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Lecture notes:

http://web.iitd.ac.in/~hirani/

TRIBOLOGY
http://www.youtube.com/playlist
?list=PLbMVogVj5nJRCfyN1QEiBsN
Fek8d00kWw
NEED OF
TRIBOLOGY

Harish Hirani
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

IIT Delhi, hirani@iitd.ac.in, harishhirani6982@gmail.com


Lecture notes:
http://web.iitd.ac.in/~hirani/

TRIBOLOGY
http://www.youtube.com/playlist
?list=PLbMVogVj5nJRCfyN1QEiBsN
Fek8d00kWw

WEAR

Harish Hirani
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

IIT Delhi, hirani@iitd.ac.in, harishhirani6982@gmail.com


Defining Wear
Undesirable removal of material from operating solid
surface.
Zero wear
Measurable wear

Worn out rollers increases


sliding to rolling ratio and usage
of rolling element bearing loses
Formation of pit its purpose.
If a pump is installed to pump 3
100 liters of oil per minute but
over time can no longer keep
up and now only pumps 75
liters per minute, then?

Effect of clearance on load


700

600
1
500
Load  2
400 Cr
Load
300

200

100

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.001 R * Factor

Loss of dimensions, change in clearance values.


Wear increases:
1. Power losses,
2. Oil consumption, and
3. Rate of component replacement

Removal of material from operating solid surface by:


 Solid
Load, Velocity, Environment, Materials
 Fluid (liquid/gas)
Velocity, pressure, Environment, Materials
Wear Mechanisms
• More than 34 mechanisms
 Abrasive Wear
 Polishing, scouring, scratching, grinding, gouging…
 Adhesive Wear
 galling, scuffing, scoring
 Cavitation(interaction with fluid)
 Corrosive Wear (Chemical nature)
 Erosive Wear Wear an be classified based on the ways that
the frictional junctions are broken, that is, elastic
 Fatigue
displacement, plastic displacement, cutting,
 Delamination destruction of surface films and destruction of
bulk material.
 Fretting Wear
Polishing Wear

 Due to the transferred layer,


leakage path is minimized.
On increasing operating
speed, the transferred layer
may polishes away and
increases the leakage of
steam and loses the main
function of mechanical seal.
7

Wear Mechanisms

In present course
Cycling loading induces due to blunt
 Abrasive Wear asperities. Fatigue cracks start at the
material surface and spread to the
 Adhesive Wear
subsurface regions. The cracks may
 Corrosive Wear connect to each other resulting in
 Erosive Wear separation delamination of the material
pieces.
 Fatigue
Fretting wear is caused by cycling sliding of
 Fretting Wear two surfaces across each other with a small
amplitude (oscillating). The friction force
produces alternating compression-tension
stresses, which result in surface fatigue.
Abrasive Wear
 Caused by the passage of relatively hard
particles/asperities over a surface.
 Micro-cutting: sharp particle or hard asperity
cuts the softer surface. Cut material is
removed as wear debris.
 Micro-fracture: abraded material is brittle,
e.g. ceramic. Fracture of the worn surface
occurs due to merging of a number of
smaller cracks.
 Micro fatigue: When a ductile material is
abraded by a blunt particle/asperity then
cutting is unlikely and the worn surface is
repeatedly loaded and unloaded.
 Removal of material grains: Happens in
materials (i.e. ceramics) having relatively
week grain boundaries.
Abrasive Wear
Twoother mechanisms, very similar
to abrasive wear are:
 Erosive wear: Impact of particles against a solid
surface.
 Cavitation wear: Localized impact of fluid against a
surface during the collapse of bubbles.

Two basic modes of abrasive wear


are:
Two body abrasion
Three body abrasion
10

2 – Body Abrasion
Ex: Polishing by emery paper
 Two interacting asperities in
physical contact, and one of them
is harder than other.
 Normal load causes penetration
of harder asperities into softer
surface thus producing plastic
deformations.
 To slide, the material is
displaced/removed from the
softer surface by combined action
of microploughing & micro-
cutting.
“Rabinowicz’s Quantitative
11
Law for 2-B Abrasive
Wear
Assume conical asperities indenting soft
surface during traverse motion.
Assumed that all the material displaced
by the cone is lost as wear debris.

• Load carried by nth asperity


wn  H 0.5 *a 2 
• Volume swept by penetrated
asperity:

v  a.x.L x is depth of penetration


L is distance travelled.
or, v  a.a / tan .L
or, v  wn /( 0.5 H tan  ).L
Quantitative Law for 2-B Abrasive Wear
Total wear is sum of the wear caused by individual asperity
n
L  wn
V i 1
0.5 H  tan
Dependence on:
LW
V Normal Load
0.5 H  tan Hardness
V 2 W Micro-structure
Q 
L  tan H
W
QK
H
13

Homogeneous
phase
Wear rate

Heterogeneous phase

Harder/Softer
Three Body Abrasion
 Material
removal from softer surface by hard
loose particles.
 Lesser sliding distance (< 20%).
 K2B = 5*10-3 to 50*10-3; K3B = 5*10-4 to 50*10-4

 Generated locally by oxidation or wear-out.


 Ironoxides wear debris produced during
adhesive wear cause further damage by
abrasion
 Clearancelarger than particle size and filtration
reduce chances.
15

Shape of Abrasive Particles

Such shape
difference may
result in differences
in wear rate by
factor of ten or
more.

Roundness Factor
4A
F 2
P
P  Perimeter
Abrasion by M. R. Particles

disc
3 body
abrasion to
2 body
abrasion
WEAR TEST
 Making of flat blocks of iron (10*10 mm)
Hardness 1 (3 samples) 15 HRC
Hardness 2 (3 samples) 30 HRC
Hardness 3 ( 3 samples) 50 HRC
 Cleaning of blocks with acetone
 Drying the blocks with paper

 Controlling parameter on block on disc wear test

1. Rotational speed 200 rpm


2. Sliding speed 0.9210 m/s
3. Load 5.0 Kg (without current)
Wear measurement = weight of the block before test - weight of
the block after test
CHANGE IN WEIGHT OF BLOCKS AFTER WEAR TEST
Sample 1: Sample 2:
80% carbonyl iron Sample 3:
80% carbonyl iron
19.25% silicon oil Only silicon oil
19.5% silicon oil
0.25% oleic acid 0.25% oleic acid
0.25% TMAH 0.5% TMAH
4

3
3
weight gain (miligram)

0.9
1 15 HRC
0.3 30 HRC

0 50 hrc

-0.2 -0.1
-0.5 -0.4
-1
-1

-2 -1.8

-3 Hardness
ADHESIVE
WEAR
• Second most common form of wear
in industry.
• Mild-wear and severe wear
Adhesive Wear

Very common in metals.


Adhesive Wear
23

• Real area of contact, A = W/H.


For elastic-plastic deformation A = (W/H)n 2/3 < n<1.
Adhesive wear arises from the shearing of the friction
junctions.
• Weaker junction: Shearing occurs in the interface
itself. Mild wear.
• Stronger junction: Shearing will occur a little
distance within the softer metal. Severe wear.
Steps leading to Adhesive Wear
– Deformation of contacting asperities
– Removal (abrasion) of protective oxide surface film
– Formation of adhesive junctions. Work hardening of metal
around junction, which than becomes stronger than
cohesion of soft metal.
– Failure of junction by pulling out large lumps and
transfer of materials
– Modification of transferred fragments.
– Removal of transferred fragments and creation of loose
particles
Steps leading to Adhesive Wear

Adhesive to
abrasive

Observation: Wear may be defined as the gradual removal of discrete


particles from a surface as a result of mechanical action.
Laws of Adhesive Wear
 Wear Volume proportional to
sliding Distance of travel (L)
 True for wide range of conditions
except where back transfer
occurs.
 Wear Volume proportional to the
load (W)
 Dramatic increase beyond critical
load
 Wear Volume inversely
proportional to hardness of softer
material
K 1WL
V
3H
Archard’s Wear Equation
• Assumptions:
– Contact between two surfaces at asperities
 i 
n

– Real area of contact =


th
asperity contact area
i1

– Local deformation – Plastic deformation


δW  k 1H πa 2  
δV  k 2 2 π a3 /3 
W  k1H πa  2
 δv 
δV
2a

 k 2 πa 2 /3 
v  K1W/3H 
v  k 2  πa 2 /3 
WL
V  K1
3H
Understanding of wear constant K1
 K1 = 1. Every junction involved in the friction
process produces a wear fragment.
 K1 = 0.1. One tenth of the friction junctions
produce wear fragments. For clean gold surfaces
K1 is between 0.1 and 1. For clean-copper
surfaces K1 is between 0.1 and 0.01.
 Clean gold surfaces wear about ten times more rapidly
than clean copper surfaces.
 K1 = 10-7 means that of the junctions responsible
for friction only one in ten million produces a wear
fragment.
Observation: K1 is a dimensionless constant expresses
the probability of removing a wear particle.
Relation between Coefficient of friction &
Wear constant
Rubbing materials µ K1
Rowe equation
Gold on gold 2.5 0.1 to 1
W
Copper on copper 1.2 0.01 to v  K m 1  2 
0.1 H
Mild steel on mild steel 0.6 0.01
Observation:
Brass on hard steel 0.3 0.001
Three constants
Teflon on hard steel 0.15 2*10-5 compared to
Stainless steel on hard 0.5 2*10-5 one constant.
steel v  K1W/3H
Tungsten carbide on 0.35 10-6
tungsten carbide h
K1  2  P
Polythene on hard steel 0.6 10 -7 l
Some experimental observations
 In general K metalmetal  K nonmetalmetal
K metalmetal  K nonmetalnonmetal

Depends on degree of Tribological


compatibility of two metals

Kmetal A metal A  Kmetal A metal B

COMPATIBILITY  Reluctance of opposing surfaces


to form a strong interfacial bond
Some Guidelines based on Adhesive Wear
 Forlonger service life or reliability of machines, wear
behavior must be in mild regime.
 Choose Dissimilar metals.
 Under constraint of identical metals, choose the maximum
hardness.

If severe wear behavior cannot be


avoided, such as in ore processing or
earth moving equipments, routine Wear constant
maintenance is essential of Plastics
Many plastics undergo a transition
from mild to severe wear as a
function of sliding speed (that
increase temp.) or combination of
sliding and contact pressure.
Example: To find the best material for a dry journal bearing few
tests were conducted on pin on disk machines. Disk material
remained AISI 1040 steel. While pin materials were: A (225),
B(30), C(50), D (70), and E (100). Find the best material for
following experimental results.

π d4
V Observation: Maximum d =
64 R 20.83. Minimum d= 8.81.
Wear volume, V=k1 W L/3H=πd4/64R
Sliding distance, L = test duration * sliding speed

k1 WL  πd 4

3H 64R
d4 .H
or, k12345 
time * speed* load
K12345
1.8971
2.259
225 20.5312
0.5301
30
0.5664
50 1.1068
70
100 2.2879
0.9978
Mild Wear
Mild Adhesive Wear: Small wear fragments (0.01 to 1 m).
Mostly surface film such as metal oxides (black
powdered oxide).
 Low contact pressure (below transition limit) and sliding
velocity.
 At higher velocities, more oxidation replenishes losses due to
break-away of oxide fragment as wear debris.
 At higher loads, a hard surface layer (most likely martensite)
is formed on carbon-steel surfaces because of high flash
temperatures, followed by rapid quenching as heat is
conducted into underlying bulk
Severe Wear
Severe Adhesive Wear : If load increases, the oxide film
cracks off, exposing fresh metal which welds and wear rate
may increase several hundred fold. Removal of fresh
 20 to 200 m metallic particles material
Seizure
 “to bind” or “fasten together”.

 Causes:
 Poor heat dissipation
 Poor lubrication or improper
lubricant.
 Smaller Clearance.
 Installation error (Excessive load).

Observation: Excessive loading


& heating govern the Seizure
phenomenon.
Wear
Map
sum of all
the wear
mechanisms
Corrosive Wear
Chemical reaction + Mechanical action =
Corrosive wear
Corroding medium: chemical reagent, reactive
lubricant or even air.

Iron oxide
 Stages
1. Sliding surfaces chemically interact
with environment (humid/industrial
vapor/Acid)
2. a reaction product (like oxide,
chlorides, copper sulphide)
3. Wearing away of reaction product
film.

NOTE: Particles of reaction product may act as abrasive.


