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TRIBOLOGY
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NEED OF
TRIBOLOGY
Harish Hirani
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
TRIBOLOGY
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WEAR
Harish Hirani
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
600
1
500
Load 2
400 Cr
Load
300
200
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.001 R * Factor
Wear Mechanisms
In present course
Cycling loading induces due to blunt
Abrasive Wear asperities. Fatigue cracks start at the
material surface and spread to the
Adhesive Wear
subsurface regions. The cracks may
Corrosive Wear connect to each other resulting in
Erosive Wear separation delamination of the material
pieces.
Fatigue
Fretting wear is caused by cycling sliding of
Fretting Wear two surfaces across each other with a small
amplitude (oscillating). The friction force
produces alternating compression-tension
stresses, which result in surface fatigue.
Abrasive Wear
Caused by the passage of relatively hard
particles/asperities over a surface.
Micro-cutting: sharp particle or hard asperity
cuts the softer surface. Cut material is
removed as wear debris.
Micro-fracture: abraded material is brittle,
e.g. ceramic. Fracture of the worn surface
occurs due to merging of a number of
smaller cracks.
Micro fatigue: When a ductile material is
abraded by a blunt particle/asperity then
cutting is unlikely and the worn surface is
repeatedly loaded and unloaded.
Removal of material grains: Happens in
materials (i.e. ceramics) having relatively
week grain boundaries.
Abrasive Wear
Twoother mechanisms, very similar
to abrasive wear are:
Erosive wear: Impact of particles against a solid
surface.
Cavitation wear: Localized impact of fluid against a
surface during the collapse of bubbles.
2 – Body Abrasion
Ex: Polishing by emery paper
Two interacting asperities in
physical contact, and one of them
is harder than other.
Normal load causes penetration
of harder asperities into softer
surface thus producing plastic
deformations.
To slide, the material is
displaced/removed from the
softer surface by combined action
of microploughing & micro-
cutting.
“Rabinowicz’s Quantitative
11
Law for 2-B Abrasive
Wear
Assume conical asperities indenting soft
surface during traverse motion.
Assumed that all the material displaced
by the cone is lost as wear debris.
Homogeneous
phase
Wear rate
Heterogeneous phase
Harder/Softer
Three Body Abrasion
Material
removal from softer surface by hard
loose particles.
Lesser sliding distance (< 20%).
K2B = 5*10-3 to 50*10-3; K3B = 5*10-4 to 50*10-4
Such shape
difference may
result in differences
in wear rate by
factor of ten or
more.
Roundness Factor
4A
F 2
P
P Perimeter
Abrasion by M. R. Particles
disc
3 body
abrasion to
2 body
abrasion
WEAR TEST
Making of flat blocks of iron (10*10 mm)
Hardness 1 (3 samples) 15 HRC
Hardness 2 (3 samples) 30 HRC
Hardness 3 ( 3 samples) 50 HRC
Cleaning of blocks with acetone
Drying the blocks with paper
3
3
weight gain (miligram)
0.9
1 15 HRC
0.3 30 HRC
0 50 hrc
-0.2 -0.1
-0.5 -0.4
-1
-1
-2 -1.8
-3 Hardness
ADHESIVE
WEAR
• Second most common form of wear
in industry.
• Mild-wear and severe wear
Adhesive Wear
Adhesive to
abrasive
δW k 1H πa 2
δV k 2 2 π a3 /3
W k1H πa 2
δv
δV
2a
k 2 πa 2 /3
v K1W/3H
v k 2 πa 2 /3
WL
V K1
3H
Understanding of wear constant K1
K1 = 1. Every junction involved in the friction
process produces a wear fragment.
K1 = 0.1. One tenth of the friction junctions
produce wear fragments. For clean gold surfaces
K1 is between 0.1 and 1. For clean-copper
surfaces K1 is between 0.1 and 0.01.
Clean gold surfaces wear about ten times more rapidly
than clean copper surfaces.
K1 = 10-7 means that of the junctions responsible
for friction only one in ten million produces a wear
fragment.
Observation: K1 is a dimensionless constant expresses
the probability of removing a wear particle.
Relation between Coefficient of friction &
Wear constant
Rubbing materials µ K1
Rowe equation
Gold on gold 2.5 0.1 to 1
W
Copper on copper 1.2 0.01 to v K m 1 2
0.1 H
Mild steel on mild steel 0.6 0.01
Observation:
Brass on hard steel 0.3 0.001
Three constants
Teflon on hard steel 0.15 2*10-5 compared to
Stainless steel on hard 0.5 2*10-5 one constant.
steel v K1W/3H
Tungsten carbide on 0.35 10-6
tungsten carbide h
K1 2 P
Polythene on hard steel 0.6 10 -7 l
Some experimental observations
In general K metalmetal K nonmetalmetal
K metalmetal K nonmetalnonmetal
π d4
V Observation: Maximum d =
64 R 20.83. Minimum d= 8.81.
Wear volume, V=k1 W L/3H=πd4/64R
Sliding distance, L = test duration * sliding speed
k1 WL πd 4
3H 64R
d4 .H
or, k12345
time * speed* load
K12345
1.8971
2.259
225 20.5312
0.5301
30
0.5664
50 1.1068
70
100 2.2879
0.9978
Mild Wear
Mild Adhesive Wear: Small wear fragments (0.01 to 1 m).
Mostly surface film such as metal oxides (black
powdered oxide).
Low contact pressure (below transition limit) and sliding
velocity.
