CHAPTER 2

PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF FLY ASH

2.1 Introduction

The procedures that are currently being used for classification o f fly ash are

reviewed. Some o f the significant properties so as to classify the fly ash as per the

current procedure are determined. The need o f a separate classification procedure

of fly ash for geotechnical engineering applications is established. As a geo­

material, index properties of fly ash are identified. Based on these index

properties, a system for classification of fly ash in the light o f soil classification

system is proposed.

2.2 Existing Procedures for Classification of Fly Ash

The classification procedures of fly ash are discussed under the following

subsections.

2.2.1 Review of Specifications for Classification of Fly Ash

Mehta [68] classified fly ash into two categories based on calcium content- (i) Fly

ash resulting from combustion of anthracite and bituminous coal with CaO less

than 5 % (ii) Fly ash resulting from combustion o f lignite and sub-bituminous coal

with CaO up to 15-35%

Currently the system defined by ASTM C 618 is the most commonly used

classification system for fly ash. ASTM C618 specifications were developed for a

specific application, the use of fly ash as a mineral admixture in Portland cement

concrete. The chemical and physical requirements of fly ash defined by ASTM C

5
618 are given in Table 2.1 It distinguishes two classes o f fly ash, Class C and
Class F. The distinction between Class F and Class C fly ash is based on the sum
o f the total silicon, aluminum, and iron (Si02 +Al203+Fe2C>3) in the ash. When the
sum is greater than 70% an ash is classified as Class F. When the sum lies in the
range o f 50% to 70% the ash is classified as Class C. Although, ASTM
classification system does not classify the fly ash based on CaO content, the same
is indirectly fulfilled by a requirement o f a minimum o f 70% o f major non calcium
oxide for class F fly ash and 50% for class C fly ash. Thus fly ash o f class C and F
o f ASTM classification represent high and low calcium ash respectively.
Similar to the ASTM C618, IS: 3812-1981 was developed for incorporation o f fly
ash in (a) cement mortar and concrete (b) lime pozzolana mixture and (c)
manufacture o f portland pozzolana cement. The chemical and physical
requirements o f fly ash defined by IS: 3812 are given in Table 2.2
IS: 3812-1981 distinguishes two grades o f fly ash, Grade I and Grade II depending
upon the chemical and physical properties o f fly ash. While the sum total of
silicon, aluminum, and iron (SiC>2+Al203+Fe203) in the fly ash needs to be at least
70% for both o f fly ash types; physical properties such as fineness, lime reactivity,
compressive strength, drying shrinkage and soundness are the determinant o f the
grade o f the fly ash.

2.2.2 Chemical Composition of Fly ash

Determination o f chemical composition o f fly ash is mandatory for classification
o f fly ash as per existing standards. In general, the chemical composition o f fly
ash is typically made up o f silicon, calcium, aluminum, iron, magnesium, and
sulfur oxides along with carbon and various trace elements. These elements are

6
found in the ash because of their high melting points and the short duration of the

ash particles actually remain in the furnace during combustion. The mineral quartz

(SiC>2) survives the combustion process and remains as quartz in the coal ash.

Other minerals decompose, depending on the temperature, and form new minerals.

The clay minerals lose water and may melt, forming alumino-silicate crystalline

and noncrystalline (glassy) materials. Elements such as Fe, Ca, and Mg combine

with oxygen in the air to form oxide minerals, such as magnetite (FejOj), lime

(CaO) and periclase (MgO).

The chemical composition of the fly ash o f the present study is given in Table 2.3

while the chemical composition of some of the Indian ashes are given in Table 2.4

2.2.3 Physical Properties of Fly Ash

Some of the physical properties o f Salakati fly ash required for its classification by

IS 3812 are summarized in Table 2.5

Fineness of the fly ash was determined in terms of specific surface by the Blaine’s

air permeability apparatus, as per IS: 8425. Portland cement with specific surface

of 346 m2/kg was adopted as standard material. The specific surface was found to

be 296 m2/kg.

Lime reactivity o f the fly ash was determined as per IS: 1712-1967 and found to

be 4.8 N/mm2. Lime reactivity of Salakati fly ash along with some other Indian fly

ashes are provided in Table 2.6

Compressive strength of the fly ash was determined as per IS: 1712 and 7 and 28-

days strength were found to be 6.1 and 19.6 N/mm2 respectively.