Observation related Corrosive Wear
Thin corrosive layers play
protective role.
 Growth in thickness
becomes liable for
brittle fracture. Soft
debris!!
 High temperatures
enhance surface
energy, thereby
increase thickness.
 EP additives are
designed based on
CWM.
Erosive Wear
 Caused by the impact of particles (solid/liquid)
against a solid surface.
 Dust particles impacting on gas turbine blades.
 Slurry impacting on pump impeller.
 Erosive wear is function of:
 Particles velocity (K.E.),
 impact angle, and
 size of abrasive

Ve  K A(α) i(v) M
i(v)  particle_vel
n

n  2 to 2.5 for metals


n  2.5 to 3 for ceramics
M  (particle_size)3
Erosive Wear
Ve  K A(α) i(v) M
i(v)  particle_vel
n
 Angle between eroded
n  2 to 2.5 for metals
surface & trajectory of n  2.5 to 3 for ceramics
particle immediately before M  (particle_size)3
impact.
 low impact angle -- cutting
wear prevails. Hardness
resists wear.
 At large angle, fatigue wear
prevails. Soft (ductile)
material may be suitable.
K is the probability of wear
particle formation
Ex: Pneumatic Transportation:
Steel pellets damage (wear out)
elbow. Larger speed, reduced
life

Ve  K A(α) i(v) M
i(v)  particle_vel
n

n  2 to 2.5 for metals


M  (particle_size)3
Case study: pneumatic transportation……………………

Use magnetic or
electromagnetic field for
interaction with object

Ultra mild wear !!

Conclusion: Magnetic field to provide a


protective layer within pipe elbow and reduces
the value of K
Ex: Engine particle (sand) separator

Filter
Ex: Engine particle (sand) separator

US Patent 5,139,545

Light weight materials to absorb particle energy.


Fatigue Wear

• Fatigue is attributed to multiple reversals of


the contact stress.
• Occurs due to cyclic loading:
• Rolling bearings, gears, friction drives, cam &
follower.
• localized fatigue on an asperity scale.

NOTE: Abrasive &


Adhesive wear involve a
large contribution from
fatigue.
FATIGUE WEAR DURING ROLLING

• Steps leading to generation of


wear particles:
 Application of normal load that
induce stresses at contact points
 Growth of plastic deformation per
cycle
 Subsurface crack nucleation
 Expansion of crack due to reversal
of stress
 Extension of crack to the surface
due to traction force
 Generation of wear particles
FATIGUE WEAR DURING SLIDING
 “t” depends on the coefficient of friction.
 Grain structure orients parallel to sliding.
 Maximum shear strain at surface.
 Formation of dislocation cells (void formation, crack
nucleation). In presence
of lubricant

Surface
cracks !! t

Dislocation
cells

Reciprocal
sliding
Materials with
inclusions
FATIGUE WEAR DURING
SLIDING.....

NOTE: High , but low V and low , but high V can be


explained.
Rubbing materials µ K1
Gold on gold 2.5 0.1 to 1
Copper on copper 1.2 0.01 to
0.1
NOTE: High , Mild steel on mild steel 0.6 0.01
but low V and
Brass on hard steel 0.3 0.001
low , but high V
Teflon on hard steel 0.15 2*10-5
can be
explained. Stainless steel on hard 0.5 2*10-5

Planes of steel
weakness. Tungsten carbide on 0.35 10-6
Inclusions tungsten carbide
Polythene on hard steel 0.6 10 -7
Cracking

 Meaning = breaking,
splitting, or snapping apart
 Results : Complete failure
 Causes : Excessive load
with vibration.
 Loose fit, excessive impacts

 Solutions
 Correction of fits
 Vibration isolation
Fretting Wear

 FRETTING:
 coined in 1927.
 Refers to small (1 to 300
m) high frequency

Surf 1
oscillatory movement
mainly originated by
vibration Surf 2
Occurs in mech. Assemblies
(press fit parts, rivet / bolt without gross sliding
joints, strands of wire ropes,
rolling element bearings)
Fretting Wear

Results Wear debris of very fine (0.01


to 0.1 m) particles Loosening of joints
increased vibration accelerated wear.
 Identification  discoloration of
mating surface
 Black color aluminum oxide
 Iron oxide:
 FeO, ferrous oxide– very rare
 Fe3O4 black magnetic oxide,
relatively softer and quite a
good solid lubricant.
 Fe2O3, red ferric oxide, Hard
and abrasive, “rust”, cocoa

Some metals, notably titanium and its alloys, are susceptible to


fretting damage. Avoid their usage if fretting is likely.
CAN ONE ESTIMATES WEAR RATE?

Yes .. By using Wear Equations.

 Quoting Ludema’s words [1991]


“Overall, it is probably accurate to say that there is little incentive for
a designer to use any of the wear-equations available in the
literature.
A scan of many wear models shows considerable incompatibility.
Equation have either too many undefined variables or too few
variables to adequately describe the system”.
Most of available equations are derived/made for mild
wear rate of components.
NOTE: Mild wear of rolling & sliding surfaces may finally
cause fatigue wear. Transition from one wear mechanism to
other wear mechanism! How should wear be modelled?
2/29/2016

Cam Wear Analysis


 Systematic approach to estimate Pitting Life of
Cam-Follower mechanisms. Can it be operated at
higher rotational speed?

H. HIRANI
How does pitting failure occur?
 Pitting is a fatigue wear.
Reversible stresses are main
cause of such failure.
Fig 9: Normal load on cam surface vs cam angle

3000

2500
Normal load, N

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Cam angle, degrees
2/29/2016

Can dynamic load be reduced ? Fig. 8: Pressure angle vs cam angle

60
50

40
Pressure angle, degree

30
20
10

0
-10 0 60 120 180 Fig 9:240
Normal load 300
on cam surface
360 vs cam angle

-20
3000
-30

-40 2500
Normal load, N
-50 2000
Cam angle, degrees

• Angle between
1500

1000
direction of motion 500

& axis of 0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
transmission. Cam angle, degrees

– =0  Transmitted force is completely utilize to move the follower


– =90  No motion of the follower. Gross sliding.
H. HIRANI
Can dynamic load be Eliminated ?

Cam (radial)
groove to trap
roller follower.

Cam rotation pushes follower on the shaped geometry.


Clearance for free movement of roller follower about its
axis. Loading & Unloading are inherent in rolling contact.
Why loading & unloading are
inherent in rolling contacts ?

The stresses in contact patch are termed as “contact


stresses” or “Hertzian stresses”.
1 1 Convex – Convex
c   Convex – Concave
R follower Rcam
Gear Wear

𝑉 𝐾1 𝑊 ℎ𝑃 𝐾1 𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑃
= =
𝐿 𝐻 𝑑𝑡 𝐻

ℎ 𝐾1 𝑃 𝐾1 𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑃
= ℎ𝑃 , 𝑁 = ℎ𝑃, 𝑁 − 1 + 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 𝐻 𝐻

ℎ 𝐾1 𝑃 𝑉
=
𝑡 𝐻
What is Tribology ?
 TRIBOS (Greek word) = RUBBING (English word)
 triboLOGY (term coined in 1966) = Science of Rubbing
 A science that deals with friction, lubrication and wear
in all contacting pairs.
 Tribological knowledge helps to Improve service life,
safety and reliability of interacting machine
components; and yields substantial economic benefits.
Few Examples requiring tribological
knowledge
Adhesive wear

Carbon Graphite Seal


Example 2: Cam

Pitting wear of cam surface


Journal Bearing
Ex: Journal Bearings

Abrasive Wear Rubbing Wear

Purpose of oil. High/low viscosity oil


Ex: Magnetic Bearing
Wear scar

Wear scar due to edge loading


Ex: Multi-row Roller Bearing

Failure of large size roller bearing


Pit

Pit on gear surface

Study of fluid Film bearings, rolling element


bearings, seals, gears, cams, and brakes are
some of the applications in which tribology is
required.
“Industrial Tribology”
“Applied Tribology”
HISTORY of TRIBOLOGY
 September 1964 -- Conference on Lubrication in
Iron and Steel Works in Cardiff (UK) : Realization of
considerable losses due to lack of knowledge
related friction and wear of machine components.
 Formation of committee by UK Minister of State for
science to investigate the questions of lubrication
education, research and need of industry.
 Conclusions of Committee: Interdisciplinary
approach embracing solid & fluid mechanics,
chemistry, and material science is essential to
address lubrication related problems. New name
“Tribology” was coined in 1966.
HISTORY of TRIBOLOGY
 After 1966, the word “Tribology” has been used for
 Basic mechanisms governing interfacial behavior.
 Basic theories quantifying interfacial mechanisms.
 Solutions to important friction and wear problems.
 1981: Development of “Scanning tunneling
microscope” and systematic theory based on
“Contact mechanics”.
 1985: Development of Atomic Force Microscope
 Measurement of surface topography & friction force of
all engineering surfaces.
 Studies of adhesion, scratching, wear, lubrication,
surface temperatures and measurements of
elastic/plastic mechanical properties.
Need of TRIBOLOGY
Friction,wear and lubrication have been
taught in science and engineering
classes, but at a rudimentary level.
Inherently complicated and
interconnected origins of most
tribological phenomena.
Integrationof knowledge from
multifaceted disciplines.
12

Various disciplines in Tribology


 Solid Mechanics: Focus is on
expressions of contact stresses and
surface temperatures due to sliding.
 Fluid Mechanics: Study of lubricant
film formed between various
geometric shapes of sliding surfaces.
 Material Science: Focus is on atomic
and micro scales mechanisms
whereby solid surface degradation or
alteration occurs during relative
motion.
 Chemistry: Deals with reactivity
between lubricants and solid
surfaces.
Example to demonstrate the role
of various disciplines in TRIBOLOGY
 Motionunder load
induces stresses:
 breakage/elastic bending
of surface asperities
 plastic deformation  E  
  0.6 
(grooving) of soft surface. H 
Role of Elastic Deformation
 E  
  0.6 
  
H

Fig. Using elasticity to smooth the ride

 Elasticallydeformed substance fills the irregular surfaces


and provides smooth ride.
 Cyclic loading  limiting life
 Roughness

F
stress on smooth surface 
A
F
stress on rough surface 
A
Surface Roughness
 Surface roughness is vertical deviations from
nominal surface/line. Larger the deviations, rougher
the surface.

Roughness
changes with
operating time.
Average Roughness (Ra)
Root Mean Square Roughness (Rq)
Quantification of
Surface Roughness

Ra   z1  z2  ... zn1  zn  / n z x  dx
1 l 2
Rq  
l 0
17

Rq (root mean square) roughness is preferred over Ra


(Average) roughness.

Segmented
surfaces.

Based on lower value


of Rq for second
surface, that surface
perform better than
first surface.
• Dimensionless film Boundary Lubrication

parameter  (“Specific film Mixed Lubrication


Hydrodynamic Lubrication
thickness)

WEAR Rate
hmin

2
Rrms ,a  R 2
rms ,b

• Boundary lubrication, <1


LOAD/TEMPERATURE
• Mixed lubrication, 1<<3
• Hydrodynamic lubrication,
>5
• Elastohydrodynamic,
3<<5
Interdisciplinary Approach
 Under boundary lubrication condition material science,
solid mechanics and chemistry.
 Under mixed lubrication condition, all four disciplines.
 Under hydrodynamics only fluid mechanics.
 Under elastohydrodynamic lubrication solid and fluids
mechanics.
 Hydrostatic/Aerostatic/Aerodynamic ??
Economic Benefits
 Savingby reducing energy loss due to friction, loss
due to breakdowns, reducing depreciation of
machinery,
 Jost Report (1966) saving of about £515M/year by
implementing tribology in UK industry.
 There are a number of examples (i.e. I.C. engines,
turbomachinery, gears, cam-followers, bearings,
seals) where attempts have been made to reduce
wear and friction to enhance service life and
reduce loss of energy/materials.
Economic Benefits: Examples

Inside a disk drive, a slider with read/write recording head


flies over a rotating disk. Reduction in spacing between
head sensor & magnetic medium by implementing
tribological guidelines, increases the areal density and
larger data can be stored in relatively smaller space.
Economic Benefits: Examples
Lubricant between cylinder liner and rings

Combustion
Cylinder liner Approximately
space
Direction of piston motions

15% energy is
lost through
Piston Lubricant friction due to
rings injection
holes motion of
pistons, valve
trains, bearings
Piston
etc.

Piston rod
Economic Benefits: Examples

Number of Vehicles (in world) > 700 million. Average


power of engine  30 BHP. If we assume 2%
improvement in BHP, then 420 million HP can be saved.
Economic Benefits: Examples
• Average Iron and Steel industry
allots Rs. 3-5 million for
maintenance / Replacement of
bearings.
• A rough estimation indicates that
10% percent of bearing life can be
improved by better lubricant,
lubricant additive, proper bearing
installation.
• Implementation of tribological
knowledge in iron and steel
industries of INDIA can save 3 to 5
million rupees per year.
Economic Benefits
Successful implementation of tribological knowledge in
INDIA can save 1 to 1.5% of GNP ($ 3.4 Trillion)  Rs.
1500 million.