At higher velocities, more oxidation replenishes losses due to
break-away of oxide fragment as wear debris.
At higher loads, a hard surface layer (most likely martensite)
is formed on carbon-steel surfaces because of high flash
temperatures, followed by rapid quenching as heat is
conducted into underlying bulk
Severe Wear
Severe Adhesive Wear : If load increases, the oxide film
cracks off, exposing fresh metal which welds and wear rate
may increase several hundred fold. Removal of fresh
20 to 200 m metallic particles material
Seizure
“to bind” or “fasten together”.
Causes:
Poor heat dissipation
Poor lubrication or improper
lubricant.
Smaller Clearance.
Installation error (Excessive load).
Iron oxide
Stages
1. Sliding surfaces chemically interact
with environment (humid/industrial
vapor/Acid)
2. a reaction product (like oxide,
chlorides, copper sulphide)
3. Wearing away of reaction product
film.
Ve K A(α) i(v) M
i(v) particle_vel
n
Ve K A(α) i(v) M
i(v) particle_vel
n
Use magnetic or
electromagnetic field for
interaction with object
Filter
Ex: Engine particle (sand) separator
US Patent 5,139,545
Surface
cracks !! t
Dislocation
cells
Reciprocal
sliding
Materials with
inclusions
FATIGUE WEAR DURING
SLIDING.....
Planes of steel
weakness. Tungsten carbide on 0.35 10-6
Inclusions tungsten carbide
Polythene on hard steel 0.6 10 -7
Cracking
Meaning = breaking,
splitting, or snapping apart
Results : Complete failure
Causes : Excessive load
with vibration.
Loose fit, excessive impacts
Solutions
Correction of fits
Vibration isolation
Fretting Wear
FRETTING:
coined in 1927.
Refers to small (1 to 300
m) high frequency
Surf 1
oscillatory movement
mainly originated by
vibration Surf 2
Occurs in mech. Assemblies
(press fit parts, rivet / bolt without gross sliding
joints, strands of wire ropes,
rolling element bearings)
Fretting Wear
H. HIRANI
How does pitting failure occur?
Pitting is a fatigue wear.
Reversible stresses are main
cause of such failure.
Fig 9: Normal load on cam surface vs cam angle
3000
2500
Normal load, N
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Cam angle, degrees
2/29/2016
60
50
40
Pressure angle, degree
30
20
10
0
-10 0 60 120 180 Fig 9:240
Normal load 300
on cam surface
360 vs cam angle
-20
3000
-30
-40 2500
Normal load, N
-50 2000
Cam angle, degrees
• Angle between
1500
1000
direction of motion 500
& axis of 0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
transmission. Cam angle, degrees
Cam (radial)
groove to trap
roller follower.
𝑉 𝐾1 𝑊 ℎ𝑃 𝐾1 𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑃
= =
𝐿 𝐻 𝑑𝑡 𝐻
ℎ 𝐾1 𝑃 𝐾1 𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑃
= ℎ𝑃 , 𝑁 = ℎ𝑃, 𝑁 − 1 + 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 𝐻 𝐻
ℎ 𝐾1 𝑃 𝑉
=
𝑡 𝐻
What is Tribology ?
TRIBOS (Greek word) = RUBBING (English word)
triboLOGY (term coined in 1966) = Science of Rubbing
A science that deals with friction, lubrication and wear
in all contacting pairs.
Tribological knowledge helps to Improve service life,
safety and reliability of interacting machine
components; and yields substantial economic benefits.
Few Examples requiring tribological
knowledge
Adhesive wear
F
stress on smooth surface
A
F
stress on rough surface
A
Surface Roughness
Surface roughness is vertical deviations from
nominal surface/line. Larger the deviations, rougher
the surface.
Roughness
changes with
operating time.
Average Roughness (Ra)
Root Mean Square Roughness (Rq)
Quantification of
Surface Roughness
Ra z1 z2 ... zn1 zn / n z x dx
1 l 2
Rq
l 0
17
Segmented
surfaces.
WEAR Rate
hmin
2
Rrms ,a R 2
rms ,b
Combustion
Cylinder liner Approximately
space
Direction of piston motions
15% energy is
lost through
Piston Lubricant friction due to
rings injection
holes motion of
pistons, valve
trains, bearings
Piston
etc.
Piston rod
Economic Benefits: Examples
TRIBOLOGY
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Fek8d00kWw FRICTION
THEORIES
Harish Hirani
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Observations:
1. Under dry lubricant
conditions, ranges
between 0.1 to 1.0 for
most of the materials.
2. Very thin lubrication
reduces coefficient by 10
times.
Comparison among various Material Pairs
60
Friciton Force (N)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Applied Force (N)
Difference between the static and
kinetic friction may initiate ‘stick-slip’.
Observations
1. > 1.0.
2. depends on environment,
hardness, and chemical
composition.
3. Very thin and thick lubrications
reduce by 10 and 100 times,
respectively.
4. Tribo-pair consisting of similar
materials have higher tendency of
.
5. Difference between may initiate
friction instability.
W n(0.5 *r ) H 2
F n (rh) H
2
d cot
Cone Angle vs d
5 7.271 • Generally slopes of
10 3.608 real surfaces are lesser
20 1.748 than 10° (i.e. > 80°),
30 1.102 therefore d 0.1.
40 0.758
50 0.534
60 0.367 • Conclusion: Total ,
70 0.231 should not exceed 0.3.
