the ribs, fragments
from cervical vertebrae, fragments from the diaphysis part of the upper and lower limbs (cortical layer
3–5 mm). Sex determination: the characters of the skull (external protuberance of occipital bone, mastoid
process) indicate a male. Age determination: the ecto- and endocranial sutures, dimension of the long
bones present the signs of an adult (Adultus, over 30 years old).
Grave 15. Weight of bones: 94 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 2. Dimension of bones:
5–44 mm. The bones show a variety of colours ranging from red to brownish grey. Skull: fragments from
the parietal, occipital and temporal bone could be observed with internal acoustic meatus and with opened
sutures. Situation of the teeth: two milk incisors (DI) and four molars from the cell-alveola. Dental formula:
2102. Postcranial skeleton: small fragment from the diaphysis part of the ribs, diaphysis part of the long
bones (cortical layer between 1–2 mm) and fragments from the body of the thoracic vertebrae. Sex deter-
mination: not possible. Age determination: the ecto- and endocranial sutures, the dimension of the long
bones and the eruption phases of the teeth indicate a small child (Infans I, 2–4 years old).
Grave 16. Weight of bones: 994 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 1. Dimension of bones:
2–64 mm. The bones show a variety of colours ranging from red to brown. Skull: fragments from the pari-
etal, occipital and temporal bones with internal acoustic meatus, sphenoid and the frontal bone with the
roof of the orbits (the glabella was preserved), with relatively closed sutures. From the bones of the face
one fragment from the maxilla (left side), fragments from the zygomatic bones and one fragment from
the mandible (right side with the cell-alveola) were recovered. Situation of teeth: M1 (1), C, PM1, PM2,
M1 (2), I2, M2 (3). Dental formula: 2123. Postcranial skeleton: fragments from the diaphysis part of the
ribs, diaphysis part of the long bones (cortical layer varies between 3 and 5 mm), one fragment from the
diaphysis of a humerus, three pieces from the distal epiphysis of the phalanges from the hands, the head
of a femur (diameter of head 41 mm), distal epiphysis of a tibia and one fragment from the right talus.
Sex determination: the characters of the skull and the dimension of the long bones indicate a female. Age
determination: the situation of the teeth, the dimension of the long bones and the ecto- and endocranial
sutures characterize an adult (Adultus, 40–45 years old).
Grave 17. Weight of bones: 20 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 3. Dimension of bones:
5–39 mm. The bones show a variety of colours ranging from red to brownish black. Skull: fragments from
the temporal bones were preserved with internal acoustic meatus, the frontal bone with the roof of the
orbits (left side). The teeth were not preserved. Postcranial skeleton: fragments from the diaphysis part of