If 50% of this cost needs to be invested in unsuccessful


trials and fruitless hypotheses, still INDIA will gain from
practicing tribology.
Lecture notes:
http://web.iitd.ac.in/~hirani

TRIBOLOGY
http://www.youtube.com/playlist
?list=PLbMVogVj5nJRCfyN1QEiBsN
Fek8d00kWw FRICTION
THEORIES

Harish Hirani
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

IIT Delhi, hirani@iitd.ac.in, harishhirani6982@gmail.com


Some Typical Values of Coefficient of
Friction for Metals sliding on themselves
Metals Sliding on themselves µ
Aluminum 1.5
Copper 1.5
Copper((oxide film not penetrated) 0.5
Gold 2.5
Iron 1.2
Platinum 3
Silver 1.5
Steel(mild steel) 0.8
Steel(tool steel) 0.4
Observations:
1.  > 1.0
2. Mild steel vs Tool steel
3.  depends on environment.
Coefficient of friction for various Metals

Observations:
1. Under dry lubricant
conditions,  ranges
between 0.1 to 1.0 for
most of the materials.
2. Very thin lubrication
reduces coefficient by 10
times.
Comparison among various Material Pairs

Observation: Similar materials have higher tendency of


adhesion.
Static & Kinetic
Frictions
 for wood-on-wood reported
  0.5 in various articles.

60
Friciton Force (N)

50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Applied Force (N)
Difference between the static and
kinetic friction may initiate ‘stick-slip’.
Observations
1.  > 1.0.
2.  depends on environment,
hardness, and chemical
composition.
3. Very thin and thick lubrications
reduce  by 10 and 100 times,
respectively.
4. Tribo-pair consisting of similar
materials have higher tendency of
.
5. Difference between  may initiate
friction instability.

There is a need to understand science of friction.


Dry FRICTION

 Leonardo da vinci(Earliest experimenter, 1452-


1519):
 “Friction made by same weight will be of equal
resistance at the beginning of movement, although
contact may be of different breadths or length”. F  A
 “Friction produces the double the amount of effort if
weight be doubled”. F α W
 G.Amontons, 1699:
 Rediscovered Leonardo da vinci laws. F  A; Fα N
  = 0.3 for most of materials.
C.A.Coulomb 1781 (1736-1806):
1)Clearly distinguished between static & kinetic friction
2)Contact at discrete points. static  kinetic
3)Friction due to interlocking of rough surfaces

4)f  func(A) Zero deformation


5)f  func(v)
TOMLINSON’s Theory of Molecular attraction:
1929
 Relation between friction coefficient & elastic properties
of material involved.
f  1.07 *  I   II 2 / 3 E is y oung modulus, M p si
3.E  4.G
  G is modulus in shear, M p si
G (3. * E  G )

 Clean Steel E=30 Mpsi, G=12 Mpsi 0.6558


 Aluminum E=10 Mpsi, G=3.6 Mpsi 0.742
 Titanium E=15.5 Mpsi G=6.5 Mpsi 0.5039
Scientific Explanation of Dry Friction
• Two friction sources
• Deformation a
• Adhesion
• Resulting friction force (F) is
sum of two contributing (Fa &
Fd) terms. Fd

• Lubricated tribo-pair case -- ,


negligible adhesion
• Smoother surfaces under
light load conditions –
Negligible deformation.
ADHESION

Carbon Graphite and Stainless Steel


Theory of ADHESIVE Friction

• Two surfaces are pressed together under load W.


• Material deforms until area of contact (A) is sufficient to
support load W. A = W/H.
• To move the surface sideway, must overcome shear strength of
junctions with force Fa Fa = A s

Fa s Observation: Shear strength (s) and Hardness (H)


a   of soft material decides the value of . This means
W H whatever properties of the other harder pairing
material,  would not change.
Theory of ADHESIVE Friction ……
s
 Formost of untreated 
materials H = 3y & s = H
y /1.7321
 Expected value of  =.2 Assumption: Plastic
yield pressure is
equivalent to hardness
• Theory is unable to
estimate different  for
steel on indium and
steel on lead alloy.
• Theory related to
deformation needs to
be explored.
FRICTION due to
DEFORMATION
 Contact between tribo-pairs only
occurs at discrete points.
 Slop of asperities governs the
friction force.
 Harder asperities penetrate into
2r
the softer surface.
• Assume n conical asperities of hard metal in
contact with flat soft metal, vertically project area
of contact: 
A  n 0.5 *r 
2

W  n(0.5 *r ) H 2
F  n (rh) H
2
d  cot 

Cone Angle vs d
 
5 7.271 • Generally slopes of
10 3.608 real surfaces are lesser
20 1.748 than 10° (i.e. > 80°),
30 1.102 therefore d  0.1.
40 0.758
50 0.534
60 0.367 • Conclusion: Total  ,
70 0.231 should not exceed 0.3.
80 0.112 • Spherical asperity ??
85 0.055
Ploughing by Spherical Asperity
 Vertical projected area of contact  Rh
A  R 2 cos 1    R  h  2 Rh  h
2

 R 

A  n0.5 * r 2 
or 
A  n 0.5 *  0.5 d 
2

d 2
or An
8
d 2
W n H 2hd
8 F n H
3
2hd 8 16 h 16 h h
d     0.6
3d 2
3 d 3 8h R R
Ploughing by Spherical Asperities
………
h/R (%) 
1 0.060
2 0.085
3 0.104
4 0.120 • Generally h << R, therefore
5 0.134 d  0.1. If h~R, especial
6 0.147 precaution is required to
7 0.159 reduce friction
8 0.170
9 0.180 • Conclusion: Total  , should not
10 0.190 exceed 0.3.
Friction Theories
Adhesion a
s
μa 
H

Deformation by
Conical Asperities
2 h
μd  cotθ  0.64
π r
Deformation by
Spherical Asperities

h
μd  0.6
R
Can we use stress relations ??

Transition
in friction
coefficient
Determining coefficient of friction using
Solid Mechanics --- Junction Growth
W F

W

Fig: Two contacting surfaces
W
2 σx  0
σx  σy  σx  σy  σ y  W A
σ1,2      τ xy2
2  2   xy  F A
2
δW  δW 
δA σ1      δF
2
1
2  2 
w here σ1 is first principal stress,and
δA is elementalarea
2
δW  δW 
δA σ 2      δF
2
2
2  2 
where σ 2 is second principal stress
2
 δW 
δA σ1  σ 2   2    δF
2

 2 
Junction Growth
If yield strength of material is and σ y  σ1  σ 2
shear strength
τ y  0.5 σ y
2
 δW 
δA. τ y     δF
2
F =f (A) ????
 2 
Constant
Friction increases area of contact

Area of contact will increase with increasing


friction force, till force reaches its limiting value.
Assume i is shear stress of fractured interface.
Limiting Junction Growth
Flimiting  τi A max
2
 δW 
δA. τ y     δF
2

 2 
Flimiting
μ 2

 A max τ y 
W
    A max τ i 
2 2
W
 2 
τ i A max 1 0.005
μ 10 0.050
2 ( τ y  τ i )A max
2 2 2
Generally interface 20 0.102
τi 0.5 of pure metals 30 0.157
μ  surface is 5-10% 40 0.218
2 (τ y  τi )
2 2
 τy 
2
weaker than bulk 50 0.289
   1 metal. 60 0.375
τ
 i 70 0.490
Observation: Ratio of shear strengths 80 0.667
decides  90 1.032
99 3.509
How to reduce Junction Growth
 Contamination: A few molecules thick oxide
layer (encountered with metals in air) on the
surface can reduce the friction (i.e.  = 0.1 to
0.3).

Observation : Rough surface (Rq > 0.2 m) may


damage protective layers.
Possible situations
 Weak(ductile) metal,
weak oxide
 Film easily broken, rapid
junction growth, and high .
Example Indium, gold
 Weak metal, strong oxide
 Transition from low to high
 as load increases.
Examples: Copper, Iron
 Strong metal, strong
Note: Both Junction
oxide growth and ploughing
 Low  at all loads. (two/three) effects play
Examples: Strong steel,
role, and either of them
Chromium
may dominated friction
behavior.
How to reduce Junction Growth
 Lubricant: Presence of lubricant reduces chances
of junction..
 Use of suitable contacting materials
 Using soft (lesser shear strength, but high
hardness) materials which result in low shear
strength of interface.
 Never use same metal or closely similar metals in
tribo-pair
 Copper on copper=1.0, Aluminum-lowcarbonsteel=0.8,
Silver-lowcarbonsteel=0.3

 Ductility: Use materials of limited ductility. These


materials after a small amount of junction growth
will fracture rather than flow further.
Sliding Dry Friction with Time
 Sliding in dry contact starts with running-in period.
 High rate of ploughing of softer surface by asperities.
 Relatively low adhesion.
 Rupture/breakage of asperities polish surface:
 reduce ploughing coefficient but increase coefficient of
adhesion.
 On removal of contaminating layers, adhesion coefficient
increases.
Rolling Friction
 Coefficientof friction due to rolling (r) is generally
smaller than that caused by sliding action.  Rolling
friction compared to sliding friction is desirable.
 r is defined as the force required to maintain steady
rolling, divided by the load carried by the roller.
 Rolling friction coefficients often depend on hardness
of contacting solids. On increasing hardness elastic
deformation under load decreases. Therefore
hysteresis loss and so the value of r decrease.
 For hard smooth hard steel rollers, the coefficient of rolling
friction ranges between 0.01 and 0.001.
 a roller or sphere made of soft material when rolled over
other soft surface, generates a higher level of rolling friction.

Mirco slip; Elastic (rigid ??) hysteresis;


plastic deformation; Adhesion
Source of Rolling Friction
• Use of lubricant !!!

 Hard steel ball rolling over a softer rubber. As it rolls


along, the ball displaces rubber elasto-plastically
around and ahead of it mid.
 Elastic hysteresis is the major mechanism of rolling friction of
elastomers like rubber
 With a very bouncy rubber rolling friction will be lesser
compared to a very soggy rubber. Deformation of
material decides the magnitude of rolling friction.
Example of Rolling Friction

 Ball bearings:
 Material: Hard steel
 Stresses: Within elastic limits (not high enough to produce
plastic flow of the balls).
 Losses: Hysteresis losses ( 1 percent)  Low rolling
resistance (µ≅0.001).
 In practice the balls must be surrounded by it cage
to separate them and prevent the rubbing on one
another. But sliding between the cage and balls
occurs, and this sliding friction is often far greater
than the rolling friction.
 Lubricants are used to reduce the sliding friction between
balls and cage and to prevent corrosion of the metal parts.
Example: Automobile Tires
 In free rolling the tire is deformed as it meets the
road surface and recovers as it leaves. If there is
negligible slip between tire and road the energy loss
is not large and  = 0.01 to 0.03. However, If the tire
is made of a rubber with a higher hysteresis loss (or
filled with lesser air-pressure), the rolling friction is
larger and there is a larger power loss.
 High hysteresis loss by tire, increases
controllability (better gripping of the road during
accelerating, decelerating or cornering) and
comfort (acts as shock absorber in passing over
rough road ).
Example
 Determine coefficient of friction between
SMOOTH surfaces of aluminum and steel
metals under dry, oily and solid-lubricated
conditions. Assume shear strength of steel
as 300 MPa, and shear strength of
aluminum as 100 MPa. Interface shear
strength of 2MPa, 150 kPa and 50 kPa has
been observed for dry, solid-lubricated,
and oil lubricated conditions respectively.
0.5
μ 50
0.01 SFA:
2
 τy  667 0.00075 Surface
   1 2000 0.00025 Force
 τi  Apparatus
Friction Induced Vibrations (Instability)
Difference between static and kinetic friction
Fig 5: Speed vs torque
coefficients, initiates a “stick-slip” process.
80
Instantaneous sliding 70
speed of an object 60 00 amp
does not remain close 50 .2amp

torque
to the average sliding 40 .4 amp
30 .6amp
speed.
• Vibration- Shock 20
10
• Braking noise.
0
• Rate of friction force 0 200 400 600 800 1000
speed
Observation: friction coefficient decreases as velocity
increases.
Friction Induced Vibrations (Instability)
Possible reasons for
stick-slip phenomenon:
• Interlocking of
asperities during stick
phenomenon
• Adhesion during stick
action
• Electrostatic charge
during stick event

To avoid this phenomenon either


• increase operating speed or
• reduce the difference between s and k.
Stiction Case

Unbalance force (static –


dynamic friction force) cause a
sudden acceleration. The
velocity of M increases until the
drive force falls to dynamic
friction force. Eventually M
comes to rest.
Overall stick-slip behavior of systems depends on stiffness,
inertia, damping and magnitude of unbalance force.
Friction force can be modeledin two ways,
(a) Stiction case and
(b) Negative gradient case
Damped vibration
d2 x dx
M 2 C  Kx  0
dt dt
C K d2 x dx
  ; n   2  2ζωn  ωn2 x  0
2 MK M dt dt

CaseI : Underdamped, ζ  1
 
?<0
x  Ae  ζωn t Sin ωn t 1 ζ 2   φ
CaseII : Overdamped, ζ  1
  ζ  ζ 1 ω t
2   ζ  ζ 1 ω t
2

x  A 1e 
 A 2e 
n n

CaseIII : Critical damped, ζ  1


x  A 1  A 2 t e  ζωn t
Positive damping

20
Di spl acem ent vs ti m e
Negative damping
10

0
displacement

-10

-20

-30

-40
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
ti m e
Forced damped vibrations
d2 x dx
M 2 C  Kx  F (t )
dt dt
In the present case external force, Ft , is friction force.
2 Negative
d x dx
M 2 f  kx  F(t) sign
dt dt

