Chapter 1: Types of Cells

The major differences between Prokaryotic and Eukarotic cells are that prokaryotes don't have a
nucleus and rarely have membrane bound organelles, (the only exception I have heard of is
bacteria with vacuoles). The both do have DNA for genetic material, have a exterior membrane,
have ribosomes, accomplish similar functions, and are very diverse. For instance, there are over
200 types of cells in the human body, that very greatly in size, shape, and function.

Prokaryotes:
 Prokaryotes are cells without a nucleus. They have genetic materials but are not
enclosed within a membrane. These include bacteria and cyanophytes. The genetic
material is a single circular DNA and is contained in the cytoplasm, since there is no
nucleus. Recombination happens through transfers of plasmids (short circles of DNA that
pass from one bacterium to another). They do not engulf solids nor do they have
centrioles or asters. There are pictures of 2 prokaryotes below. Prokaryotes have a cell
wall made up of peptidoglycan.

Eukaryotes:
 These are cells with a nucleus, this is where the genetic material is surrounded by a
membrane much like the cells membrane. Eucaryotic cells are found in humans and other
multicellular organisms (plants and animals) also algae, protazoa. They have both a
cellular membrane and a nuclear membrane, also the genetic material forms multiple
chromosomes, that is linear and complexed with proteins that help it 'pack' and is
involved in regulation.

Eukaryotes are composed of both plant and animal cells. Plants vary from animal cells in
that they have large vacuoles, cell wall, chloroplasts, and a lack of lysosomes, centrioles,
pseudopods, and flagella or cilia. Animal cells do not have the chloroplasts, and may or
may not have cilia, pseudopods or flagella, depending on the type of cell.

A eukaryote (/juːˈkæri.oʊt/ yoo-KARR-ee-oht) is any organism whose cells contain a nucleus

and other structures (organelles) enclosed within membranes. Eukaryotes are formally the taxon
Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining membrane-bound structure that sets eukaryotic cells apart
from prokaryotic cells is the nucleus, or nuclear envelope, within which the genetic material is
contained.[3][4][5] The presence of a nucleus gives eukaryotes their name, which comes from the
Greek ευ (eu, "well") and κάρυον (karyon, "nut" or "kernel").[6] Most eukaryotic cells also
contain other membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria or the Golgi apparatus. In
addition, plants and algae contain chloroplasts. Many unicellular organisms are eukaryotes, such
as protozoa. All multicellular organisms are eukaryotes, including animals, plants and fungi.

Cell division in eukaryotes is different from that in organisms without a nucleus (Prokaryote).
There are two types of division processes. In mitosis, one cell divides to produce two genetically
identical cells. In meiosis, which is required in sexual reproduction, one diploid cell (having two
instances of each chromosome, one from each parent) undergoes recombination of each pair of
parental chromosomes, and then two stages of cell division, resulting in four haploid cells
(gametes). Each gamete has just one complement of chromosomes, each a unique mix of the
corresponding pair of parental chromosomes.

The domain Eukaryota appears to be monophyletic, and so makes up one of the three domains of
life. The two other domains, Bacteria and Archaea, are prokaryotes and have none of the above
features. Eukaryotes represent a tiny minority of all living things;[7] even in a human body there
are 10 times more microbes than human cells.[8] However, due to their much larger size, their
collective worldwide biomass is estimated at about equal to that of prokaryotes.[9] Eukaryotes
first developed approximately 1.6–2.1 billion years ago.

Cell features
Eukaryotic cells are typically much larger than those of prokaryotes. They have a variety of
internal membranes and structures, called organelles, and a cytoskeleton composed of
microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments, which play an important role in
defining the cell's organization and shape. Eukaryotic DNA is divided into several linear bundles
called chromosomes, which are separated by a microtubular spindle during nuclear division.

Internal membrane

Eukaryote cells include a variety of membrane-bound structures, collectively referred to as the

endomembrane system.[10] Simple compartments, called vesicles or vacuoles, can form by
budding off other membranes. Many cells ingest food and other materials through a process of
endocytosis, where the outer membrane invaginates and then pinches off to form a vesicle. It is
probable that most other membrane-bound organelles are ultimately derived from such vesicles.