80 0.112 • Spherical asperity ??
85 0.055
Ploughing by Spherical Asperity
Vertical projected area of contact Rh
A R 2 cos 1 R h 2 Rh h
2
R
A n0.5 * r 2
or
A n 0.5 * 0.5 d
2
d 2
or An
8
d 2
W n H 2hd
8 F n H
3
2hd 8 16 h 16 h h
d 0.6
3d 2
3 d 3 8h R R
Ploughing by Spherical Asperities
………
h/R (%)
1 0.060
2 0.085
3 0.104
4 0.120 • Generally h << R, therefore
5 0.134 d 0.1. If h~R, especial
6 0.147 precaution is required to
7 0.159 reduce friction
8 0.170
9 0.180 • Conclusion: Total , should not
10 0.190 exceed 0.3.
Friction Theories
Adhesion a
s
μa
H
Deformation by
Conical Asperities
2 h
μd cotθ 0.64
π r
Deformation by
Spherical Asperities
h
μd 0.6
R
Can we use stress relations ??
Transition
in friction
coefficient
Determining coefficient of friction using
Solid Mechanics --- Junction Growth
W F
W
Fig: Two contacting surfaces
W
2 σx 0
σx σy σx σy σ y W A
σ1,2 τ xy2
2 2 xy F A
2
δW δW
δA σ1 δF
2
1
2 2
w here σ1 is first principal stress,and
δA is elementalarea
2
δW δW
δA σ 2 δF
2
2
2 2
where σ 2 is second principal stress
2
δW
δA σ1 σ 2 2 δF
2
2
Junction Growth
If yield strength of material is and σ y σ1 σ 2
shear strength
τ y 0.5 σ y
2
δW
δA. τ y δF
2
F =f (A) ????
2
Constant
Friction increases area of contact
2
Flimiting
μ 2
A max τ y
W
A max τ i
2 2
W
2
τ i A max 1 0.005
μ 10 0.050
2 ( τ y τ i )A max
2 2 2
Generally interface 20 0.102
τi 0.5 of pure metals 30 0.157
μ surface is 5-10% 40 0.218
2 (τ y τi )
2 2
τy
2
weaker than bulk 50 0.289
1 metal. 60 0.375
τ
i 70 0.490
Observation: Ratio of shear strengths 80 0.667
decides 90 1.032
99 3.509
How to reduce Junction Growth
Contamination: A few molecules thick oxide
layer (encountered with metals in air) on the
surface can reduce the friction (i.e. = 0.1 to
0.3).
Ball bearings:
Material: Hard steel
Stresses: Within elastic limits (not high enough to produce
plastic flow of the balls).
Losses: Hysteresis losses ( 1 percent) Low rolling
resistance (µ≅0.001).
In practice the balls must be surrounded by it cage
to separate them and prevent the rubbing on one
another. But sliding between the cage and balls
occurs, and this sliding friction is often far greater
than the rolling friction.
Lubricants are used to reduce the sliding friction between
balls and cage and to prevent corrosion of the metal parts.
Example: Automobile Tires
In free rolling the tire is deformed as it meets the
road surface and recovers as it leaves. If there is
negligible slip between tire and road the energy loss
is not large and = 0.01 to 0.03. However, If the tire
is made of a rubber with a higher hysteresis loss (or
filled with lesser air-pressure), the rolling friction is
larger and there is a larger power loss.
High hysteresis loss by tire, increases
controllability (better gripping of the road during
accelerating, decelerating or cornering) and
comfort (acts as shock absorber in passing over
rough road ).
Example
Determine coefficient of friction between
SMOOTH surfaces of aluminum and steel
metals under dry, oily and solid-lubricated
conditions. Assume shear strength of steel
as 300 MPa, and shear strength of
aluminum as 100 MPa. Interface shear
strength of 2MPa, 150 kPa and 50 kPa has
been observed for dry, solid-lubricated,
and oil lubricated conditions respectively.
0.5
μ 50
0.01 SFA:
2
τy 667 0.00075 Surface
1 2000 0.00025 Force
τi Apparatus
Friction Induced Vibrations (Instability)
Difference between static and kinetic friction
Fig 5: Speed vs torque
coefficients, initiates a “stick-slip” process.
80
Instantaneous sliding 70
speed of an object 60 00 amp
does not remain close 50 .2amp
torque
to the average sliding 40 .4 amp
30 .6amp
speed.
• Vibration- Shock 20
10
• Braking noise.
0
• Rate of friction force 0 200 400 600 800 1000
speed
Observation: friction coefficient decreases as velocity
increases.
Friction Induced Vibrations (Instability)
Possible reasons for
stick-slip phenomenon:
• Interlocking of
asperities during stick
phenomenon
• Adhesion during stick
action
• Electrostatic charge
during stick event
CaseI : Underdamped, ζ 1
?<0
x Ae ζωn t Sin ωn t 1 ζ 2 φ
CaseII : Overdamped, ζ 1
ζ ζ 1 ω t
2 ζ ζ 1 ω t
2
x A 1e
A 2e
n n
20
Di spl acem ent vs ti m e
Negative damping
10
0
displacement
-10
-20
-30
-40
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
ti m e
Forced damped vibrations
d2 x dx
M 2 C Kx F (t )
dt dt
In the present case external force, Ft , is friction force.