Let us assume friction force is represented as


dx
Ft   Fs  λ
dt
Negative gradient case
d2 x dx  dx 
M 2 C  Kx   Fs  λ 
dt dt  dt 

d2 x dx
Rearranging M 2  C  λ   Kx  Fs
dt dt

If system damping, C, is low and  is large then


overall negative damping results, and motion may
become instable.

   
x  Ae ζωnt Sin ωn t 1 ζ 2  φ
Friction instability
.8

.6
.4

.2

0
-.2
displacement

-.4

-.6
-.8

-1

-1.2
-1.4

-1.6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
time

• Increase the system damping


• Lubricate or otherwise form a surface film to
ensure positive friction versus velocity
relationship.
Lecture notes: Lubrication
http://web.iitd.ac.in/~hirani/
and
Lubricants
TRIBOLOGY
http://www.youtube.com/playlist
?list=PLbMVogVj5nJRCfyN1QEiBsN • Adhesive failures
Fek8d00kWw • Abrasive failure
Transmission Parts • Surface fatigue failures
Bearings
Cams and Followers
Seal faces
Any situation involving metal to metal contact

Harish Hirani
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

IIT Delhi, hirani@iitd.ac.in, harishhirani6982@gmail.com


Meaning of LUBRICATION
2

• Process by which the friction in a moving contact is


reduced may be described as LUBRICATION.
Dust, Sand or Gravel on surface of Road ??
(Technically Solid Lubricants)
 Low but constant & controlled friction.
 No attack or damage to the bearings surfaces.
 Preferably adhere strongly on one bearing
surface so that it is not rapidly lost from bearing.
 Dimensionless film parameter  (“Specific
film thickness)
hmin

2
Rrms ,a  R 2
rms ,b

• Boundary lubrication,
<1
• Mixed lubrication,
1<<3
• Hydrodynamic
lubrication, >5
Manual (< 1 m/s)
• Elastohydrodynamic, Motorized (Spray or continuous: > 10 m/s)
Splash (Mechanical, gravity: 2 m/s < V<
3<<5 10 m/s)
3
Reduces stress concentration. How Liquid
Lubricants Help

Conclusion: Presence of lubricant reduces stress concentration.


Method of replenishing lubricant decides
overall performance of the system.

•Lubricant must form a film to separate the surfaces


•Needs to adhere to the surfaces
• Must neutralize the corrosive products of combustion
• Withstand high temperature
Thick Lubrication
Lubrication in journal bearings
• Supports heavy shaft
loads
• Absence of rolling
contact stresses
• Ability to dampen
vibrations

5
Thin Lubrication
Lubrication in Bone joints

Femur

Articular cartilage
Joint capsule
SYNOVIAL FLUID
Ligament
• Contain proteins that stick Joint (synovial) fluid
to cartilage layer resulting space
in smooth sliding
• coefficient of friction ~ 0.01
Tibia
Thick & Thin Lubrications

 Understanding thick lubrication by Reynolds,


lead removal of an oil hole from the load line of
railway axle bearings (1890) Lesser oil quantity,
lesser friction.
 Thin lubrication is far more complex. Requires
scientific study at nano- to micro- level.
8

 English Biologist “W.B. Hardy”. 1922.


 “Very thin adsorbed layer, about 10 A° thick, were sufficient to
cause two glass surfaces to slide over each other”.
 Sliding parts moving at low relative speeds.
 Engineering components such as steel gears, piston-rings and
metal -working tools depend on boundary lubrication mode,
to prevent severe wear or high coefficients of friction and
seizure.
9

The head of the molecule is attracted to the metal surface, while the tail
is compatible with the lubricant carrier.
10

Mechanisms of Boundary Lubrication


 Physical adsorption (Physisorption)
 All petroleum and synthetic lubricants have some
potential for forming boundary films under mild sliding
conditions.
 Useful under light load and low temperature conditions.

 Chemical adsorption (Chemisorption):


 Bond energies are much greater than physisorption (>
40kJ/mol)
 With polar and paraffinic molecules, chemisorbed
lubricants can be very closely packed on a surface.
 Most effective boundary lubricants combine a
chemical reaction with the surface and a cohesion
interaction between lubricant species.
Mechanisms of boundary lubrication are usually controlled by
additives present in the oil.
Physisorption
 Physisorptionor “physical adsorption’
(physical bonding by van der Waals force)
2 nm

 Surface active molecules of oiliness additives


are attracted to surface by electrostatic
(dipole) forces.
 Energy is lowered when the molecules adsorb on
the surface.
 Molecules of adsorbate attach or detach from a
surface without any irreversible changes to the
surface or the adsorbate.

11
Physisorption
 Physisorption or “physical adsorption’
(physical bonding by van der Waals force) –
Molecules of adsorbate may attach or
detach from a surface without any irreversible
changes to the surface or the adsorbate
 Surface active molecules of oiliness additives are
attracted to surface by electrostatic (dipole)
forces.
 Energy is lowered when the molecules adsorb on the
surface.

12
13

2-10 nm long
hydrophobic
chains

Why boundary lubricants are required when metals are covered


with natural protective layer of oxide?
In sliding contact under air or water, the protective oxide is torn away,
exposing the pure metal of both surfaces. These may weld together before
oxygen can reform the protective layer.
14

Adsorption lubrication is not effective


unless the adsorbate film is in near-
perfect condition, i.e. has very few
holes or vacant sites in it.

Table: Coefficient of friction influenced by %


of polar lubricant on steel surfaces.
Lubricant Friction
Coefficient
Pure mineral oil 0.360
2% oleic acid in mineral oil 0.249
10% oleic acid in mineral oil 0.198
50% oleic acid in mineral oil 0.198
Pure oleic acid 0.195
15

Effect of Length of Molecule on Boundary


lubrication

 Longer hydrocarbon chain, more effective


separation between solid surfaces.
 High degree of slip. Low lubricant friction
 Sir William Hardy’s experimental results:
NOTE: At a somewhat higher temperature physically
absorbed molecules get desorbed. In other words
molecules still present on the surface but lose their
attachment. Consequently wherever the surfaces come
together the lubricant molecules are pushed away and
intimate metal-metal contact is able to occur.
17

Chemisorption
 Is a form of corrosion
 Duringeach contact the chemical layer is
rubbed off the surface and has to be reformed
before next contact come round. Surface is
therefore slowly worn away so the additive
must be chosen with care.
 Must be active enough to protect the surface, but not so
active that it corrodes violently at high temp.
18

Chemisorption
 Physically absorbed boundary additive
detach/decompose/melt at high
temperature
 To form a chemically bound layer three
things are needed:
 Surfactant must be chemically active
 Metal surface also must be reactive
 Surface must be free enough of physisorbed
meterial for the chemical reaction to take place.
Temperature Gap between physical and
chemical is known as “Temperature Distress
Gap”.
Physisorption Chemisorption
Desirable properties from a
boundary lubricant
 Dissolvability
in lubricating oils
 Resist penetration by surface asperities.
 the long chain alcohols, amines and fatty acids.
 Low shear strength to give a low friction.
 High melting point so that it provides solid-film
protection up to a high temperature.
Extreme Pressure Lubricants
 In slow but highly loaded tribo-metallic-pairs, specific film
thickness is almost negligible. Rubbing and welding become
very likely. Normal boundary lubrication additives (e.g.,
antiwear additives) cannot adequately prevent wear. Higher
temperatures and pressures increase stresses in the
lubricant film and failure occurs. .
 Chances of severe adhesive wear are very high as the
lubricating oil viscosity can no longer provide the necessary film
thickness.
 EP additives are polar molecules a “head” and a “tail.” These
additives (i.e. boron, chlorine, phosphorus, and sulfur) are
temperature dependent. They are activated by reacting with the
metal surface particularly at the elevated temperatures. New
compounds such as iron chlorides, iron phosphides and iron
sulfides are formed, which acts as a barrier to reduce friction,
wear, and eliminate the possibility of welding.
 Basically, EP additives provide protection from wear when the
lubricant viscosity itself can no longer separate the working
surfaces.
21

Extreme Pressure Lubricants


Sulfur and phosphorus are common additives for iron and
steel. Films have relatively high melting point
Iron sulphide- 1,170°C
 Lubricant containing chlorine form CuCl or CuCl2 on surface,
providing protection against adhesive wear. Iron Chloride-
649°C

 Major difficulty with EP lubricants is their


carcinogenic nature and environmental
pollutant.
 Removal of sulfur compound present in small
amounts in petroleum based lubricants requires
elaborate and expensive refining techniques.
22

Boundary vs. EP lubrication


 BLis restricted to those systems where
there is thermodynamic reversibility. A
small change in temperature or
concentration, up or down, brought
about a related change in film coverage.
 EP lubricants are inorganic molecules that
provide good lubrication at elevated
temperature & pressure
 Reaction of E.P. additive does not occur
rapidly at low temp.
23

Extreme Pressure Boundary Lubrication


 Active chemicals, such as chlorine, sulfur, and
phosphorus form inorganic film of low shear strength
(chlorides, sulfides, phosphides).
 EP additives react with sliding surfaces under
severe conditions in contact zone to give
compound with low shear strength, thus forming
a lub. Film at precise location where it is needed.
During each contact the chemical layer
is rubbed off the surface and has to be
reformed before next contact come
round. Surface is therefore slowly worn
away so the additive must be chosen
with care.
Must be active enough to
protect the surface, but not so
active that it corrodes violently
at high temp.
Summary
•Physical or chemical reactivity (adhesion) with
boundary lubricants
• Few molecular thick lubricant layers are
sufficient to minimize friction

Fig. Boundary lubrication


24
Solid Lubricants
Two primary property requirements.
Material must be able to support applied load without significant
distortion, deformation or loss in strength.
Coefficient of friction and the rate of wear must be acceptably low.

 A solidlubricant is a
material used as
powder or thin film to
reduce friction and
wear.
 Often termed as dry-film
lubricants
 Examples:
 Inorganic compounds
graphite and molybdenum
disulfide (MoS2 )
 Polymer material, PTFE
(polytetrafluoroethylene)
25
Advantages of solid lubricants
26
.
(1) More effective than fluid lubricants at high loads.
(2) High resistance to deterioration in storage.
(3) Highly stable in extreme temperature, pressure, radiation, and
reactive environments.
(4) Permit equipment to be lighter and simpler because lubrication
distribution systems and seals are not required.

Disadvantages of solid lubricants.


(1) Poor self-healing properties. A broken solid film tends to shorten
the useful life of the lubricant.
(2) Poor heat dissipation. This condition is especially true with
polymers due to their low thermal conductivities.
(3) Higher coefficient of friction and wear than hydrodynamically
lubricated bearings.
FOUR GROUPS
(a) Polymer (largest group).
• PTFE - suitable in very light load applications
• Nylon - similar to PTFE but slightly harder: used only in
light load applications.
• Low thermal conductivity of polymers inhibits heat
dissipation, which causes premature failure due to
melting.
• Two polymers in sliding contact will normally operate
at significantly reduced speeds than a polymer against a
metal surface.
• Synthetic polymers: Polymers filled with glass, carbon,
bronze, lead. Thin layer of polymers material bonded
onto a metal backing.
28

Polymer: Suitable to bear light loads


• PTFE - Very light load applications. very low  (<0.1). Specific
wear rate 10-4 mm3/min.
• Nylon - similar to PTFE but slightly harder (Specific wear rate
10-6 - 10-5 mm3/min).  ~0.25. Light load applications.
• Synthetic polymers: Polymers filled with glass, carbon, bronze,
lead. Specific wear rate of PTFE & Nylon ~ 10-7
• Thin layer of polymers material bonded onto a metal backing.