7
 2.2.4 Type of Fly Ash as per Existing Standard Specifications

One of the specifications of IS: 3812 for classification of fly ash is lime reactivity.

It specifies the minimum lime reactivity for Grade I and Grade II fly ash as 4.0

and 3.0 N/mm2 respectively. As shown in Table 2.6 although fly ash of the

( Salakakiypower plant complies this requirement, fly ash of many other thermal

plants do not comply with this requirement and can be graded neither as Grade I

nor Grade II as lime reactivity is lower than the limit for prescribed against each

grade.

2.3 Classification of Fly Ash as Geo-material

As the fly ash of many power plants of Table 2.6 cannot be graded either as Grade

I or Grade II, the fly ash of these power plants cannot be used in those purposes

for which specifications of IS: 3812 are framed. In other words, fly ash of these

plants of Table 2.6 cannot be incorporated in manufacture of Portland pozzolana

cement or in cement mortar and concrete like applications. However the fly ashes

o f the power plants can be utilized as an artificial soil or geo-material for structural

or non-structural fill or other geotechnical applications. Again fly ash o f Salakati

or other power plants that comply the specifications o f IS: 3812 need not be

classified with the stringent specifications for their applications as geo-material.

This also calls for a separate classification system of fly ash for geotechnical

applications, which provide a scope for bulk utilization of this abundantly

available waste material.

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2.3.1 Index Properties of Fly Ash as Geo-material

The properties o f soils that are indicative o f the stress-deformation-time

relationship in which the engineer is primarily interested are called index

properties. The index properties are useful mainly for speedy comparison or

grouping o f soils. Thus, whenever the soil testing procedures are applied to

characterise fly ash as a geo-material, attempt is made to evaluate the tests by

looking what the tests are actually measuring, and their importance in the context

o f geotechnical applications. The identified index properties o f fly ash and their

significant features are discussed below.

2.3.1.1 Specific Gravity:

Specific gravity is frequently required for finding out the degree o f saturation,

void ratio, unit weight o f soil solids or moist soils. The unit weights "in turn are

needed in pressure, settlement and stability problems in soil or geotechnical

engineering. Therefore specific gravity is a very important physical-property o f fly

ash as a geo-material.

In general, fly ash is characterised by low specific gravity. One explanation for

this lower specific gravity is the feet that a high proportion o f fly ash particles are

cenospheres or hollow particles [28], The specific gravity o f coal ash lays around

2.0 but can vary to a large extent, 1.6 to 3.1 [6], [66]. Variation o f specific gravity

o f coal ash is due to the combination o f many factors such as gradation, particle

shape and chemical composition [28], Ashes with high iron contents have high

specific gravity values [89]. Based on several data, Singh [92] has shown that

specific gravity o f fly ash depends on carbon and iron oxides contents. He found

that a small increase in carbon content o f a fly ash results in a significant drop in

9
specific gravity. He found increase or decrease in specific gravity with decrease or

increase in carbon or iron oxides content o f a fly ash respectively.

The specific gravity of fly ash was determined by use of Le chatelier’s flask as per

IS 1727-1967 and by the density bottle method as per IS: 2720 (part 3, section 1).

Both the methods give same order o f specific gravity and lie in the range of 2.06

to 2.10

Plate 3 depicts a Le chatelier’s flask in operation for specific gravity test. Out of

the two methods, specific gravity by the method of Le chatelier’s flask is found

much easier and can be conveniently used for geotechnical characterisation.

2.3.1.2 Grain size distribution

Fig. 2.1 shows the range of grain size distributions of the fly ash generated by

sieve and plummet balance analysis as per IS: 2720 (part 4). For the fraction of fly

ash passing through 75 micron sieve, the plummet balance was used as it permits,

at any time, to directly read percentage o f particles in suspension with easy

computation of particle size by Stoke’s law. As an aid to solve the Stoke’s

equation IS: 2720(part 4) gives the co-efficient ‘£’ in the form o f a chart applicable

for specific gravity of particles in the range o f 2.65 to 2.8. As specific gravity of

fly ash is lower than soils, this chart needs to be modified. As such to conduct the

grain size distribution of fly ash by Plummet balance, the chart was modified to

cover the specific gravity of particles in the range 1.5 to 2.8 as shown in Fig. 2.2

The fraction of silt, sand and clay-sized particles and the salient grain size

characteristics are shown in Fig. 2.3 and Table 2.7. Thus Salakati fly ash consists

of predominantly silt-sized particles and low value of uniformity co-efficient

indicates the uniform pattern of the ash particles.