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the long bones (cortical layer changes between 1 and 2 mm) and fragments from the diaphysis of the ribs.
Sex determination: not possible. Age determination: the character of the skull and the dimension of the
long bones indicate a child (Infans I, 2–4 years old).
Grave 18. Weight of bones: 312 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 2. The bones show a
variety of colours ranging from red to brownish grey. Dimension of bones: 2–52 mm. The skeleton was
only partially collected from the pyre. Skull: fragments from the parietal, occipital and temporal bones
could be identified, one fragment from the mastoid process, internal acoustic meatus, fragments from the
frontal bone with the roof of the orbits, the sutures were relatively opened. From the bones of the face one
fragment from the maxilla and one fragment from the mandible (left side) were recovered. Situation of
teeth: one premolar was identified. Dental formula: 2123. Postcranian skeleton: small fragments from the
diaphysis of the ribs, fragments from the diaphysis part of the long bones (cortical layer varies between
3 and 5 mm), one fragment from the body of the thoracic vertebra, one fragment from the femur’s end
and one fragment from the right talus. Sex determination: not possible. Age determination: the ecto- and
endocranial sutures, the situation of teeth and dimension of long bones indicate an adult (Adultus, 30–35
years old).
Grave 19. Weight of bones: 86 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 3. The bones show a vari-
ety of colours ranging from brown to greyish black. Dimension of bones: 2–32 mm. Skull: fragments from
the parietal, occipital and temporal bones, with opened sutures. The teeth were not found. Postcranial
skeleton: fragments from the diaphysis part of the ribs, the proximal epiphysis of a radius (first phase in
ossification). Sex determination: not possible. Age determination: the ecto- and endocranial sutures and
the ossification phases of the epiphysis ends indicate a child (Infans II, 7–8 years old).
Grave 20. Weight of bones: 896 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 2. Dimension of bones:
2–90 mm. The bones show a variety of colours ranging from brown to greyish black. Skull: fragments from
the parietal, occipital bone (external occipital protuberance was developed) could be observed, fragments
from the temporal bones with internal acoustic meatus, the frontal bone with the roof of the orbits. From
the bones of the face fragments from the zygomatic bones (left side) and two fragments from mandible
were recovered. The teeth were not found. Postcranial skeleton: fragments from the diaphysis part of the
ribs, fragments from the diaphysis part of the long bones (cortical layer varies between 3 and 7 mm), the
proximal epiphysis of a radius, distal epiphysis of a humerus, one fragment from the ischium bone (part
of pelvis girdle), one fragment from a femur’s head, distal epiphysis of a femur and small fragments from
the epiphysis of the phalanges. Sex determination: the character of the skull and the dimension of the long
bones indicate a male. Age determination: the synostosis of the epiphysis ends show an adult (Adultus, over
25 years old).
Grave 21. Weight of bones: 388 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 2. Dimension of bones:
2–38 mm. The bones show a variety of colours ranging from brown to greyish black. Skull: fragments
from the parietal, occipital and temporal bones could be observed with internal acoustic meatus, as well
as fragments from the sphenoid bone. Situation of the teeth: one canine and one premolar from maxilla,
two incisors and two premolars from the mandible. Dental formula: 2123. Postcranial skeleton: fragments
from the diaphysis part of the ribs, fragments from the diaphysis of the long bones, proximal epiphysis of
a humerus, one fragment from a femur’s head and fragments from the body of the cervical and thoracic
vertebrae. Sex determination: the characters of the skull, the dimension of the long bones show the signs
of a male. Age determination: the situation of the teeth, the dimension of the long bones and the ecto- and
endocranial sutures indicate an adult (Adultus, 30–35 years old).
Grave 22. Weight of bones: 600 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 2. Dimension of bones:
2–83 mm. The bones show a variety of colours ranging from brown to greyish black. Skull: fragments
from the parietal, occipital and temporal bones could be observed with internal acoustic meatus, and
the sphenoid bone. Situation of the teeth: two milk incisors (I) and one molar (M1) from the maxilla (the
tooth had three roots). Dental formula: 2101. Postcranial skeleton: the axis vertebra, one fragment from a
cervical vertebra, small fragments from the diaphysis of the ribs, the proximal epiphysis of the the right
and left humerus (not ossified), diaphysis of the left radius (cortical layer of 2 mm), fragments from the
iliac bone and the ischium bone (parts of the pelvis girdle), proximal epiphysis of the left and right femur
(not ossified), distal epiphysis of the left and right femur, patella, distal epiphysis of the left and right tibia,