• Low thermal conductivity of


polymers inhibits heat dissipation.
Premature melting failure.
Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene (PTFE)
(Teflon– Trade name by Du Pont)
 Strengths
 High chemical stability. Great chemical inertness,
because of carbon fluorine bonds
 Very low surface energy. Low Friction (0.1). High P,
Low V
 Nontoxic- useful in pharmaceutical and food
industries.
 Weaknesses
 Too soft, High wear rate
 Poor creep resistance, Low load capacity
 Poor thermal conductivity. High thermal expansion.
Temp limit (250°C)
 Vacuum Detrimental to performance.
 Most of disadvantages of PTFE can be
overcome by using fillers (glass, carbon) &
impregnating it with metal (bronze, lead)
structures… SYNTHETIC POLYMERS.
 With a suitable rigid (metal) backing PTFE
can withstand wear under extremely high
loads (100 MPa) or more, with a friction
coefficient of 0.1 or less and virtual freedom
from stick-slip sliding.
 NOTE: Two polymers in sliding contact will
normally operate at significantly reduced
speeds than a polymer against a metal
surface.
31
(b) Metal-solids:
• Lamellar solids rely on film transfer to achieve low friction.
• Using MoS2 with suitable metallic substrates. Porous bronze
is filled with PTFE, oil, graphite or other friction reducing
additives. Not suitable for heavily loaded applications but
useful where lubrication is inconvenient.
(c) Carbon and graphite:
• The primary limitations of bulk carbon are low tensile strength
and lack of ductility. However, their high thermal and
oxidation stabilities at temperatures of 500 to 600°C enable
use at high temperatures and high sliding speeds.
(d) Ceramics and cermets (bulk/coating):
 Ceramics and cermets can be used in applications where low
wear rate is more critical than low friction. These composites
can be used at temperatures up to 1000°C
 Cermets have a distinct advantage over ceramics in terms of
toughness and ductility. However, the metal content tends to
reduce the maximum temperature limit.
Metal-solids
 Powder (5 nm to 5 microns) or thin film
 Self-healing: Use of carrier fluid


Molybdenum Disulfide
 Strengths

 High Load Carrying


(> 700 MPa)
 Low Friction
 High Temp Lub
 Weaknesses

 Rapid Oxidation in Air


over 400°C (!!!)
 Moisture Detrimental
to performance

•Film thickness ~ 15 m
Perfect Structure

Distorted Structure
Primary
Seal
Solid lubricants as Bonded Coating
 Made up of a combination of binders & lubricating
pigments.
 Organic binders: resins. Stability < 300°C.
 Inorganic binders such as metal salts or ceramics.
Temperature stable (permit bonded films to be used in
temperatures above 650°C).
 Application by spraying, dipping, or brushing.
 Spraying: Commonly used.
 Dipping: Less expensive

 Note:
 Surface preparation is very important to remove contaminants
and to provide good surface topography for lubricant
adhesion.
 Air-cured coatings are temperature sensitive.
 Heat-cured coatings can tolerate higher temperature .
(c) Carbon and graphite:
• Primary limitations of bulk carbon are
low tensile strength and lack of ductility.
However, their high thermal and
oxidation stabilities at temperatures of
500 to 600°C enable use at high
temperatures and high sliding speeds.
Graphite
 Strengths
 Moderate Loads (< 275 MPa)
 Low Friction
 High Temp stability
 Weaknesses
 Corrosion
 Vacuum Detrimental to performance
Performance of Graphite in Water

NOTE: Maximum seal wear occurs under complete water environment, and
minimum wear occurs under vapor lubrication.
 High thermal stability (2000°C)
 Practical application is limited to a range of 500 to 600°C
due to oxidation.
 Low friction
 Low friction relies on adsorbed moisture or vapors to
achieve. At temperatures as low as 100°C, amount of
water vapor adsorbed may be significantly reduced to
the point that low friction cannot be maintained.
 During world war II, aircraft flew at higher altitude and
electric motor brushes failed. Research into this
problem revealed that graphite requires an adsorbed
layer of water vapor to lubricate effectively.
 Corrosion
 Graphite promotes electrolysis. Graphite has a very
noble potential of + 0.25V, which can lead to severe
galvanic corrosion of copper alloys and stainless steels
in saline waters.
40

P-V Approach
 Solid-or boundary- lubricated bearings are
limited in load carrying capacity and rubbing
speed. Limit on P, V and PV
 Productof loading pressure, sliding speed
and coefficient of friction identifies the
rate energy release at the bearing surface.
 Since non-fluid film bearings are limited in their
ability to dissipate heat, the P-V approach is often
employed to design solid- or boundary- lubricated
bearing.
Bearing Design using Solid
Lubricants
 STRENGTH:
 1/3 of maximum compressive strength.
 WEAR:
 Volume of wear = specific wear rate* Applied load* distance of
sliding
v  kWd  h  kPVt
 PV factor: Limiting ‘PV’ above which wear increases rapidly either
as a consequence of thermal effects or of stresses approaching
to elastic limit
 Temperature
 At high speeds, generation of frictional heat raises the
temperature of surface layers and this tends to increase specific
wear rate. To estimate: Area for heat flow path A = project area = LD
Friction force F= W. Power Loss = FV 𝑇𝑎 = 𝑇𝑂 + 𝐶𝜇𝑊𝑉
Energy Dissipation per unit area = WV/A => PV C varies between 0.1 to
1.0 depending on
thermal conductivity.
Design Considerations 42

Cost is usually the decisive


reason for choosing a dry
bearing. PV factor provides
possible success of bearing

 Plain bearings should be kept as


short as possible.
(Length/diameter ratio < 0.75)
 Two well-spaced short bearings
are better than one long one.
 Dry bearings of the impregnated
sintered bronze type are available
in stock sizes and these should
be used if possible.
Solid bronze, Solid Aluminum, Bi-metallic,
Polymeric bearings.
43

Example:
 Assume a shaft running at 1000 rpm is supported on
a dry bearing. Shaft dia = 1 inch and L/D = 1.
Applied load = 1200 lbf.
 Velocity limit is 1180 ft/min
 Pressure limit is 2000 psi
PV factor is
 PV limit is 110,000 psi-ft/min
performance criterion.
 Bearing safety ?????
Material Max Temp, C PV (MN/(m.sec) P (MPa) V (m/sec)
Nylon 90 0.9 5 3
PTFE, Filled 250 0.53 17 5
Polycarbonate 105 0.03 7 5
Phenolics 120 0.18 41 13
Carbon 400 0.53 4.1 13
graphite
44

 Calculation of
average pressure =
1200/(1*1) psi
(8.273709 MPa) 
bearing is safe
 Calculation of
velocity = .D.N. =
3.14*(1/12)* 1000 =
261 ft/min (1.326
m/s)  bearing is
safe
 Calculation of PV
limit = 1200 psi * 261
= 313,000 psi-ft/min Bearings are available in a
 bearing will fail. range of thickness.
Three main areas:
45
• Fluids are ineffective, as at low
or high temperatures.
Wear rate <
0.25 m/hour • Fluids cannot be tolerated
because of the possibility of
contamination of the product.
• Fluids are undesirable because
of lack of maintenance.

Quoted PV limit depends on the


required bearing life.
Ref: Manufacturer’s catalogue
EX: Estimate wear of 10mm long Nylon bushing
supporting a 10-mm, 5 kg shaft running at 900 rpm.

v  kWd
v  kW V t
v  k W V

Material Max Temp, C PV (MN/(m.sec) P (MPa) V (m/sec)


Nylon 90 0.9 5 3
Wear Factors for Polymeric
Bearings
Material Wear factor k, 10 m /N  -15 2

No Filler Filler No Filler Filler


Nylon 4 0.24 0.61 0.18
PTFE 400 0.14 0.05 0.09
Polycarbonate 50 3.6 0.38 0.22
Polyurethane 6.8 3.6 0.37 0.34

v  k W V  4 1015  5  9.81 0.47


3
14 m After 1000 operating
v  9.22 10 hours
s
07
v  3.32 10 m 3
07
v  3.32 10 m 3

Wear of Nylon Bearing


For uniform wear over circumference

h
3.32 10 07
10 mm 09 3

10 10 mm 2

0.24
h 3.32  0.2 mm Glass fibers, graphite,
molybdenum, powdered
4 metals.
Material Wear factor k, 10-15 m2/N 
No Filler Filler No Filler Filler
Nylon 4 0.24 0.61 0.18
Porous Bearings
 Made of powdered metals
 Pressed/Compressed in dies (Voids~ 16% up to 36% volume)
 Sintered Sintering causes powdered metal to fuse into a
strong compact.
 Submerged in oil for impregnation.
 Bearings are finish-sized in punch press to close tolerances.
Porous Bearings

 Economic mean to feed lubricant to the


bearing.
 Costporous-bearing>
Cost lubricated-bearing , but overall cost
of bearing + lubricant + lubrication system may be
higher than the cost of dry bearing.
 Bearings
are satisfactory for light load and
moderate speed.
 Oil flows due to capillary action through the pores
in the unloaded region. The oil flows back through
pores in the loaded part of bearing shell.
 Heat is dissipated through bounding solids 
deterioration of mineral oils.
Comparative Study
1. Dry
2. Boundary lubricated
3. Fluid Film Lubricated
Stribeck curve
Mixed Lubrication  Gears, Cams
• Transitional regime between BL and FFL.
• Wear depends upon degree of surface roughness.

Quantification by
specific film thickness
Case 1: Surface roughness of
journal & bearing are given as
0.25 µm and 0.50 µm
respectively. The minimum
film thickness is 4µm. The
specific film thickness ???

Rrms, journal  1.6μm, Rrms,bearing  1.6μm


Surface roughness and height parameters
(Experimental values)
Stylus method of surface
roughness measurement
Surface roughness confines contact between solids to a very
small fraction of nominally available contact area

Ra values in micron Roughness grade


number (ISO class)
0.025 N1
0.05 N2
0.1 N3
0.2 N4
0.4 N5
0.8 N6
1.6 N7
3.2 N8
6.3 N9
12.5 N10
25 N11
50 N12
Standard method to
estimate roughness
parameters
Condition
monitoring
Techniques for
tribo-pair
under mixed
lubrication
regime, i.e.
gear faults
diagnosis.
1 micron =
Vibration monitoring microinch/39.37

Oil debris analysis


Gear Wear

 Low
cycle fatigue wear… Asperity/debris contact
remains plastic upto formation of wear particle.
Few
important
points
 Sliding velocity is zero at pitch point. At all other
contact points, the relative motion is rolling + sliding.
 The sliding velocity is directly proportional to the
distance between the pitch point and point of
contact  The maximum sliding velocity occurs with
contacts at the tooth tips  Gear teeth with longer
addenda have higher sliding velocities than gears
with shorter addenda.

 dp 
u p ,i   p  sin   yi 
 2  vi  u p ,i  u g ,i
 dg 
u g ,i   g  sin   yi 
 2 
Rolling velocity
 dp 
u p ,i   p  sin   yi 
 2 
vi  u p,i  u g ,i First contact is between a
 dg  point near the root of the
u g ,i   g  sin   yi 
 2  driving tooth and a point at
the tip of the driven tooth
 signs indicate the position of point of
contact along pressure line. Negative
sign shows that the point of contact lies
between center and pitch points.
 dp 
u p ,i   p  sin   yi 
 2 
 dg 
u g ,i   g  sin   yi 
 2 

Two gear teeth contact at instantaneous point Pi. Assuming two


cylinders (having center at C1 and C2) are contacting at this point.
The instantaneous radius of these two cylinders are expressed
Direction of sliding reverses at pitch line. Sliding is away from
pitch line on pinion teeth and toward in the gear teeth
When deformation is in plastic range, fatigue damage
is more closely related to the strain amplitude than to
the stress amplitude.
𝐶 D
𝑁 D = 2-3
𝜀𝑎

 Gears
 Shafts Gearbox
 Bearings
 Motor
 Seal
 Lubricant
 Loading device
Can we mount vibration sensor on gears ?
Every tribo-system either
involves sliding or rolling
motion.
Vibration ???
Rotating Machinery Durability, performance

VIBRATION
CHARACTERISTICS

Vibration: tends to
increase. Different
mechanical elements
of a
machine/mechanism
produce energy at
different frequencies.
Separating frequencies
may provide
advanced warning of
the fault development.
Trend analysis Comparative analysis
2/29/2016

Vibration Data Types


 Two major data-type
classifications are Vertical

time domain and


frequency domain.

Dr. H. Hirani
Failure Analysis using Fourier Transform
 FT
gives the average
characteristics of signal
during the whole
6

analysis period. 4

 Usually FT is performed 3

with a fixed resolution on 2

a data block with a 1

certain number of 0

samples.
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

 Forbetter accuracy
increase the number of
data (N). Noise decreases Signal to noise ratio
by 1/N times.

2/29/2016
2/29/2016

 Limitations: Speed fluctuations, Non-stationary


signals.
Let us assume rotational speed of gear having 18 teeth is 6000 rpm.
• This means we require minimum 100 data/s to record one data per rotation.
• We may require 18*100  1800 data/s to record one data per rotation.
• If we assume tooth shape is symmetric, and half of tooth requires at-least 10
data then  20*1800  36,000 data/s.

Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3

Dr. H. Hirani
Ex…. continue Samples Samples Samples
in cycle 1 in cycle 2 in cycle 3
 If
speed is 6000 rpm
 No. of data 36,000
1 1 1
 If speed varies by one
(5999 or 6001)  2 2 2
variation in number of …. . .
data 06. . . .
 It is very difficult to . . .
control speed exactly . . .
equal to 6000 Few . . .
rpm fluctuation is . . .
common. Often speed . 35940 .
varies in range of 5990 36000 .
to 6010  36,00060. 36060

2/29/2016
Ex…. continue
2/29/2016
 In such situation, de-noising (average over a number of cycles) may
generate spurious signals.
 Hence digital re-sampling (a computer code that creates 36,000 data
per cycle) is essential.