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2.3.1.3 Plasticity Characteristics of Fly Ash

In soil mechanics, plasticity is defined as the property of a material, which allows

it to be deformed rapidly, without rupture, without elastic rebound, and without

volume change. Fly ash in a moist but unsaturated condition displays an apparent

cohesion due to the tensile stresses o f retained capillary water. However fly ash

cannot be rolled into a thread as per the standard plastic limit test. Again, under

dry condition the apparent cohesion in fly ash disappears with no dry strength,

rather fly ash is prone to create considerable dust nuisance because o f its non­

plasticity or lack of cohesion. As such fly ash is a non-plastic material.

Liquid limit of fly ash could not be determined by use of Casagrande type

apparatus of IS: 9259, as the sample disintegrates while cutting a groove. Also the

grooved sample tends to slip rather than flow as per the underlying principle of the

test. Attempt was made to determine liquid limit by cone penetration method using

the penetrometer as given in IS: 11196. Difficulty for determination o f liquid limit

was also faced in this method due to occurrence o f bleeding when the wet fly ash

paste is transferred to the cylindrical cup o f the cone penetrometer apparatus.

Striking off the excess fly ash to get a smooth surface in the cup and without

fatting up of the surface layer was also found difficult. All these lead for erratic

results of liquid limit with the use of cone penetrometer, similar to the Casagrande

type apparatus.

2.3.1.4 Unconfined Compressive Strength

Cylindrical specimens of 50mm diameter and 100mm height were used for soaked

and unsoaked unconfined compressive strength. Two sets of duplicate specimens

extracted from compaction tests over the entire range of compactable water

11
content were used for strength tests. After curing for seven days, the two sets of

specimens were used to determine the soaked and un-soaked unconfined

compressive strength of the fly ash. The set of the specimens that were soaked

collapsed completely. The effect of soaking or saturation of the compacted

cylindrical specimens of 50mm diameter and 100mm height are depicted in

unsoaked specimen yielded unconfined compressive

strength in the order o f 120kN/m2.

2.3.1.5 pH

The measurement of pH was carried out using Systronics expanded scale pH meter

having a combined electrode with temperature setting arrangement. The

instrument was standardized with two standard buffer solutions of pH 9.2 and 12

at 25°C as per standard procedure. 30 g o f fly ash was taken in a 100 ml beaker.

After adding 75 ml o f distilled water, the suspension was stirred for few seconds.

The beaker was covered with a glass cover and allowed to stand for one hour with

occasional stirring. Finally pH was measured immediately after stirring. The

measured pH o f fly ash was found to be 7.53

2.3.2 Proposed Classification System of Fly Ash as Geo-material

The existing standards contain numerous physical and chemical requirements that

are not necessarily useful for geotechnical applications. Also only the laboratories

involved in research are usually equipped with comprehensive facilities for

determination of chemical composition of soils. As such there is a need o f a

classification system of fly ash in the light of established principles of soil

mechanics and consistent with the performance requirements of geotechnical

12
applications in one hand and easily executable by the user community on the other

hand.

Since more than 50% of the material passes through the 75 micron sieve fly ash

can be considered as fine grained soil as per Indian Standard soil classification

system. As per the code, subdivision o f a fine-grained soil needs to be made based

on liquid limit.

The liquid limit o f soils is dependent upon the clay minerals present in the soils,

the intensity of the surface charges and the thickness of the attached water, and the

ratio of surface area to volume or shape of the particles. The stronger the surface

charge and thinner the particles the greater will be the proportion of attached

viscous water and, therefore, the higher will be the liquid limit. Because the

proportion of these thin scale-like particles affects the compressibility o f the soil,

the liquid limit is indicative of compressibility. However coal ashes do not contain

clay and therefore exhibit no plasticity. As fly ash is non-plastic material further

subdivision of fly ash based on liquid limit o f cone penetration result would be

misleading. Also, liquid limit for a cohesionless soil is meaningless, even though a

value can be found for a fine-grained cohesionless soil [69], In other words liquid

limit is not a relevant test for fly ash as far as classification o f fly ash as geo­

material is concerned.