72
the left and right talus. Sex determination: not possible. Age determination: the eruption phases of teeth
(first permanent molar), dimension of the long bones and the synostosis of epiphysis ends indicate a child
(Infans II, 7–8 years old).
Grave 23. Weight of bones: 16 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 2. The bones show a vari-
ety of colours ranging from brown to gray. Skull: one fragment from the occipital bone and temporal bones
with internal acoustic meatus. Situation of the teeth: one molar (M1), one fragment from a premolar (PM)
and two other fragments from a molar. At the moment of death the teeth were in the alveola (Dokládal
1970). Dental formula: 2102. Postcranial skeleton: only a few fragments from the long bones and the ribs.
Sex determination: not possible. Age determination: the situation of teeth (Lovejoy 1985; Miles 1963) and
the dimension of the long bones indicate a newborn child (Infans I, 0–2 years).
Grave 24. Weight of bones: 214 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 3. The bones show a
variety of colours ranging from brown to gray, blue and black. Skull: small fragments from the occipital,
parietal, temporal and sphenoid bone, with relatively opened sutures. Situation of the teeth: a canine and
one premolar from the maxilla, one incisor, a canine and one premolar from the mandible. Dental for-
mula: 2123. Postcranial skeleton: small fragments from the diaphysis of the long bones, 8 fragments from
the vertebrae, one fragment from a humerus’ head, one fragment from the proximal epiphysis of the left
humerus, fragments from the diaphysis part of the lower limbs (cortical layer varies between 2 and 4 mm),
head of a femur (diameter of head 46 mm) and fragments from the diaphysis of tibia (cortical layer of
4 mm). Sex determination: the character of the skull, the dimension of the long bones and the head of
one of the femurs indicates a male. Age determination: the ecto-and endocranial sutures show an adult
(Adultus, 25–30 years).
Grave 25. Weight of bones: 124 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 2. The bones show a
variety of colours ranging from brown to gray. Skull: small fragments from the parietal bones, with opened
sutures. Postcranial skeleton: fragments from the diaphysis part of the upper limbs (cortical layer varies
between 2 and 4 mm) and two fragments from the body of the thoracic vertebrae. Sex determination: not
possible. Age determination: not possible.
Grave 26. Weight of bones: 192 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 2. The bones show a
variety of colours ranging from brown to greyish black. Dimension of bones: 2–62 mm. Skull: fragments
from the parietal, temporal and frontal bone with the roof of orbits (with developed glabella). Postcranial
skeleton: fragments from the diaphysis part of the ribs, fragments from the diaphysis of the long bones,
proximal epiphysis of a radius, one fragment from the distal epiphysis of a humerus and one fragment
from the distal epiphysis of a femur. Sex determination: the character of the skull and the dimensions of the
long bones indicate a male. Age determination: the dimensions of the long bones show an adult (Adultus,
over 30 years).
Grave 27. Weight of bones: 784 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 1. Dimension of bones:
5–22 mm. The bones show a variety of colours ranging from brown to gray. Skull: fragments from the pari-
etal, occipital and temporal bones could be observed with internal acoustic meatus (the mastoid process
was fine), fragments from the frontal bone, with opened sutures. From the bones of the face one fragment
from the zygomatic bones was preserved. Situation of the teeth: PM1 (1), PM1, PM2 (2), M1 (2), I1, C,
M1, PM2 (3), PM1 (4). Dental formula: 2123. Postcranial skeleton: fragments from the diaphysis part of
the ribs, from diaphysis part of the long bones, one fragment from a humerus’ head, the head of the right
femur (diameter of head 36 mm), one fragment from the distal epiphysis of a femur and fragments from
the diaphysis of a tibia. Sex determination: the character of the skull, the dimension of the long bones and
the diameter of the femur’s head show a female. Age determination: the ecto- and endocranial sutures and
the situation of teeth indicate an adult (Adultus, 25–30 years).
Grave 30. Weight of bones: 8 g. Phases of heating on human remains: Phase 1. Dimension of bones:
5–22 mm. The bones were mainly yellowish white. Only four small bones (parts of a mandible), one frag-
ment from the sphenoid bone and two small fragments from the diaphysis of the long bones were pre-
served. An accurate examination was not possible, though the dimension of the bones indicate the age of
a small child (Infans I, 0–7 years).

73
Pathological marks
For pathological examination the methods developed of Gy. Farkas (1971) and L. Józsa (2006) were
applied. Accordingly, in two cases pathological changes on bones were observed. Gr.12 showed marks
of spondylitis on the lumbar vertebrae. Although the deceased from this grave was a young person, the
spondylitis in childhood is not surprising because of the irregular nutrition. In Gr. 13, the remains of an
adult female showed marks of spondylitis on the thoracic vertebrae.

***

Concerning the humans of the Bronze Age from the Carpathian Basin two major anthropological
groups could be delimited: one was dated to the period between the 19th and 15th centuries  BC which
covered the Early and Middle Bronze Age and a second one, from the 14th to the 12th century that roughly
grouped the cultures from the beginning of the Late Bronze Age (Farkas–Lipták 1971).
The study of physical anthropology of Bronze Age populations from the eastern part of the Carpathian
Basin is only in its starting phase. The results of the Hungarian anthropologists indicate the presence of
several heterogenic communities, where dolichocranic, meso- and brachycranic skulls appear together
(Kővári et al. 2006). The anthropological image of the different archaeological communities (cultures)
show only a few heterogeneous characters (Bóna 1992): for example, according to the cranial index meas-
urements from the Early Bronze Age most part of the human skulls are dolichocranic, mesocranic which
are typical for the prehistoric series but the brachycranic type is present as well. For the Late Bronze Age
communities the general cranial type became the dolichocranic and the ratio of brachycranic skulls was
low. Such observation for the Luduş cemetery could not be pursued, because inhumation adult skeletons
were not found, therefore a Penrose-type analysis was impossible.
The analysis of cremated bones supplies only scarce information about the deceased, in most cases
only the sex and age of the human remains could be specified. Metric data could not be obtained, neither
morphological characteristics (in case of burning the human skeleton on a low temperature). In such
circumstances the anthropological image of these communities will remain incomplete (Szalay 1995).
In relation to the cemetery from Luduş the number of child graves (12) was relatively high which
indicated an increased infant mortality. Both groups, Infans I and Infans II (0–14 years old) are repre-
sented, most children probably died at birth or shortly after, others probably fell victim of epidemics
around the ages of 5–10. The population did not reach the Adultus-Maturus age period, only one Adultus
(40–45 years old) grave was revealed (Table 6).