Samples Samples Samples After digital re-sampling


in cycle 1 in cycle 2 in cycle 3 Samples Samples Samples
1 1 1 in cycle 1 in cycle 2 in cycle 3
2 2 2 1 1 1
…. . . 2 2 2
. . . …. . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. 35940 . . . .
36000 . . . .
36060 36000 36000 36000
Vibration Monitoring …… 2/29/2016

 Synchronous Averaging: Separates vibration signatures


from different rotating components
 Cracked shaft shows effect on vibration levels at one, two
and three times shaft rotational frequency… Misalignment,
Bent shaft, unbalance.
 Angle domain

 Digital re-sampling (time synchronous averaging)


 Transmission path (shaft, bearings)
effects
Operating Conditions
 In ideal conditions, elastic
deformation of the gear  Main sources of gearbox
teeth as they mesh is source vibrations are geometric errors:
of vibration. The fundamental the difference between the actual
frequency of the transmitted orientation and position of a gear.
vibration is the gear mesh Manufacturing errors in the gears
frequency. is also source of vibration. Multiple
 Different load (0% load to 80% harmonics and side bands.
of the full load) and speed
(20% to 100%) conditions.
 Collect vibration signals from
different locations under
different load conditions and
shaft speeds to investigate
effect of transmission path on
the vibration signal (e.g.
gearbox casing and motor
casing).
Ultra low wear rate (< 10-10
mm/min )… Good
toughness, high hardness,
Vibration Analysis

Narrowband
Broadband
Signature
2/29/2016

Dr. H. Hirani
2/29/2016
8
6

Acceleration (V) 2
0
-2 0 800 1600 2400 3200 4000 4800 5600 6400

-4
-6
-8
Number of data in 25 cycles

40 Hours 100 Hours


2/29/2016

Dr. H. Hirani

Fresh oil
Used oil
Functions of gear oils
Control friction & wear
Remove heat generated by friction
Protection against dirt & rust

Sump must be filled to


specified level.
If oil level too low- poor lubrication.
If oil level too high – churning will
cause raise in temperature.

Oil must be brought effectively


to gear tooth surfaces.
Fixed volume of oil is subjected to severe
service.

Lubricant Contamination
Lubricant Additive Depletion
How to improve conditions
ISO Nominal Allowable
Nominal Viscosity Tolerance range
Viscocity viscosity at 50 Flash
at 40 deg C at 40 deg C
grade deg C Temperature
mm^2/sec(cSt) mm^2/sec(cSt)
(VG) mm^2/sec(cSt) Limit Deg C
VG-22 22 19.8 - 24.2 15.2 112
VG-32 32 28.8 - 35.2 21.5 126 SAE
VG-46 46 41.4 - 50.6 30 140 classification
VG-68 68 61.2 - 74.8 45 153 system is a
VG-78 78 75 - 85 50 161 way of
VG100 100 90 - 110 61 168 defining how
VG-150 150 135 - 165 90 180 thin or how
VG-220 220 198 - 242 128 188 thick an oil
VG-320 320 288 - 352 182 194 is.

API: American Petroleum Institute ……… GL (Gear Lubricant)


Gear Lubricants
 API GL-1 Straight mineral oil
 API GL-2 Mild EP for slow gears
 API GL-3 Mild EP for medium to high speed gears
 API GL-4 Medium EP, moderate severity load
conditions.
 API GL-5 High EP, Sever load conditions.
 API GL-6 Extra high EP, now obsolete.

EP (extreme pressure) additive is essential in gear oils.


The additive (Sulphur, Phosphorous) is designed to stop
metal-to-metal contact taking place between transmission
components.
Mixed Lubrication:
Load sharing

Machine element 1

Machine element 2

w1 Dry (no intended lubrication)


w2 Boundary lubrication (Physical/chemical/EP lubrication)
w3 Elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication
w4 Fluid Lubrication
w1  w2  w3  w4  1.0
Mixed Lubrication:
Coefficient of Friction
τi
μ
2 ( τ 2y  τ i2 )
τ i  w1 τ mi  w 2 τ bli 
w 3 τEHli  w 4 τFFli

du 
 10 Pa.s
2 10 m s 
1

dy 103
τi  w1 τmi  w 2 τbli

τmetal  τboundary_lubricants  τliquid_lubricants  τ gas_lubricants


Mixed Lubrication: Coefficient of Friction
Lubricant Friction
Coefficient
Pure mineral oil (MO) 0.360
2% oleic acid in (MO) 0.249
10% oleic acid in (MO) 0.198 1 mi
0.36 
50% oleic acid in (MO) 0.198 2 200 2   mi
2

Pure oleic acid 0.198

τi  ατmi  (1 α)τbli 0.36, 200 MPa, =1  116.86 MPa

0.198, 200 MPa, =0 73.64 MPa


τi
μ 0.249, 200 MPa, 116.86, 73.64  =0.36
2 (τ  τ )
2
y i
2
Lubricant monitoring
 Offline:
 Spectrometric analysis of wear debris to estimate
elemental content in order to determine source of wear
debris….. In gear lubrication 5 to 15 m.
 Ferrography
 Microscopic examination of the shape and size of particle
to determine wear mechanisms.
 TAN

 Online:
• Optical measurement of
turbidity to estimate
particle concentration.
• Pressure drop across filters
of various pore sizes to
indicate particle size
distribution. .
Online Sensor Suite
 Total ferrous wear debris sensor: Measures ferrous density,
resulting from the wear debris within the lubricant. Provides data in parts per
million (ppm). Increase in the ppm value of the sensor intimates the
deterioration of the gears.
 Oil condition sensor: Checks the combined effect of TAN and a
change in viscosity; and expresses quality as oil degradation on a 0-100
scale.
 Moisture sensor: Measures relative humidity (0-100%). Water in oil can
increase the oxidation rate of the lubricant by more than ten times.

Three cases:
Case 1: Oil without adding
acid;
Case 2: Two drops of acid is
added to the oil;
Case 3: Four drops of acid in
the lubricating oil
Offline oil analysis Techniques
(1) Direct reading ferrograph;
(2) Analytical ferrograph;
(3) Scanning electron
microscope.

 Direct reading ferrography is


a quantitative analysis of
ferrous particles present in
the used oil. It is used to
separate larger (DL >5µm)
and smaller (DS <5µm) size
of the ferrous particles.

Direct Reading
Ferrograph
Offline oil analysis Techniques
In Ferrography (direct and analytical) wear debris and contaminant
particles are separated from a lubricant and arranges them according
to size on a transparent substrate (glass slides) for examination.

Wear severity index, SI = DL*(DL-Ds)/Ds


If DL is much higher than DS; a
ferrogram on a fixed slide
containing wear/ferrous particles
is made for microscopic
examination. After deposition of
particles, a solvent is used to
flush away the oil residue or
water-based lubricant. After the
solvent evaporates, wear
particles remain permanently
attached to the glass substrate
and are ready for microscopic
examination.
93

Vibration Monitoring vs Oil


Monitoring
 Oil analysis (ineffective to diagnose large debris)
 identification of abnormal wear related conditions,
 moisture content,
 viscosity change,
 change in TAN number.
 Vibration analysis ~ Effective in identifying a fractured
gear tooth. Misalignment (Debris generation ???)
 Oil monitoring ~ Effective in identifying the progressive
failure of gear due to sliding.

Oil and vibration analyses ~


complementary nature. Jointly use to
monitor the root cause of gear-failure.
Experimental Study Spur gearbox

Torque sensor

D.C shunt motor


Eddy current dynamometer

Torque indicator

Tp = 22, Tg = 44, Module = 2.5 mm


Experimental Study
Moisture sensor

Oil condition sensor

Total ferrous wear debris sensor

On line sensor instrument.


Experimental Results
Operating Fe Concentration (ppm)
Time N = 500, T = N = 1000, T N = 1500, T =
S.No. (Hours) 0.35 =0.37 0.40
1 0 74 66 76
2 1 93
3 2 84 68 95
4 3 111
5 4 77 71 121
6 6 73 73
7 8 69 74
8 10 65

Lubricating oil: 80W-90 R.H. 45% to 55%


Experimental Results after
changing oil R.H. 38% to 52%
Operating Fe Concentration (ppm)
time N = 500, T = N = 2000, T = N = 2500, T =
S.No. (hours) 0.35 0.42 0.45
1 1 43 89 219
2 2 47 136 283
3 3 30 141 344
4 4 32 143 615
5 5 34 130 540
6 6 35 124 658
7 7 36 120

Conclusion: Changing operating condition changes the dynamics of


B.L.L.
Experimental Results
S.No Particle Size Time (hours) – 500 rpm
. (µm) t=2 t=4 t =6 t=8
1 5 – 15 18895523 17284428 14598593 7657957
2 15 – 25 403509 388530 364556 130998
3 25 – 50 58218 48026 50805 18934
4 50 – 100 1853 1544 3552 462
5 > 100 154 0 0 0

Particle Size Time (hours) -2000 rpm


S.No. (µm) t=3 t=4 t =6 t=7
1 5 – 15 µm 19075570 19688570 14982115 12883162
2 15 – 25 µm 409160 453867 337724 266367
3 25 – 50 µm 59576 80657 74741 48051
4 50 – 100 µm 1235 5089 5714 2009
5 > 100 µm 0 0 0 0
Experimental Results under Load
Operating N = 1000 N=
time N = 200, N = 200 N = 600 N = 800 , N = 200, N = 800, , 1000,
S.No. (hours) T=5 T = 8.5 T = 20 T = 28 T=5 T = 28 T = 35 T=0
1 1 152 100 67 45
2 1.5 33
3 2 154 94 68 42
4 2.5 138 93 65 41 33 30 33
5 3 135 90 63 40 30
6 4 130 85 62 40
7 4.5 30
8 5 127 85 61 39 30 32 30
9 6 102 67 56 35 29
10 7 104 69 54 37
11 7.5 107 69 56 36 32 32 33 32
12 8 53 34
13 9 53 33
14 10 52 32
15 11 47
Viscosity
 Physical property-resistance to flow. Due to internal
friction and molecular phenomena .
 Dynamic Viscosity
o 1 cP=10-3 Pa.s
 Kinematic Viscosity
o 1 cSt = 1 mm2/s
Viscosity

Friction = Shear Stress * Area


F = (Viscosity* V/h)*Area

H. Hirani
Viscosity Temperature Relationship
 For all liquids
viscosity
decreases as
the temperature
increases, but
rate of
decrease varies
considerably.
 VI = Viscosity
Index
NOTE: A change in thermal energy by addition or subtraction
of heat varies molecular activity within liquid, therefore
viscosity must always be related to the temperature at which it
was determined.
Viscosity Index
 Relates change of viscosity with
temperature (at 37.8 0C and L U
VI  100
98.90C) to two arbitrary oils L H
(having viscosities L & H at 37.8 U is viscosity at
0C), one based on a
37.8 0C of oil sample
Pennsylvania crude oil and one in Centistokes.
on gulf coast oil.
 HighVI from mineral oils can be
obtained by:
 Remove aromatics (low VI) during
refining stage
 Blending with high viscous oil
 Using polymeric additives
VISCOSITY Temperature Relationship
Vogel' s Equation η  ke b/(Tθ) k gives inherent viscosity.
b has units of temp. b increases with increase in viscosity.
Walther' s Equation loglog(cS 0.6)  constant  clogT
SAE ISO Viscosity In cSt VI
grade grade 400c 1000c 1300c

10W 32 32.6 5.57 3.20 107


20W 68 62.3 8.81 5.01 118
SAE 30 100 100 11.9 6.25 110
SAE 40 150 140 14.7 8.0 102
5W-20 46 138 6.92 4.17 140
10W-30 68 66.4 10.2 5.7 135
10W-40 100 77.1 14.4 8.4 193
10W-50 ------ 117 20.5 10.53 194
loglog(cS 0.6)  A  B logT
Walther’s Relation
SAE ISO Viscosity In cSt VI
grade grade 400c 1000c A B

10W 32 32.6 5.57 9.59 3.77 107


20W 68 62.3 8.81 8.99 3.50 118
SAE 30 100 100 11.9 8.87 3.43 110
SAE 40 150 140 14.7 8.80 3.40 102
5W-20 46 138 6.92 13.05 5.10 140
10W-30 68 66.4 10.2 8.36 3.25 135
10W-40 100 77.1 14.4 7.03 2.71 193
10W-50 ------ 117 20.5 6.67 2.55 194
Finding VI

To calculate VI of given oil, ASTM standard D2270 is used.


STEPS:
1. Find the kinematic viscosity (Y) of oil at 100°C.
2. If the kinematic viscosity of the sample at 100°C is lesser than or equal to
70 mm2/s, then values of L & H can be extracted from Table 1 of ASTM
D2270. But if the kinematic viscosity is greater than 70 mm2/s at 100°C, the
values of L and H can be calculated as follows:
L = 0.8353 Y2+ 14.67 Y- 216
H=0.1684Y2+ 11.85Y - 97
L = kinematic viscosity at 40°C of an oil with VI=0 having the same kinematic
viscosity at 100°C as the oil whose viscosity index is to be calculated, mm2/s.
Y = kinematic viscosity, at 100°C, of the oil whose viscosity index is to be
calculated, mm2/s.
H = kinematic viscosity at 40°C of an oil with VI=100 having the same kinematic
viscosity at 100°C as the oil whose viscosity index is to be calculated, mm2/s.
 Problem 1: Kinematic viscosities of oil at 40°C and
100°C are 136.75 mm2/s and 13.05 mm2/s
respectively. Find the VI of the oil.
 Answer: As the kinematic viscosity of the given
sample at 100°C is lesser than 70 mm2/s, Table 1 of
ASTM D2270 shall be used. As per that Table, L =
233.45 and H = 122.2.