Therefore the grain size distribution data by sieve analysis alone may be used as

one of the criteria for classification o f fly ash as geo-material. With the

predominant fraction o f particles being in the range of silt to fine sand, perhaps

determination of its gradation in terms o f co-efficient o f uniformity or co-efficient

of curvature is not necessarily required. Thus the combined fraction o f silt and

clay sized particles together with the fine sand fraction obtained by sieve analysis

13

J Z4 3 I& 1
may be used for gradation of fly ash. Depending on the relative fraction of

particles finer as well as coarser than 75 micron, fly ash may be described as

nonplastic silt sized or fine sand sized ash.

Strength, durability and deformation are important attributes o f fly ash that

depends on reactive silica, fineness, free lime content, loss o f ignition etc.

However since strength of fly ash would reflect the influence of these factors,

strength based classification of fly ash would eliminate the need of ascertaining

the chemical composition of fly ash. Thus soaked and unsoaked unconfined

compressive strength of compacted and cured specimen of fly ash may be used as

one of the index properties o f fly ash for its classification as geo-material. In other

words, classification of fly ash based on calcium content and in the spirit o f the

existing codes but without ascertaining the chemical composition can be assessed

in terms of 7-day soaked unconfined compressive strength. In the present

investigation, the specimens extracted from the compaction tests, covering the

entire range of water were used for strength tests. However, for classification

purpose, only two duplicate samples at optimum or maximum compactable water

content may be prepared and cured for seven days. If the sample disintegrates on

soaking the fly ash may be classified as non-self cementing fly ash. On the other

hand if the specimen does not disintegrate and the soaked strength is at least 50%

of the un-soaked strength, the fly ash may be considered as self-cementing fly ash.

Based on the sieve analysis and strength tests fly ash may be classified as self- i

cementing silt sized or fine sand sized ash.

Coupled with the strength test, pH test may be conducted as a supplementary test

to classify fly ash based on the calcium content in the fly ash. Fly ash showing

neutral reaction is usually low calcium fly ash. On the other hand fly ash showing

14
sharply alkaline reaction (pH: 11-12) is high calcium fly ash having self-

cementing property.

The index properties that are relevant for classification o f fly ash as a geo-material

is provided in Table 2.8 and Salakati fly ash may be classified as silt-sized non­

self cementing fly ash.

2.4 Conclusions:

i. The numerous physical and chemical requirements laid out in the existing

standards of fly ash are not necessarily useful for geotechnical

applications. For promoting bulk utilization of fly ash as a geo-material, a

separate identification and classification system is needed. ■.

ii. As a geo-material, relevant index properties of fly ash are identified. Based

on these index properties, a simple system for classification o f fly ash in

the light of soil classification system is proposed. 1

 Table 2.1 Chemical and physical requirements defined by ASTM C 618

Chemical Requirements Class F Class C

Si02+AI203+Fe 20 3, min. % 70.0 50.0

S 0 3, max. % 5.0 5.0
Moisture content, max.% 3.0 3.0
Loss of ignition (LOI), max % 6.0 6.0
Available alkalies, as N a20, max % 1.5 1.5

Physical Requirements Class F Class C

Fineness, max.% 34.0 34.0

Strength Activity Index

with Portland cement, 7 days, min.% 75.0 75.0
with Portland cement, 28 days, min.% 75.0 75.0
with Portland cement, 7 days, min. psi 800.0 800.0
W ater requirements, max.% of control 105 105
Soundness; autoclave expansion or contraction,
0.8 0.8
max.%
Uniformity Requirements
Specific Gravity, max.% variation from average 5.0 5.0
Percent retained on #325 sieve, max.% variation
D o
from average