Grave Age groups Sex Pathology Grave Age groups Sex Pathology
1 Adultus Male – 15 Infans I ? –
2 Infans II ? – 16 Adultus Female –
3a Iuvenis Female – 17 Infans I ? –
3b Infans I ? – 18 Adultus ? –
4 Iuvenis Male – 19 Infans II ? –
5 Adultus ? – 20 Adultus Male –
6 Infans II ? – 21 Adultus Male –
7 Infans I ? – 22 Infans II ? –
8 Adultus ? – 23 Infans I ? –
9 Infans II – 24 Adultus Male –
10A Adultus Male – 25 ? ? –
10B Adultus Female – 26 Adultus Male –
11 Infans I ? – 27 Adultus Female –
12 Iuvenis ? Spondylitis 29 – – –
13 Adultus Female Spondylitis 30 Infans I ? –
14 Adultus Male –
Table 6. Paleodemography.

74
For the examination of the cremated bones from the cemetery several programs can be used. One of
the most important in all anthropological programs is the 05_demografia.xls program developed by Zs.
Berner in 2005. One can register the grave number, information about age and sex. Then, a micro pro-
gram (part of the 05_demografia.xls program) will complete: a life table of the community, a life table after
numerous corrections of a newborn, a life table of males and females, mortality curves, life expectancy
curves and survivorship curves.
To get a clear answer one has to enter the beginning and the end of the age period (for ex. 25–35) in
separate columns. The interpretation of the queries resulted that the population survived the newborn
period and over 45 years nobody died. Most part of the children died at 1–5 years old (Infans I) and the
population did not reach the Adultus-Maturus age period, while most of adults died at 30–35 years old.
By the numerous corrections of the newborn the total number of children was 12. Therefore, the
Infant mortality was high. During the anthropological analysis 8 males were identified, most of them died
at 20–24 and 30–34 years, only in one case a 40–44 years old male appeared (Table 9). The 5 identified
female died at 25–29 years (Table 10). According to the age distribution of the children, males and females
(Table 11) the major part of the population died between the age of 23 and 35. Examining the life expec-
tancy of the community it can be stated that none lived over 45 years (Table 12).
The survivorship curves indicate (Table 13) that if children survived their first five years, they had
chance to reach the Adult age but none reached the Adultus-Maturus period (40–45 years). In conclu-
sion of the examination of the 27 human skeletons, where age could be determined (Table 14) one can
observe that 13 were adults – 8 males and 5 females – and 12 children with high Infant mortality rate were
identified.

Death Survivors Probability Life


Age * **
No. % entering of death expectancy
groups
(Dx) (dx) (lx) (qx) Lx Tx (ex)
0 1.1 3.75 100.00 0.01 98.13 2024.08 20.24
1–4 5.6 18.81 96.25 0.06 347.38 1925.96 20.01
5–9 4.2 14.11 77.44 0.05 351.93 1578.58 20.38
10–14 1.3 4.44 63.33 0.02 305.56 1226.64 19.37
15–19 2.2 7.22 58.89 0.04 276.39 921.09 15.64
20–24 1.3 4.17 51.67 0.02 247.92 644.70 12.48
25–29 4.4 14.72 47.50 0.09 200.69 396.78 8.35
30–34 4.8 15.91 32.78 0.15 124.12 196.09 5.98
35–39 3.4 11.46 16.87 0.20 55.68 71.97 4.27
40–44 1.5 4.85 5.40 0.27 14.90 16.29 3.01
45–49 0.2 0.56 0.56 0.30 1.39 1.39 2.50
50–99 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 30.0 100.00
Table 7. Life table (* = total years lived between x and x + 5; ** = total years after lifetime; Dx = death no.; dx = death
no. in %; lx = years lived between x and x + 5; qx = probability of death; Lx = survivors entering; Tx = years after
lifetime; ex = life expectancy).