VI  233.45  136.75 / 233.45  122.2 X 100  86.92


 Rounding to the nearest whole number VI=87.
 Problem 2:Measured kinematic viscosities of the
commercial (SM-120) oil at 40°C and 100 °C are
125.07mm2/s and12.48 mm2/s respectively.
Estimate VI of the oil.
 Answer:As U100 is lesser than 70 mm2/s, the viscosity
index of SM-120 shall be estimated usingTable 1 of
ASTM D2270. In this case H = 114 and L = 215.1.The
viscosity index is),
VI  215.1  125.07 / 215.1  114 X 100  89.05
 Rounding to the nearest whole number VI=89.
Multigrade Oils
Most oils on shelf today are MULTIGRADE oils, such
as 10W30 or 20W50. num W num 5W ; 10W; 20W
1 2 10, 20, 30
Operate tribo-systems over a wide temperature
range. Ex: Aircraft hydraulic oil to be operated from
-40 0C to +150 0C.
•One grade at 0°F and in a higher grade at 210°F
• 10W30 2100 cP at 0°F & SAE30 at 210°F
• Lower the first number, better performance in extremely cold
conditions
• Higher the second number better the oil will protect at higher
temperatures.
• By adding polymers in mineral oils.
VI improvement using polymeric additives

Polymer
chains

Temperature increase Thermal


thinning of oils
is
compensated
by unwinding
of polymeric
chain
Viscosity Shear Rate τ i  τ p  ηb du  dh
n

Relationship τ p  0.0; n 1
Bingham Fluid

Addition of proper additives is essential to make oils


perform well….. Addition of higher molecular weight
compounds like oleic acid, stearic acid, palmetic acid,
Shear Stress, , Pa

vegetables increases the oiliness of mineral oil.


Shear Newtonian Fluid
Thickening
1800

1600

Shear Thinning 1400

1200 Shear thickening


(n=1.05)
1000
Shear Thining (0.9)
800

Shear Rate, s-1 600 Newtonian


400

200

0
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000
Shear Thinning
 Effectiveness of multigrade oils is affected by the shear rate,
the rate at which the oil has to pass through confined spaces.
 At high shear rate, viscosity of multigrade oil may be little or
no different from that of base oil.


τ i  τ p  ηb du
dh

n

τ p  0.0; n 1

K  μ2 γ
μ  μ1 ;
K  μ1γ
2 2
 u   w 
γ      
 y   y 
Which Oil
Selection of the proper lubricant is an important
for better operational life of the tribo-system.
High Speed High Load
Better circulation 
Flow
cleansing and cooling. rate
 Before making your decision, evaluate required
functions, lubricant film thickness, lubricant
capability availability.
 Characteristic of good lubricating oils:
 high boiling point, Drip, wick, circulation,
 low freezing point, batch, air-oil mist
 adequate viscosity
 high resistance to oxidation and heat,
 non-corrosive properties
 stability to decomposition at the operating
temperatures.
Classification of Liquid Lubricants
• Vegetable (Castor, Rapeseed)
oils
 Less stable (rapid oxidation) than
mineral oils at high temp.
 Contain more natural boundary
lubricants than mineral oils
 Animal fats
 Extreme pressure properties.
 Availability problem.
 Mineral oils
 Synthetic lubricant
 Viscosity does not vary as much
with temperature as in mineral oil
 rate of oxidation is much slower
 cost
115

Vegetable & Animal (Fixed) oils


 fixed oils because they do not volatilize unless
they decompose
 composed of fatty acids and alcohols
 On oxidation form a gummy substance. This process
is known as drying
 fixed oils which are slow to dry are used for lubrication
 Fixed oils are usually added to mineral oils to change our
improve film formation. engine oil
every 3000
 Ex: Tallow, castor oil, olive oil, fish oils. miles
Pour Point : The lowest temperature at which a fluid will flow or can be
poured.
Flash Point: The lowest temperature at which the lubricant oil gives off
enough vapors that ignite for a moment, when a tiny flame is brought
near it.
Mineral Oils
Petroleum oils: Lower molecular weight hydrocarbons with about 12 to
50 carbon atoms. Economic, available in abundance and stable under
service conditions. But the oiliness of mineral oils is less, so the addition of
higher molecular weight compounds like oleic acid and stearic acid
required.
 Extracted from crude oil.
 Consists of hydrocarbons (Composed of 83-87% carbon
and 11-14% hydrogen by wt.) with approximately 30
carbon atoms in each molecule (composed of straight &
cyclic carbon chains bonded together). Also contain
sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen.
 Classification based on:
 Sulphur contents: Pennsylvanian oil (<0.25%), Middle
east (~1%), Venezuelan (~2%), Mexican (~5%). 0.1% to
1.0% preferred.
 Chemical form: Paraffinic, naphthenic & aromatic.
Chemical Forms of Mineral Oils

Straight paraffin Branched paraffin Naphthene Aromatic


7, 15 + 11, 23 + 11, 21 +
Chemical formula CnH2n+2 formula CnH2n
Paraffinic Oils
 Good natural resistance to oxidation. But
on oxidation it forms acids.
 When burnt, leaves a hard carbonaceous
deposit.
 Good thermal stability
 Low volatility
 High viscosity index (VI=90-115)
 High flash point
 Pour
point higher than naphthenic or
aromatic
Naphthenic Oils

 Lower VI (15-75)
 Less resistant to oxidation
 Lower flash points than paraffinic
 Lower pour point than paraffinic therefore
good for low temperature applications
 When burnt soft deposits are formed,
therefore abrasive wear is lower
 Oxidation leads to undesirable sludge type
deposits
Synthetic Oils
 Expensive, but applied where mineral oils are
inadequate.
 Oxidation & viscosity loss at high temperature Most of new
 Combustion or explosion cars use
 Solidification at low temperature Synthetic oils.

NOTE: Jet Engine. tambient < -120ºF. 60000 shaft rpm,


and 500ºF exhaust temperatures proved too much
for mineral oils.

Synthetic oils are engineered specifically in uniformly


shaped molecules with shorter carbon chains which
are much more resistant to heat and stress.
 Polyglycols (Polyalkylene glycol)
Originally used as Brake fluids. VI = 200. Absorb water.
Distinct advantages as lubricants for systems
operating at high temperatures such as furnace
conveyor belts, where the polyglycol burns without
leaving a carbonaceous deposit. Used in textile
industry.
 Esters
Reacting alcohol with inorganic acid.
Better (in reducing friction, resisting oxidation, prolong
draining period, volatility) than mineral oils.
Costs only a little more than mineral oils.
 Silicone:
VI 300. Chemical inert. Poor boundary
lubricant. Low solubility. Space application,
HIGH PRODUCTION COST.
 Perfluoropolyalkylether:
Good oxidation & thermal stability. VI= 200. In
vacuum used for thin film lubrication.
 Perfluoropolyethers
High oxidation (320°C) & thermal (370°C)
stability.
Low surface tension & chemical inert.
Elasto -
Hydrodynamic
Lubrication
3<Λ<5

Question: Out of all lubrication mechanisms which is the best and why?
Answer: Different lubrication mechanisms are used as per different
requirements and applications and it would be difficult to categorize as one of
them as best. There are different types of lubrication mechanisms like fluid film
lubrication, elastohydrodynamic lubrication, boundary lubrication; and each
one has different usage. Elastohydrodynamic lubrication provides minimum
friction and zero wear, therefore it is preferable compared to other lubrications,
but operating regime of EHL is very narrow.
Notable points:
Negligible effect of load on minimum
film thickness hmin α W-0.075

Significant effect of relative velocity


on film thickness hmin α U0.68
Thickening of lubricating oils under
high load.
In the presence high fluid pressure, lubricant viscosity

  
increases.

  o ln o  9.67 1  5.110 p   1 9 Z

Lubricant Z
Mineral oil, typical value 0.60
Synthetic Oils
PAO synthetic hydrocarbon 0.45
Diester 0.47
Polyol ester 0.48
Polymethylsiloxane 0.49
Castol oil 0.43    0 eP
Rapeseed 0.42
Pressure Viscosity variation
(Pa) or multiplier
Pressure-viscosity coefficient. 1.e5 1.0010
 remain in the range of 10-8 to 2*10-8 /Pa. 1.e6 1.0101
1.e7 1.1052
1.e8 2.7183
ELASTOHYDRODYNA
In rolling contact elements (bearings,
MIC LUBRICATION gears) generated fluid film is minutely
small slightly greater than irregularities
of the surfaces, but serve much longer
than predicted by mixed lubrication
theories.

• Increased Viscosity under the action


of extreme local pressure leads the
generation of thicker film.

Three mechanisms help to support the


load under elastohydrodynamic
lubrication are:
• Elastic deformation of tribo-surfaces.
• Effect of increase in viscosity with
pressure.
• Hydrodynamic lubrication.
Deformation of surfaces?
Under mechanical load, every surface gets deform,
then applied lubricant gets dragged into the
interface and builds pressure. For example rubber
seals, gear teeth. Film pressure greater than 10 MPa
is sufficient to deform the tribo-surfaces by sub-
micron to micron level.
At high pressure the molecules take some time to
re-arrange themselves.

Elastic deformation of rubber.


Is deformation desirable?
In elasto hydrodynamic lubrication there occurs
some interaction between the raised solid features
called asperities, and there is an elastic
deformation on the contacting surface which
increases the load-bearing area whereby the
viscous resistance of the lubricant becomes
capable of supporting the load.

Hence with respect to elasto hydrodynamic


lubrication deformation is desirable.
Elastohydrodynamic lubrication…
 Film pressure > 10 MPa is sufficient to deform the
tribo-surfaces by sub-micron to micron level.
 Deformation alters the gap between tribo-pairs.
 combine

 elastic deformation of tribo-surfaces,


 effect of increase in viscosity with pressure, and
 hydrodynamic lubrication

Material Compressive Thermal Melting Coefficient Density


yield strength Conductivity Temp Thermal expansion g/cc
MPa W/m-K (oC) 10-5/oC
Brass  300 87 910 2.1 8.47
Acrylic  50 0.2 130 11 1.18
Elastohydrodynamic lubrication…
Experimental study on soft &
hard bearing materials
Acrylic Bearing Brass
Combination Bearing
 Pmax ,  Pmax ,
Kpa kPa
500rpm-300N 0.0106 572 0.0296 696
500rpm-450N 0.0069 655 0.0131 1013
500rpm-600N 0.0042 1337 0.0105 1441
500rpm-750N 1331 0.011 1620

1000rpm-300N 0.0179 717 0.0226 765 It is worth noting that


1000rpm-450N 0.0124 1151 0.0206 1000 increasing load from
1000rpm-600N 0.0111 1041 0.0249 1241 600N to 750N, the
1000rpm-750N 0.0102 1062 0.0223 1792 value of maximum
1500rpm-300N 0.0362 772 0.1003 772 pressure in Acrylic
1500rpm-450N 0.017 1007 0.027 1096 bearing remains almost
1500rpm-600N 0.0065 1248 0.0257 1386 same.
1500rpm-750N 0.011 1345 0.0163 2565
Modeling of EHL is a major challenge.
Conclusion: Design goal must be How do we estimate the load capacity
“Elastohydrodynamic lubrication”. as elastic deformation changes the
geometry of the lubricating film.
HERTZ THEORY
 Hertz developed a theory to calculate the elastic deformation
and contact pressure between the two non-conforming
(convex-convex profiles) surfaces.
 Examples of such contacts are gears, cam follower, ball-
bearing, etc.
 When non-conforming bodies, subject to load are brought in
contact; whole load is supported by smaller area of body and
high compressive stress induces.
Elastic deformation of two contacting
solid spheres

2b << d1

b 2
F   p rd dr
  r 2 
b


F  2 Pmax 1     rdr
  b  
0 0 0
  r 2 
3 F p  Pmax 1    
Pmax    b  
2 b 2

1  F 2
2 

1  F 2
2
1  1
2E2 r
2E1r

1   2 b 2 Pmax 1 r  b 2

 r ,   1
 rd dr
2E1
1
0 0
r

1    2 2 b Pmax 1  r  b 2

1  
1
rdr
2E1 r
0

1 

b 1   1 2 Pmax 
.
 Substituting
2 E1 2

 
3F
Pmax 
b 1   2 Pmax  2b 2
2
2  .
2
2 E2
 1   2
  1   bP 2 
 1  12
1   2  
 

1  2
2
 3F
1   2   1 2

max
 E1 E2  8b

 E1 E2  4
1  OB  OC

1  R1  OA 2  AC 2

 1  R1  R12  b 2
 2 
  b  
 1  R1 1  1    
  R1  
 
  1  b 2 

1  R1 1  1     negligible _ term  
 b2
  2  R1    1  b2
   2R1 Similarly 2 
2 R2

Effective radius 1

1

1
 1  12 1  2 2  F
b  0.75 
*
R R1 R2 3

Equivalent elastic modulus  E1 E2  1 R1  1 R2 
1
2
1  1 1   22 F
*
  b3  0.75R*
E E1 E2 E*
 Example: A ball thrust bearing (as shown in Figure) with 7
balls is loaded with 700N across its races through the
balls. Diameter of spherical balls is 10mm. Assume load is
equally shared by all balls, and race is a flat surface
(R2=). Determine the size of contact patch on the race.
Assume Poisson’s ratio = 0.28 and E=207 GPa for ball and
race material.

size of contact patch, 2*b b3  0.75R*


F contact patch
E* is 299 microns
Load 700 1 1  12 1   22
F   100 N ;  
No of balls 7 E* E1 E2
Find Pmax
1 1 1 E
    0.005 m  E*   1.123 *1011 N / m 2
 
*
R 2 1 2
R *
0.005 
Finding Pmax
3F
Pmax 
2b 2
1 1 1
F  
b3  0.75R* R* R1 R2
1 1  12 1   22
E*  
* E1 E2
E
Sensitivity of max pressure ???