Table 2.2 Chemical and physical requirements defined by IS: 3812

Chemical Requirements Grade I Grade II

S i0 2+Al20 3+Fe20 3, Min % 70.0
S i0 2, Max % 35.0
MgO, Max% 5.0
S 0 3, Max % 2.8
Loss of ignition (LOI), max.% 12.0
Available alkalies, as Na20 , max.% 1.5
Physical Requirements Grade I Grade II
Fineness in m2/kg by Blane's permeability, Min 320 250
Lime reactivity, N/mm2 Min 4.0 3.0

Not less than 80% of strength

Compressive strength, 28 days, N/mm2 Min of corresponding plain cement
mortar cubes

Drying shrinkage, % Max 0.15 0.10

Soundness; autoclave expansion or contraction,
0.8 0.8
Max %

16
 Table 2.3 Chemical composition of SFA

Chemical Requirements Percentage (%)

Silica (Si02) 65.0%
Alumina (Al20 3t 28.56
Feric Oxide (Fe20 3) 4.86
Calcium Oxide (CaO) 0.09
Free lime Below Detectable level
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 0.08
Sulpher(S04) 0.01
Potassium (K20) 0.01
Sodium (Na20) 0.01
Chloride (Cl) 0.01
Lead (Pb) Below Detectable level
Zinc (Zn) Below Detectable level
Copper (Cu) Below Detectable level
Chromium (Cr) Below Detectable level
Nical (Ni) Below Detectable level
Cadmium (Cd) Below Detectable level
Loss of ignition (LOI) 3.75

Table 2.4 Chemical composition of some Indian fly ashes

Chemical Requirements Percentage Range(%)

Silica (Si02) 49-67
Alumina (Al20 3) 16 -29
Iron Oxide (Fe20 3) 4-10
Calcium Oxide (CaO) 1-4
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 0.2-2
Sulpher(S03) 0.1-2
Loss of ignition (LOI) 0.5-3.0
Source* Kumar et af [51]

Table 2.5 Some physical properties of SFA as required by IS 3812

Fineness in term of specific surface 296 m2/kg

Lime Reactivity 4.8 N/mm2
Compressive Strength 7-days 6.1 N/mm2
Compressive Strength 28-days 19.6 N/mm2

17
 Table 2.6 Lime reactivity of some Indian fly ashes

Lime reactivity
Power plant Source
in N/mm2
Raebareli 1.22
Kobra 1.77
Vijayawada 2.19
Badarpur 0.95
Ghaziabad 0.57 [79]
Ramagundam 2.76
Neyveli 2.75
Farakka 1.11
Vindyanagar 0.93
Badarpur 7.40
Kobra 4.90
[91]
Ramagundam 4.80
Singrauli 6.80
Salakati 4.80 present study

Table 2.7 Grain size distribution and characteristics of SFA

Grain Size Distribution Range Average
Silt size 62.7-74.3(%) 68.5%
Fine sand size 22.9-34.9(%) 28.9%
Clay size 2.4-2.8(%) 2.6%
Grain Size Characteristics
" , o 0.013-0.015 mm 0.014mm
r> 0.05-0.07mm 0.06mm
1J (U 0.023-0.027mm 0.025mm
(' 3.85-4.67 4.26
(' 0.814-0.695 0.755

Table 2.8 Index properties for classification of fly ash as geo-material

Grain Size Distribution Range Average
Silt and clay size 65.1-77.1 (%) 71.1%
Fine sand size 22.9-34.9(%) 28.9%
Specific gravity 2.06-2.10 2.08
Plasticity characteristics
Plastic limit Non plastic
Dry strength Nil
Liquid limit Not needed
Unconfined compressive strength at omc or near max
compactable water content
Unsoaked 120kN/m2
Soaked Nil
pH 7.53
Type of Fly Ash
Based on grain size distribution Non plastic silt sized
Based on strength or hydration behaviour Non self-cementing
18
 Figure 2.1 Range of grain size distribution for SFA

□ clay size [2.5%] Dfine sand size: [28.9%] □ silt-size: [68.5%]

Figure 2.2 Average fraction of particles in SFA by size

G-2.6 —•— G-2.8 —* - G - 2 .0 - e - G : 2 . 0 8 -A -G .1 .5 0

suspension in C°
Temperature of

o m o o
-§

o
o

O
CM
o

o
o
CM

o
o
00

CM
GO

Figure 2.3 Chart for aid in solving Stake's equation

19