The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane (commonly referred to as a nuclear envelope),

with pores that allow material to move in and out. Various tube- and sheet-like extensions of the
nuclear membrane form what is called the endoplasmic reticulum or ER, which is involved in
protein transport and maturation. It includes the rough ER where ribosomes are attached to
synthesize proteins, which enter the interior space or lumen. Subsequently, they generally enter
vesicles, which bud off from the smooth ER. In most eukaryotes, these protein-carrying vesicles
are released and further modified in stacks of flattened vesicles, called Golgi bodies or
dictyosomes.

Vesicles may be specialized for various purposes. For instance, lysosomes contain enzymes that break
down the contents of food vacuoles, and peroxisomes are used to break down peroxide, which is toxic
otherwise. Many protozoa have contractile vacuoles, which collect and expel excess water, and
extrusomes, which expel material used to deflect predators or capture prey. In higher plants, most of a
cell's volume is taken up by a central vacuole, which primarily maintains its osmotic pressure.
Mitochondria and plastids

Mitochondria are organelles found in nearly all eukaryotes.[11] They are surrounded by two
membranes (each a phospholipid bi-layer), the inner of which is folded into invaginations called
cristae, where aerobic respiration takes place. Mitochondria contain their own DNA. They are
now generally held to have developed from endosymbiotic prokaryotes, probably proteobacteria.
The few protozoa that lack mitochondria have been found to contain mitochondrion-derived
organelles, such as hydrogenosomes and mitosomes; and thus probably lost the mitochondria
secondarily.

Plants and various groups of algae also have plastids. Again, these have their own DNA and
developed from endosymbiotes, in this case cyanobacteria. They usually take the form of
chloroplasts, which like cyanobacteria contain chlorophyll and produce organic compounds
(such as glucose) through photosynthesis. Others are involved in storing food. Although plastids
likely had a single origin, not all plastid-containing groups are closely related. Instead, some
eukaryotes have obtained them from others through secondary endosymbiosis or ingestion.

Endosymbiotic origins have also been proposed for the nucleus, for which see below, and for
eukaryotic flagella, supposed to have developed from spirochaetes.[clarification needed] This is not
generally accepted, both from a lack of cytological evidence and difficulty in reconciling this
with cellular reproduction.

Cell wall
Further information: Cell wall

The cells of plants, fungi, and most chromalveolates have a cell wall, a layer outside the cell
membrane, providing the cell with structural support,[citation needed] protection, and a filtering
mechanism. The cell wall also prevents over-expansion when water enters the cell.

The major polysaccharides making up the primary cell wall of land plants are cellulose,
hemicellulose, and pectin. The cellulose microfibrils are linked via hemicellulosic tethers to form
the cellulose-hemicellulose network, which is embedded in the pectin matrix. The most common
hemicellulose in the primary cell wall is xyloglucan.

The prokaryotes are a group of organisms whose cells lack a membrane-bound nucleus
(karyon). Those organisms whose cells have a well defined membrane bound nucleus and
organelles are called eukaryotes. Most prokaryotes are unicellular organisms, although a few
such as myxobacteria have multicellular stages in their life cycles[1] or create large colonies like
cyanobacteria. The word prokaryote comes from the Greek πρό- (pro-) "before" and καρυόν
(karyon) "nut or kernel".[2][3] Prokaryotes do not have a membrane bound nucleus, mitochondria,
or any other membrane-bound organelles. Consequently, all their intracellular water-soluble
components (proteins, DNA and metabolites) are located together in the same volume enclosed
by the cell membrane, rather than in separate cellular compartments.

The division between prokaryotes and eukaryotes reflects two distinct levels of cellular
organization rather than biological classification of species. Prokaryotes include two major
classification domains of life: the Bacteria and the Archaea. Archaea were recognized as a
domain in 1990. These organisms were originally thought to live only in inhospitable conditions
such as extremes of temperature, pH, and radiation but have since been found in all types of
habitats.