2 Negative
d x dx
M 2 f kx F(t) sign
dt dt
d2 x dx
Rearranging M 2 C λ Kx Fs
dt dt
x Ae ζωnt Sin ωn t 1 ζ 2 φ
Friction instability
.8
.6
.4
.2
0
-.2
displacement
-.4
-.6
-.8
-1
-1.2
-1.4
-1.6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
time
Harish Hirani
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
• Boundary lubrication,
<1
• Mixed lubrication,
1<<3
• Hydrodynamic
lubrication, >5
Manual (< 1 m/s)
• Elastohydrodynamic, Motorized (Spray or continuous: > 10 m/s)
Splash (Mechanical, gravity: 2 m/s < V<
3<<5 10 m/s)
3
Reduces stress concentration. How Liquid
Lubricants Help
5
Thin Lubrication
Lubrication in Bone joints
Femur
Articular cartilage
Joint capsule
SYNOVIAL FLUID
Ligament
• Contain proteins that stick Joint (synovial) fluid
to cartilage layer resulting space
in smooth sliding
• coefficient of friction ~ 0.01
Tibia
Thick & Thin Lubrications
The head of the molecule is attracted to the metal surface, while the tail
is compatible with the lubricant carrier.
10
11
Physisorption
Physisorption or “physical adsorption’
(physical bonding by van der Waals force) –
Molecules of adsorbate may attach or
detach from a surface without any irreversible
changes to the surface or the adsorbate
Surface active molecules of oiliness additives are
attracted to surface by electrostatic (dipole)
forces.
Energy is lowered when the molecules adsorb on the
surface.
12
13
2-10 nm long
hydrophobic
chains
Chemisorption
Is a form of corrosion
Duringeach contact the chemical layer is
rubbed off the surface and has to be reformed
before next contact come round. Surface is
therefore slowly worn away so the additive
must be chosen with care.
Must be active enough to protect the surface, but not so
active that it corrodes violently at high temp.
18
Chemisorption
Physically absorbed boundary additive
detach/decompose/melt at high
temperature
To form a chemically bound layer three
things are needed:
Surfactant must be chemically active
Metal surface also must be reactive
Surface must be free enough of physisorbed
meterial for the chemical reaction to take place.
Temperature Gap between physical and
chemical is known as “Temperature Distress
Gap”.
Physisorption Chemisorption
Desirable properties from a
boundary lubricant
Dissolvability
in lubricating oils
Resist penetration by surface asperities.
the long chain alcohols, amines and fatty acids.
Low shear strength to give a low friction.
High melting point so that it provides solid-film
protection up to a high temperature.
Extreme Pressure Lubricants
In slow but highly loaded tribo-metallic-pairs, specific film
thickness is almost negligible. Rubbing and welding become
very likely. Normal boundary lubrication additives (e.g.,
antiwear additives) cannot adequately prevent wear. Higher
temperatures and pressures increase stresses in the
lubricant film and failure occurs. .
Chances of severe adhesive wear are very high as the
lubricating oil viscosity can no longer provide the necessary film
thickness.
EP additives are polar molecules a “head” and a “tail.” These
additives (i.e. boron, chlorine, phosphorus, and sulfur) are
temperature dependent. They are activated by reacting with the
metal surface particularly at the elevated temperatures. New
compounds such as iron chlorides, iron phosphides and iron
sulfides are formed, which acts as a barrier to reduce friction,
wear, and eliminate the possibility of welding.
Basically, EP additives provide protection from wear when the
lubricant viscosity itself can no longer separate the working
surfaces.
21
A solidlubricant is a
material used as
powder or thin film to
reduce friction and
wear.
Often termed as dry-film
lubricants
Examples:
Inorganic compounds
graphite and molybdenum
disulfide (MoS2 )
Polymer material, PTFE
(polytetrafluoroethylene)
25
Advantages of solid lubricants
26
.
(1) More effective than fluid lubricants at high loads.
(2) High resistance to deterioration in storage.
(3) Highly stable in extreme temperature, pressure, radiation, and
reactive environments.
(4) Permit equipment to be lighter and simpler because lubrication
distribution systems and seals are not required.
Molybdenum Disulfide
Strengths
•Film thickness ~ 15 m
Perfect Structure
Distorted Structure
Primary
Seal
Solid lubricants as Bonded Coating
Made up of a combination of binders & lubricating
pigments.
Organic binders: resins. Stability < 300°C.
Inorganic binders such as metal salts or ceramics.
Temperature stable (permit bonded films to be used in
temperatures above 650°C).
Application by spraying, dipping, or brushing.
Spraying: Commonly used.
Dipping: Less expensive
Note:
Surface preparation is very important to remove contaminants
and to provide good surface topography for lubricant
adhesion.
Air-cured coatings are temperature sensitive.
Heat-cured coatings can tolerate higher temperature .
(c) Carbon and graphite:
• Primary limitations of bulk carbon are
low tensile strength and lack of ductility.
However, their high thermal and
oxidation stabilities at temperatures of
500 to 600°C enable use at high
temperatures and high sliding speeds.
Graphite
Strengths
Moderate Loads (< 275 MPa)
Low Friction
High Temp stability
Weaknesses
Corrosion
Vacuum Detrimental to performance
Performance of Graphite in Water
NOTE: Maximum seal wear occurs under complete water environment, and
minimum wear occurs under vapor lubrication.
High thermal stability (2000°C)
Practical application is limited to a range of 500 to 600°C
due to oxidation.
Low friction
Low friction relies on adsorbed moisture or vapors to
achieve. At temperatures as low as 100°C, amount of
water vapor adsorbed may be significantly reduced to
the point that low friction cannot be maintained.