Death Survivors Probability Life


Age * **
No. % entering of death expectancy
groups
(Dx) (dx) (lx) (qx) Lx Tx (ex)
0 15.0 34.19 100.00 0.15 82.91 1399.80 14.00
1–4 5.6 12.86 65.81 0.09 237.53 1316.89 20.01
5–9 4.2 9.65 52.95 0.08 240.64 1079.37 20.38
10–14 1.3 3.04 43.30 0.03 208.93 838.73 19.37
15–19 2.2 4.94 40.27 0.05 188.98 629.80 15.64
20–24 1.3 2.85 35.33 0.04 169.52 440.82 12.48
25–29 4.4 10.07 32.48 0.14 137.23 271.30 8.35

75
Death Survivors Probability Life
Age * **
No. % entering of death expectancy
groups
(Dx) (dx) (lx) (qx) Lx Tx (ex)
30–34 4.8 10.88 22.41 0.21 84.87 134.08 5.98
35–39 3.4 7.84 11.53 0.30 38.07 49.21 4.27
40–44 1.5 3.32 3.70 0.39 10.19 11.14 3.01
45–49 0.2 0.38 0.38 0.44 0.95 0.95 2.50
50–99 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 43.9 100.00
Table 8. Life table after the newborn’s numerous corrections.

Age
(Dx) (dx) (lx) (qx) Lx Tx (ex)
groups
15–19 0.5 6.25 100 0.01 484.38 1600.38 16.00
20–24 0.5 6.25 93.75 0.01 453.13 1116.00 11.90
25–29 2.5 31.25 87.50 0.03 359.38 662.88 7.58
30–34 2.2 28.03 56.25 0.04 211.17 303.50 5.40
35–39 1.9 23.86 28.22 0.07 81.44 92.33 3.27
40–44 0.3 4.36 4.36 0.08 10.89 10.89 2.50
45–49 0.0 0.00 0.00 #DIV/0! 0.00 0.00 0.00
50–99 0.0 0.00 0.00 #DIV/0! 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 8.0 100.00
Table 9. Life table of males.

Age
(Dx) (dx) (lx) (qx) Lx Tx (ex)
groups
15–19 0.0 0.00 100 0.00 500.00 1688.64 16.89
20–24 0.8 15.00 100.00 0.01 462.50 1188.64 11.89
25–29 1.9 38.33 85.00 0.02 329.17 726.14 8.54
30–34 0.8 15.76 46.67 0.02 193.94 396.97 8.51
35–39 0.5 9.09 30.91 0.01 131.82 203.03 6.57
40–44 0.9 18.48 21.82 0.04 62.88 71.21 3.26
45–49 0.2 3.33 3.33 0.05 8.33 8.33 2.50
50–99 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 5.0 100.00
Table 10. Life table of females.

dx Total Males Females


0 34.188
1–4 12.861
5–9 9.646
10–14 3.039
15–19 4.938 6.250 0.000
20–24 2.849 6.250 15.000
25–29 10.066 31.250 38.333
30–34 10.878 28.030 15.758
35–39 7.839 23.864 9.091
40–44 3.315 4.356 18.485
45–49 0.380 0.000 3.333
50–99 0.000 0.000 0.000
Table 11. Mortality curves.

76
ex Total Males Females
0 13.998
1–4 20.010
5–9 20.384
10–14 19.368
15–19 15.641 16.004 16.886
20–24 12.478 11.904 11.886
25–29 8.353 7.576 8.543
30–34 5.982 5.396 8.506
35–39 4.266 3.272 6.569
40–44 3.014 2.500 3.264
45–49 2.500 0.000 2.500
50–99 0.000 0.000 0.000
Table 12. Life expectancy curves.

lx Total Males Females


0 100.000
1–4 65.812
5–9 52.951
10–14 43.305
15–19 40.266 100.000 100.000
20–24 35.328 93.750 100.000
25–29 32.479 87.500 85.000
30–34 22.412 56.250 46.667
35–39 11.534 28.220 30.909
40–44 3.695 4.356 21.818
45–49 0.380 0.000 3.333
50–99 0.000 0.000 0.000
Table 13. Survivorship curves.

Age Death’s No.


Dx
groups females males control
0 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
1–4 5.6 0.0 0.0 0.0
5–9 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0
10–14 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0
15–19 2.2 0.0 0.5 0.5
20–24 1.3 0.8 0.5 1.3
25–29 4.4 1.9 2.5 4.4
30–34 4.8 0.8 2.2 3.0
35–39 3.4 0.5 1.9 2.4
40–44 1.5 0.9 0.3 1.3
45–49 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.2
50–99 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
total 30.0 5.0 8.0 13.0
Table 14. Total table of age groups (Dx = Death No.).

77

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