Prokaryotes are single-cell organisms, including bacteria and their bacteria-

like cousins Archaea. Prokaryotic cells are much simpler than the more
evolutionarily advanced eukaryotic cell. Whereas eukaryotic cells have many
different functional compartments, divided by membranes, prokaryotes only
have one membrane, the plasma membrane, which encloses all of the cell’s
internal contents. If a eukaryotic cell is analogous to a big house with many
different rooms, a prokaryotic cell is like a one-room, studio apartment.

Internal Structures of Prokaryotic Cells

 Plasma Membrane: The plasma membrane is a double-layer of phospholipids with

associated proteins and other molecules. It is essentially the “bag” that holds all of the
intracellular material and regulates the movement of materials into and out of the cell.

 Cytoplasm: This is the gel-like fluid that the cell is filled with, inside the plasma
membrane--liquid with all of the cellular organelles suspended within.

 Cytoskeleton: It's only recently been discovered that rod-shaped bacteria and Archaea
possess cytoskeletal proteins that function in a similar way to the cytoskeleton of
eukaryotic cells. This scaffolding provides structural support to the cell and plays a role
in cell-division.

 Ribosomes: All cells, both prokaryotic and eukaryotic, have multiple ribosomes within.
Ribosomes are the protein-making machinery of the cell.

The cell is the basic unit of life. All organisms are made up of cells (or in some cases,
a single cell). Most cells are very small; most are invisible without using a
microscope. Cells are covered by a cell membrane and come in many different shapes.
The contents of a cell are called the protoplasm.

The following is a glossary of animal cell terms:

cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell. The cell
membrane is semipermeable, allowing some substances to pass into the cell and
blocking others.
centrosome - (also called the "microtubule organizing center") a small body located
near the nucleus - it has a dense center and radiating tubules. The centrosomes is
where microtubules are made. During cell division (mitosis), the centrosome divides
and the two parts move to opposite sides of the dividing cell. The centriole is the
dense center of the centrosome.
cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles are
located.
Golgi body - (also called the Golgi apparatus or golgi complex) a flattened, layered,
sac-like organelle that looks like a stack of pancakes and is located near the nucleus. It
produces the membranes that surround the lysosomes. The Golgi body packages
proteins and carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for "export" from the cell.
lysosome - (also called cell vesicles) round organelles surrounded by a membrane and
containing digestive enzymes. This is where the digestion of cell nutrients takes place.
mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. The
inner membrane is infolded many times, forming a series of projections (called
cristae). The mitochondrion converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) for the cell.
nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus - it is where ribosomal RNA is produced.
Some cells have more than one nucleolus.
nucleus - spherical body containing many organelles, including the nucleolus. The
nucleus controls many of the functions of the cell (by controlling protein synthesis)
and contains DNA (in chromosomes). The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear
membrane.
ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that are
sites of protein synthesis.
rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER) a vast system of interconnected,
membranous, infolded and convoluted sacks that are located in the cell's cytoplasm
(the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). Rough ER is covered with
ribosomes that give it a rough appearance. Rough ER transports materials through the
cell and produces proteins in sacks called cisternae (which are sent to the Golgi body,
or inserted into the cell membrane).
smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth ER) a vast system of interconnected,
membranous, infolded and convoluted tubes that are located in the cell's cytoplasm
(the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). The space within the ER is
called the ER lumen. Smooth ER transports materials through the cell. It contains
enzymes and produces and digests lipids (fats) and membrane proteins; smooth ER
buds off from rough ER, moving the newly-made proteins and lipids to the Golgi
body, lysosomes, and membranes.
vacuole - fluid-filled, membrane-surrounded cavities inside a cell. The vacuole fills
with food being digested and waste material that is on its way out of the cell.
Animal cell

Structure of a typical animal cell

An animal cell is a form of eukaryotic cell that makes up many tissues in animals. Animal cells
are distinct from other eukaryotes, most notably plant cells, as they lack cell walls and
chloroplasts. They also have smaller vacuoles. Due to the lack of a cell wall, animal cells can
adopt a variety of shapes. A phagocytic cell can even engulf other structures.

There are many different types of cell. For instance, there are approximately 210 distinct cell
types in the adult human body.