During world war II, aircraft flew at higher altitude and
electric motor brushes failed. Research into this
problem revealed that graphite requires an adsorbed
layer of water vapor to lubricate effectively.
Corrosion
Graphite promotes electrolysis. Graphite has a very
noble potential of + 0.25V, which can lead to severe
galvanic corrosion of copper alloys and stainless steels
in saline waters.
40
P-V Approach
Solid-or boundary- lubricated bearings are
limited in load carrying capacity and rubbing
speed. Limit on P, V and PV
Productof loading pressure, sliding speed
and coefficient of friction identifies the
rate energy release at the bearing surface.
Since non-fluid film bearings are limited in their
ability to dissipate heat, the P-V approach is often
employed to design solid- or boundary- lubricated
bearing.
Bearing Design using Solid
Lubricants
STRENGTH:
1/3 of maximum compressive strength.
WEAR:
Volume of wear = specific wear rate* Applied load* distance of
sliding
v kWd h kPVt
PV factor: Limiting ‘PV’ above which wear increases rapidly either
as a consequence of thermal effects or of stresses approaching
to elastic limit
Temperature
At high speeds, generation of frictional heat raises the
temperature of surface layers and this tends to increase specific
wear rate. To estimate: Area for heat flow path A = project area = LD
Friction force F= W. Power Loss = FV 𝑇𝑎 = 𝑇𝑂 + 𝐶𝜇𝑊𝑉
Energy Dissipation per unit area = WV/A => PV C varies between 0.1 to
1.0 depending on
thermal conductivity.
Design Considerations 42
Example:
Assume a shaft running at 1000 rpm is supported on
a dry bearing. Shaft dia = 1 inch and L/D = 1.
Applied load = 1200 lbf.
Velocity limit is 1180 ft/min
Pressure limit is 2000 psi
PV factor is
PV limit is 110,000 psi-ft/min
performance criterion.
Bearing safety ?????
Material Max Temp, C PV (MN/(m.sec) P (MPa) V (m/sec)
Nylon 90 0.9 5 3
PTFE, Filled 250 0.53 17 5
Polycarbonate 105 0.03 7 5
Phenolics 120 0.18 41 13
Carbon 400 0.53 4.1 13
graphite
44
Calculation of
average pressure =
1200/(1*1) psi
(8.273709 MPa)
bearing is safe
Calculation of
velocity = .D.N. =
3.14*(1/12)* 1000 =
261 ft/min (1.326
m/s) bearing is
safe
Calculation of PV
limit = 1200 psi * 261
= 313,000 psi-ft/min Bearings are available in a
bearing will fail. range of thickness.
Three main areas:
45
• Fluids are ineffective, as at low
or high temperatures.
Wear rate <
0.25 m/hour • Fluids cannot be tolerated
because of the possibility of
contamination of the product.
• Fluids are undesirable because
of lack of maintenance.
v kWd
v kW V t
v k W V
h
3.32 10 07
10 mm 09 3
10 10 mm 2
0.24
h 3.32 0.2 mm Glass fibers, graphite,
molybdenum, powdered
4 metals.
Material Wear factor k, 10-15 m2/N
No Filler Filler No Filler Filler
Nylon 4 0.24 0.61 0.18
Porous Bearings
Made of powdered metals
Pressed/Compressed in dies (Voids~ 16% up to 36% volume)
Sintered Sintering causes powdered metal to fuse into a
strong compact.
Submerged in oil for impregnation.
Bearings are finish-sized in punch press to close tolerances.
Porous Bearings
Quantification by
specific film thickness
Case 1: Surface roughness of
journal & bearing are given as
0.25 µm and 0.50 µm
respectively. The minimum
film thickness is 4µm. The
specific film thickness ???
Low
cycle fatigue wear… Asperity/debris contact
remains plastic upto formation of wear particle.
Few
important
points
Sliding velocity is zero at pitch point. At all other
contact points, the relative motion is rolling + sliding.
The sliding velocity is directly proportional to the
distance between the pitch point and point of
contact The maximum sliding velocity occurs with
contacts at the tooth tips Gear teeth with longer
addenda have higher sliding velocities than gears
with shorter addenda.
dp
u p ,i p sin yi
2 vi u p ,i u g ,i
dg
u g ,i g sin yi
2
Rolling velocity
dp
u p ,i p sin yi
2
vi u p,i u g ,i First contact is between a
dg point near the root of the
u g ,i g sin yi
2 driving tooth and a point at
the tip of the driven tooth
signs indicate the position of point of
contact along pressure line. Negative
sign shows that the point of contact lies
between center and pitch points.
dp
u p ,i p sin yi
2
dg
u g ,i g sin yi
2
Gears
Shafts Gearbox
Bearings
Motor
Seal
Lubricant
Loading device
Can we mount vibration sensor on gears ?
Every tribo-system either
involves sliding or rolling
motion.
Vibration ???
Rotating Machinery Durability, performance
VIBRATION
CHARACTERISTICS
Vibration: tends to
increase. Different
mechanical elements
of a
machine/mechanism
produce energy at
different frequencies.
Separating frequencies
may provide
advanced warning of
the fault development.
Trend analysis Comparative analysis
2/29/2016
Dr. H. Hirani
Failure Analysis using Fourier Transform
FT
gives the average
characteristics of signal
during the whole
6
analysis period. 4
Usually FT is performed 3
certain number of 0
samples.