Pmax 
3
2 
F
2
Pmax 
 
3 F E
1
3 *
2
3

 
* F 
3
  0.75 R * 
 E  2 0.75 R* 2
3

In previous example contact patch 2b= 299 microns. On


substituting same data, we find Pmax=2.1372 Gpa.
Contact between two solid cylinders
In case of cylindrical
contact (as shown in figure),
there will be elliptical
contact and pressure
distribution may be
provided as:

  x 2  y 2 
p  Pmax 1       
  b   a  
Length of cylinder is much larger
than its diameter, pressure
variation in y dir. is neglected.
  x 2 
p  Pmax 1     Roller bearings, Gears
  b  
Cylindrical Contacts
  x 2

p  Pmax 1    
  b  
b
  x 2 

F  2 L Pmax
0
1     dx
  b  

x  b sin 
 
2
F  2 LPmax b cos 2 d
0

 2 F
F bLPmax Pmax 
2  bL
Hydrodynamic
Lubrication
Bearing cap

Towers experiments Bush


 Experiments on partial arc bearing
by imposing load using bearing
cap on rotating journal.
 Friction resistance on bearing was
obtained by measuring friction
moment acting on bearing cap. Fig: Sketch of Tower’s test
setup
• Tower’s observations:
• Very small (~0.001) coefficient of friction.
• Increase in frictional resistance on increase in sliding
speed.
• Decrease in friction resistance on increase in operating
temperature.
Conclusions based on Towers experiments
 In oil bath lubrication, friction resistance follows the
laws of “liquid friction” compared to “solid friction
(coulomb, adhesion)”.
 Bearing bush actually floats on a film of oil.
 Fluid pressure in middle of bush is more than double
the mean pressure.
 Unstable friction resistance occurs during lubrication
other than oil bath lubrication, probably due to
insufficient amount of oil.
Tower’s experimental results motivated researchers to
understand the effect of various parameters
responsible for generation of fluid film pressure.
Fluid mechanics concepts

z
y

x
No pressure development within the parallel surfaces.
H. Hirani
Fluid mechanics concepts….

 Plate AB is inclined at angle . Film thickness h ~ f(x).


 Area (B B’) < Area (A A’) .
 Conservation of the mass flow rate
 Positive pressure gradient will be generated at exit and negative
pressure gradient will generated at entrance.

z
y

x
Fig: Positive pressure gradient at exit
and negative pressure gradient at
entrance
Pressure driven flow
W

Fig: Pressure profile


H. Hirani
between inclined plates.
Reynolds’ Equation

Similarly, on force balance in z-


direction
P 2w
 2
z y
Assumptions:
1. Negligible inertia terms.
  p       2. Negligible pressure
 p   x dx  dz.dy   dzdx     y  dz.dx  pdzdy  0 gradient in the direction of
       film thickness (y- direction).
dp d P  2u 3. Newtonian behavior of
  2 fluid.
x y
dx dy u
Assuming, Newtonian behavior of fluid  
y
Reynolds’ Equation…. Finding fluid velocity
P  2u
To find flow velocity u in x - direction, integrate   2 two times.
x y
u P
  y  C1
y x
 y 2  yh  P  y
P y 2
u     1   U
u   C1 y  C 2  2  x  h 
x 2
Two velocity terms “shear
Assuming no slip at liquid solid boundary flow” and “flow due to
pressure gradient” .
y  0, u  U; & y  h, u  0
Similarly flow velocity in z dir,
P 0  U  C2
2
U   C1 0  C2
x 2  y 2  yh  P  y
w    1   Wz
   
P h 2 U P h  2  z h
0  C1 h  C2  -   C1
x 2 h x 2
Reynolds’ Equation…. Continuity equation
u v w
  0 Using Leibnitz rule
x y z u  y, x 
dy   u dy  u h, x 
h d h dh
0 x dx 0 dx
Assumptions:
1. Negligible inertia terms
2. Negligible pressure gradient in the direction of film thickness
3. Newtonian fluid h 2 h
4. Constant value of viscosity
h
1  y 3
y 2
h  P U  y 
5. No slip at liquid solid boundary

0
u .dy  
2  3
      Uh
2  0 x h  2  0
6. Incompressible flow 3
h P Uh
 
Integrating Eq. in y-direction from y=0 to y=h 12 x 2
h
u
h
w
h
 y 2  yh  P  y
0 x dy  0 0 z dy  0
dv  u     1   U
 2  x  h 
Using Leibnitz rule  y 2  yh  P  y
b u  y, x 
w      1   Wz
a x dy  dx a u dy  ub, x  dx  ua, x  dx  2  z  h 
d b db da
Reynolds’ Equation…. Continuity equation

u w
h h h

0 x dy  0 dv  0 z dy  0

  h 3 P Uh    h 3 P Wh 
     Vh  V0        0
x  12 x 2  z  12 z 2 

  h 3 P    h 3 P    Uh    Wh 
         Vh  V0    
x  12 x  z  12 z  x  2  z  2 

  h 3 P    h 3 P 
For hydrostatic       0
x  12 x  z  12 z 

  h 3 P    h 3 P  U dh
For hydrodynamic case, vel. in x-dir      
x  12 x  z  12 z  2 dx
Pressure Viscosity Term In Reynold’s Equation

   0 eP

  h 3 p    h 3 p   h 
      6U
x   x  z   Z  x

Using Barus’ relation


  h 3 p  3   1 p  h
 P   h  P   6U
x   0 e x  z   0 e z  x

  3 P p  3   P p  h
h e h e   6 0U
x  x  z  z  x

1  e P q p p
  3 q  3   q  h
q  e h h    6 0U
 x x x  x  z  z  x
Idealized Bearings
  h3 P    h3 P  U dh
     
x  12 x  z  12 z  2 dx
  3 q  3   q  h
h h    60U
x  x  z  z  x
one requires solution of this partial differential equation. Assumptions
are made to simplify (idealize) the equation by neglecting lubricant flow
in one (x-dir or z-dir) of the directions. The closed form solution
obtained for idealized bearing provides an understanding of geometric
parameters and their effect on bearing performance.
Long fixed slider
B>5L.
No flow of lubricant in the z-
direction; U
no drop in pressure in the z-
direction dp
0
dz Z X
Y
dh
 0.
dz B

  h3 P    h3 P  U dh L
     
x  12 x  z  12 z  2 dx
L

  h 3 P  U dh h  h2  ( L  x) tan
   x

x  12 x  2 dx
 h  h2  ( L  x)(h1  h2 ) / L U

h2

 h  const 
h
 h  h2 [1  m(1  x / L)]
h1
dp
 6U 

dx  h 3  X

Y
Long fixed slider

dp h  h  Considering hm=h2 where >1.


 6U  3 m 
dx  h 
 
 x  6UL 

2

dp
h
 2 (1  m (1  ))   h2 p 2 
mh2 
1

x  
 C1 


2
 x 
 6U  L      1  m1   
x 3 
1 m 1
   L    L  
dx  h2 (1  m(1  )) 
3

 L 
 
dp 6U  1  
 2  
dx h2  x 2 x 3 
(1  m  m ) (1  m  m )
 L L 
 
6U  dx  dx 
p  2    C1 
x
h2  (1  m  m ) 2 x
(1  m  m )3 
 L L 
Long fixed slider
 
 
6UL  2 There are two constants,  and C1. To
 C1 
1
p 
2 
mh2   x   x 
2  find the expressions for these
 1  m1   1  m1   
   L     L   constant two boundary conditions
p=0 at x=0 and at x=L can be used.
1 (1  m) Based on these boundary conditions:
C1   ; and  
2m 2(2  m)
 
 
6UL  1 m 1 1 
p 2 
 
mh2   x    x  
2
2  m
 1  m1   (2  m)1  m1   
   L    L  
 
Load capacity  
6U LB L
 1 m  1 1  dx
mh2 0  
of slider fixed W   
pad
2
 x    x  
2
2  m
 1  m1   (2  m)1  m1   
   L    L  
6UL2 B  2m 
W  2 2 log1  m 
m h2  m  2 
Limit on film
thickness

h dp U L B
  F     dz dx
2 dx h 0 0
Friction force
 (1  m) 
h2 [1  m(1  x / L)] 6U  2(2  m)  U
L B
1
F  (     ) dz dx
0 0
2 h2  (1  m  m ) 2 (1  m  m )3  h2 [1  m(1  x / L)]
2
x x
 L L 

 (1  m) 
L 3
UB 4 (2  m) 
F  
x

x
 dx
h2 0  (1  m  m ) (1  m  m ) 2 
 L L 

UB L  m 
F  4 log(1  m)  6
m h2  2  m 
Infinitely Long Journal Bearings
Infinitely long journal bearing, length of
the bearing is too large compare to its
diameter. In such a situation pressure
gradient in z-direction will be
negligible.

d  h 3 p  dh
   6U
dx   x  dx

Since the cross-section of the journal bearing is circular, it would be


beneficial to use polar coordinates, which means x  R

d  h3 p  dh
   6UR
d     d

h  c  e. cos 
Film Thickness
h  c  e. cos 
c  RB  RJ
e = eccentricity (distance
between OB and OJ)

sin  sin 

e RB
 e2 
 cos   1  2 sin 2  
 RB 

2
 e 2
 Wx  W cos    L  p cos  .R.d
h  RJ  e cos   RB 1  2 sin 2  
 RB  0
2
assuming RB>> e Wy  W sin   L  p sin  .R.d
0
Eccentricity ratio
One of the very important parameter in journal bearing design
is eccentricity ratio ‘’ which is expressed as

 e/c
Extreme values of eccentricity ( = 0 and =1) shall be avoided. If
journal and bearing are concentric ( =0) then load capacity of
hydrodynamic journal bearing will be zero, which means there is no
use of the bearing. Similarly =1 forces shaft to contact bearing
inner surface and rubbing occurs which should be completely
avoided.
dp  h  hm 
 6UR 
h  c(1   cos  ) d  h 
3

dp
  h p 
3
dh h  hm at 0
   6UR d
     d
6UR  d hm d 
c 2  (1   cos  ) 2  1   cos  3   C1
p  
c
6UR  d hm d 
c 2  (1   cos  ) 2  1   cos  3   C1
p  
c
  cos  Sommerfeld
 6UR   sin  (2   cos  ) 
cos   
p   c 2  (2   2 )(1   cos  ) 2 
for 0    
1   cos  substitution 0 for     2

  0  0 cos  
cos   
1   cos 
   
1   2 sin 
sin  
  2    2 1   cos 
p

6UR   sin  (2   cos  ) 


p 2 
c  (2   2 )(1   cos  ) 2  O  2 

p c2  sin  (2   cos  )
p 
6UR (2   2 )(1   cos  ) 2
Infinitely Short Journal Bearings
p p
   3 p  h
z x h
z  z 
  6U
x

h  c1  cos 

6 dh z 2
p  3 . .  C1 z  C2
h d 2

3  L2   sin 
p  2   z 2 .
 1   cos  
3
c  4

p U  L2     sin  
3   z 2     0.
3 
  m R  4    1   cos   

1  (1  24 2 ) 
 m  cos 
1

 4 
 L/2

Wx  2  p cos .R.d .dz U L3 sin  cos 
0 0

2c 2 0 (1   cos  )3 d
 L/2

Wy  2  p sin  .R.d .dz UL3 sin 2 
0 0

2c 2 0 (1   cos  )3 d

Using Sommerfeld table of integration

UL3 2
Wx   .
c2 1   2 2
1  Wy 
  tan     tan
 
1   1  
2

1
2 

UL3  
.
 
Wy  .  Wx  
4

1   
3
4c 2 2 2

UL3
W  Wx  Wy
2 2
  1    16 
2 2
1
2 2

4c 1   
2 2 2
JOURNAL BEARINGS

Friction loss
Flow rate

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