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Forbetter accuracy
increase the number of
data (N). Noise decreases Signal to noise ratio
by 1/N times.
2/29/2016
2/29/2016
Dr. H. Hirani
Ex…. continue Samples Samples Samples
in cycle 1 in cycle 2 in cycle 3
If
speed is 6000 rpm
No. of data 36,000
1 1 1
If speed varies by one
(5999 or 6001) 2 2 2
variation in number of …. . .
data 06. . . .
It is very difficult to . . .
control speed exactly . . .
equal to 6000 Few . . .
rpm fluctuation is . . .
common. Often speed . 35940 .
varies in range of 5990 36000 .
to 6010 36,00060. 36060
2/29/2016
Ex…. continue
2/29/2016
In such situation, de-noising (average over a number of cycles) may
generate spurious signals.
Hence digital re-sampling (a computer code that creates 36,000 data
per cycle) is essential.
Narrowband
Broadband
Signature
2/29/2016
Dr. H. Hirani
2/29/2016
8
6
Acceleration (V) 2
0
-2 0 800 1600 2400 3200 4000 4800 5600 6400
-4
-6
-8
Number of data in 25 cycles
Dr. H. Hirani
Fresh oil
Used oil
Functions of gear oils
Control friction & wear
Remove heat generated by friction
Protection against dirt & rust
Lubricant Contamination
Lubricant Additive Depletion
How to improve conditions
ISO Nominal Allowable
Nominal Viscosity Tolerance range
Viscocity viscosity at 50 Flash
at 40 deg C at 40 deg C
grade deg C Temperature
mm^2/sec(cSt) mm^2/sec(cSt)
(VG) mm^2/sec(cSt) Limit Deg C
VG-22 22 19.8 - 24.2 15.2 112
VG-32 32 28.8 - 35.2 21.5 126 SAE
VG-46 46 41.4 - 50.6 30 140 classification
VG-68 68 61.2 - 74.8 45 153 system is a
VG-78 78 75 - 85 50 161 way of
VG100 100 90 - 110 61 168 defining how
VG-150 150 135 - 165 90 180 thin or how
VG-220 220 198 - 242 128 188 thick an oil
VG-320 320 288 - 352 182 194 is.
Machine element 1
Machine element 2
Online:
• Optical measurement of
turbidity to estimate
particle concentration.
• Pressure drop across filters
of various pore sizes to
indicate particle size
distribution. .
Online Sensor Suite
Total ferrous wear debris sensor: Measures ferrous density,
resulting from the wear debris within the lubricant. Provides data in parts per
million (ppm). Increase in the ppm value of the sensor intimates the
deterioration of the gears.
Oil condition sensor: Checks the combined effect of TAN and a
change in viscosity; and expresses quality as oil degradation on a 0-100
scale.
Moisture sensor: Measures relative humidity (0-100%). Water in oil can
increase the oxidation rate of the lubricant by more than ten times.
Three cases:
Case 1: Oil without adding
acid;
Case 2: Two drops of acid is
added to the oil;
Case 3: Four drops of acid in
the lubricating oil
Offline oil analysis Techniques
(1) Direct reading ferrograph;
(2) Analytical ferrograph;
(3) Scanning electron
microscope.
Direct Reading
Ferrograph
Offline oil analysis Techniques
In Ferrography (direct and analytical) wear debris and contaminant
particles are separated from a lubricant and arranges them according
to size on a transparent substrate (glass slides) for examination.
Torque sensor
Torque indicator
H. Hirani
Viscosity Temperature Relationship
For all liquids
viscosity
decreases as
the temperature
increases, but
rate of
decrease varies
considerably.
VI = Viscosity
Index
NOTE: A change in thermal energy by addition or subtraction
of heat varies molecular activity within liquid, therefore
viscosity must always be related to the temperature at which it
was determined.
Viscosity Index
Relates change of viscosity with
temperature (at 37.8 0C and L U
VI 100
98.90C) to two arbitrary oils L H
(having viscosities L & H at 37.8 U is viscosity at
0C), one based on a
37.8 0C of oil sample
Pennsylvania crude oil and one in Centistokes.
on gulf coast oil.
HighVI from mineral oils can be
obtained by:
Remove aromatics (low VI) during
refining stage
Blending with high viscous oil
Using polymeric additives
VISCOSITY Temperature Relationship
Vogel' s Equation η ke b/(Tθ) k gives inherent viscosity.
b has units of temp. b increases with increase in viscosity.
Walther' s Equation loglog(cS 0.6) constant clogT
SAE ISO Viscosity In cSt VI
grade grade 400c 1000c 1300c
Polymer
chains
Relationship τ p 0.0; n 1
Bingham Fluid
1600
200
0
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000
Shear Thinning
Effectiveness of multigrade oils is affected by the shear rate,
the rate at which the oil has to pass through confined spaces.
At high shear rate, viscosity of multigrade oil may be little or
no different from that of base oil.
τ i τ p ηb du
dh
n
τ p 0.0; n 1
K μ2 γ
μ μ1 ;
K μ1γ
2 2
u w
γ
y y
Which Oil
Selection of the proper lubricant is an important
for better operational life of the tribo-system.
High Speed High Load
Better circulation
Flow
cleansing and cooling. rate
Before making your decision, evaluate required
functions, lubricant film thickness, lubricant
capability availability.
Characteristic of good lubricating oils:
high boiling point, Drip, wick, circulation,
low freezing point, batch, air-oil mist
adequate viscosity
high resistance to oxidation and heat,
non-corrosive properties
stability to decomposition at the operating
temperatures.
Classification of Liquid Lubricants
• Vegetable (Castor, Rapeseed)
oils
Less stable (rapid oxidation) than
mineral oils at high temp.
Contain more natural boundary
lubricants than mineral oils
Animal fats
Extreme pressure properties.
Availability problem.
Mineral oils
Synthetic lubricant
Viscosity does not vary as much
with temperature as in mineral oil
rate of oxidation is much slower
cost
115
Lower VI (15-75)
Less resistant to oxidation
Lower flash points than paraffinic
Lower pour point than paraffinic therefore
good for low temperature applications
When burnt soft deposits are formed,
therefore abrasive wear is lower
Oxidation leads to undesirable sludge type
deposits
Synthetic Oils
Expensive, but applied where mineral oils are
inadequate.
Oxidation & viscosity loss at high temperature Most of new
Combustion or explosion cars use
Solidification at low temperature Synthetic oils.
Question: Out of all lubrication mechanisms which is the best and why?
Answer: Different lubrication mechanisms are used as per different
requirements and applications and it would be difficult to categorize as one of
them as best. There are different types of lubrication mechanisms like fluid film
lubrication, elastohydrodynamic lubrication, boundary lubrication; and each
one has different usage. Elastohydrodynamic lubrication provides minimum
friction and zero wear, therefore it is preferable compared to other lubrications,
but operating regime of EHL is very narrow.
Notable points:
Negligible effect of load on minimum
film thickness hmin α W-0.075
increases.
Lubricant Z
Mineral oil, typical value 0.60
Synthetic Oils
PAO synthetic hydrocarbon 0.45
Diester 0.47
Polyol ester 0.48
Polymethylsiloxane 0.49
Castol oil 0.43 0 eP
Rapeseed 0.42
Pressure Viscosity variation
(Pa) or multiplier
Pressure-viscosity coefficient. 1.e5 1.0010
remain in the range of 10-8 to 2*10-8 /Pa. 1.e6 1.0101
1.e7 1.1052
1.e8 2.7183
ELASTOHYDRODYNA
In rolling contact elements (bearings,
MIC LUBRICATION gears) generated fluid film is minutely
small slightly greater than irregularities
of the surfaces, but serve much longer
than predicted by mixed lubrication
theories.
2b << d1
b 2
F p rd dr
r 2
b
F 2 Pmax 1 rdr
b
0 0 0
r 2
3 F p Pmax 1
Pmax b
2 b 2
1 F 2
2
1 F 2
2
1 1
2E2 r
2E1r
1 2 b 2 Pmax 1 r b 2
r , 1
rd dr
2E1
1
0 0
r
1 2 2 b Pmax 1 r b 2
1
1
rdr
2E1 r
0
1
b 1 1 2 Pmax
.
Substituting
2 E1 2
3F
Pmax
b 1 2 Pmax 2b 2
2
2 .
2
2 E2
1 2
1 bP 2
1 12
1 2
1 2
2
3F
1 2 1 2
max
E1 E2 8b
E1 E2 4
1 OB OC
1 R1 OA 2 AC 2
1 R1 R12 b 2
2
b
1 R1 1 1
R1
1 b 2
1 R1 1 1 negligible _ term
b2
2 R1 1 b2
2R1 Similarly 2
2 R2
Effective radius 1
1
1
1 12 1 2 2 F
b 0.75
*
R R1 R2 3
Equivalent elastic modulus E1 E2 1 R1 1 R2
1
2
1 1 1 22 F
*
b3 0.75R*
E E1 E2 E*
Example: A ball thrust bearing (as shown in Figure) with 7
balls is loaded with 700N across its races through the
balls. Diameter of spherical balls is 10mm. Assume load is
equally shared by all balls, and race is a flat surface
(R2=). Determine the size of contact patch on the race.
Assume Poisson’s ratio = 0.28 and E=207 GPa for ball and
race material.
Pmax
3
2
F
2
Pmax
3 F E
1
3 *
2
3
* F
3
0.75 R *
E 2 0.75 R* 2
3
x 2 y 2
p Pmax 1
b a
Length of cylinder is much larger
than its diameter, pressure
variation in y dir. is neglected.
x 2
p Pmax 1 Roller bearings, Gears
b
Cylindrical Contacts
x 2
p Pmax 1
b
b
x 2
F 2 L Pmax
0
1 dx
b
x b sin
2
F 2 LPmax b cos 2 d
0
2 F
F bLPmax Pmax
2 bL
Hydrodynamic
Lubrication
Bearing cap
z
y
x
No pressure development within the parallel surfaces.
H. Hirani
Fluid mechanics concepts….
z
y
x
Fig: Positive pressure gradient at exit
and negative pressure gradient at
entrance
Pressure driven flow
W
u w
h h h
0 x dy 0 dv 0 z dy 0
h 3 P Uh h 3 P Wh
Vh V0 0
x 12 x 2 z 12 z 2
h 3 P h 3 P Uh Wh
Vh V0
x 12 x z 12 z x 2 z 2
h 3 P h 3 P
For hydrostatic 0
x 12 x z 12 z
h 3 P h 3 P U dh
For hydrodynamic case, vel. in x-dir
x 12 x z 12 z 2 dx
Pressure Viscosity Term In Reynold’s Equation
0 eP
h 3 p h 3 p h
6U
x x z Z x
3 P p 3 P p h
h e h e 6 0U
x x z z x
1 e P q p p
3 q 3 q h
q e h h 6 0U
x x x x z z x
Idealized Bearings
h3 P h3 P U dh
x 12 x z 12 z 2 dx
3 q 3 q h
h h 60U
x x z z x
one requires solution of this partial differential equation. Assumptions
are made to simplify (idealize) the equation by neglecting lubricant flow
in one (x-dir or z-dir) of the directions. The closed form solution
obtained for idealized bearing provides an understanding of geometric
parameters and their effect on bearing performance.
Long fixed slider
B>5L.
No flow of lubricant in the z-
direction; U
no drop in pressure in the z-
direction dp
0
dz Z X
Y
dh
0.
dz B
h3 P h3 P U dh L
x 12 x z 12 z 2 dx
L
h 3 P U dh h h2 ( L x) tan
x
x 12 x 2 dx
h h2 ( L x)(h1 h2 ) / L U
h2
h const
h
h h2 [1 m(1 x / L)]
h1
dp
6U
dx h 3 X
Y
Long fixed slider
dp
h
2 (1 m (1 )) h2 p 2
mh2
1
x
C1
2
x
6U L 1 m1
x 3
1 m 1
L L
dx h2 (1 m(1 ))
3
L
dp 6U 1
2
dx h2 x 2 x 3
(1 m m ) (1 m m )
L L
6U dx dx
p 2 C1
x
h2 (1 m m ) 2 x
(1 m m )3
L L
Long fixed slider
6UL 2 There are two constants, and C1. To
C1
1
p
2
mh2 x x
2 find the expressions for these
1 m1 1 m1
L L constant two boundary conditions
p=0 at x=0 and at x=L can be used.
1 (1 m) Based on these boundary conditions:
C1 ; and
2m 2(2 m)
6UL 1 m 1 1
p 2
mh2 x x
2
2 m
1 m1 (2 m)1 m1
L L
Load capacity
6U LB L
1 m 1 1 dx
mh2 0
of slider fixed W
pad
2
x x
2
2 m
1 m1 (2 m)1 m1
L L
6UL2 B 2m
W 2 2 log1 m
m h2 m 2
Limit on film
thickness
h dp U L B
F dz dx
2 dx h 0 0
Friction force
(1 m)
h2 [1 m(1 x / L)] 6U 2(2 m) U
L B
1
F ( ) dz dx
0 0
2 h2 (1 m m ) 2 (1 m m )3 h2 [1 m(1 x / L)]
2
x x
L L
(1 m)
L 3
UB 4 (2 m)
F
x
x
dx
h2 0 (1 m m ) (1 m m ) 2
L L
UB L m
F 4 log(1 m) 6
m h2 2 m
Infinitely Long Journal Bearings
Infinitely long journal bearing, length of
the bearing is too large compare to its
diameter. In such a situation pressure
gradient in z-direction will be
negligible.
d h 3 p dh
6U
dx x dx
d h3 p dh
6UR
d d
h c e. cos
Film Thickness
h c e. cos
c RB RJ
e = eccentricity (distance
between OB and OJ)
sin sin
e RB
e2
cos 1 2 sin 2
RB
2
e 2
Wx W cos L p cos .R.d
h RJ e cos RB 1 2 sin 2
RB 0
2
assuming RB>> e Wy W sin L p sin .R.d
0
Eccentricity ratio
One of the very important parameter in journal bearing design
is eccentricity ratio ‘’ which is expressed as
e/c
Extreme values of eccentricity ( = 0 and =1) shall be avoided. If
journal and bearing are concentric ( =0) then load capacity of
hydrodynamic journal bearing will be zero, which means there is no
use of the bearing. Similarly =1 forces shaft to contact bearing
inner surface and rubbing occurs which should be completely
avoided.
dp h hm
6UR
h c(1 cos ) d h
3
dp
h p
3
dh h hm at 0
6UR d
d
6UR d hm d
c 2 (1 cos ) 2 1 cos 3 C1
p
c
6UR d hm d
c 2 (1 cos ) 2 1 cos 3 C1
p
c
cos Sommerfeld
6UR sin (2 cos )
cos
p c 2 (2 2 )(1 cos ) 2
for 0
1 cos substitution 0 for 2
0 0 cos
cos
1 cos
1 2 sin
sin
2 2 1 cos
p
p c2 sin (2 cos )
p
6UR (2 2 )(1 cos ) 2
Infinitely Short Journal Bearings
p p
3 p h
z x h
z z
6U
x
h c1 cos
6 dh z 2
p 3 . . C1 z C2
h d 2
3 L2 sin
p 2 z 2 .
1 cos
3
c 4
p U L2 sin
3 z 2 0.
3
m R 4 1 cos
1 (1 24 2 )
m cos
1
4
L/2
Wx 2 p cos .R.d .dz U L3 sin cos
0 0
2c 2 0 (1 cos )3 d
L/2
Wy 2 p sin .R.d .dz UL3 sin 2
0 0
2c 2 0 (1 cos )3 d
UL3 2
Wx .
c2 1 2 2
1 Wy
tan tan
1 1
2
1
2
UL3
.
Wy . Wx
4
1
3
4c 2 2 2
UL3
W Wx Wy
2 2
1 16
2 2
1
2 2
4c 1
2 2 2
JOURNAL BEARINGS
Friction loss
Flow rate