47

Strength of Materials

This Chapter “Strength of Materials” is taken from our:

ISBN : 9789386629012
48

Page - 47 - 102

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

C Ø Stress and strain

O Ø

Ø
Stress-strain relationship and elastic constants

Mohr's circle for plane stress and plane strain

N Ø Thin cylinders

T
Ø Shear force and bending moment diagrams

Ø Bending and shear stresses

E Ø Deflection of beams

N
Ø Torsion of circular shafts

Ø Euler's theory of columns

T Ø Strain energy methods

Ø Thermal stresses

S
 49
S T R ES S
é sx Z xy Z xz ù
Load : It is defined as external force or couple to which a [ s] = ê Z yx sy Z yz ú
component is subjected during its functionality. ê ú
Stress : It is defined as the intensity of internal resisting force ëê Z zx Z zy s z ûú
developed at a point against the deformation cuased due to the sx, sy, sz are normal stresses
load acting at the member. Remaining are shear stress.
sy
Y face
F
P P d s= Zyx
A Zyz
Zxy X face
Zzy sx
L

Stress developed in one direction ® uniaxial state of stress Zzx Zxz

Stress developed in two direction ® biaxial state of stress sz
Stress developed in three direction ® triaxial state of stress
Units of Stress Z face
Zxy = Zyx, Zxz = Zzx, Zzy = Zyz
1kgf
SI : Pa, MPa, GPa 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 ; 0.1 MPa Plane Stress problems are those in which the stress acting in one
cm2 of the mutual perpendicular directions is assumed to be zero
MKS : kgf/cm2 1 MPa = 106 N/m2 \ sz = 0 Zxz = 0 Zyz = 0
1 GPa = 109 N/m2
NOTE é sx sxy ù
\ [s] = ê ú
• When deformation or strain occurs freely in a direction,
ëê s yx s y ûú
stress developed in that direction is zero. \ For a given stress tensor
• When deformation is restricted completely, or partially
stress is developed. Hence strain is the cause of stress. é100 120 10 ù
ê ú
Example : s = ê 20 50 0 ú Units : MPa
êë 10 0 25úû
Zxz = 10 (i.e., shear stress acting on x face along Z direction)
Zzy = 0
10 mm sx = 100, sy = 50, sz = 25
10 mm is the gap present between two railway tracks. Elongation of abar subjected to axial load P
During summers, expansion occurs Elongation of a bar Subjected to axial load P
\ if expansion > 10 mm stress is developed
if expansion < 10 mm No stress is developed Pl
l d=
AE
Type of Stresses

P
Elongation of a tapered bar subjected to axial load P
Normal Stress Shear Stress
(acting perpendicular to (acting parallel to
corresponding plane) corresponding plane) 4 PL
d1 P d2 d=
pd1d 2 E

Axial Bending Direct shear stress Torsional shear stress

gL2
Elongation of a prismatic bar under its self weight =
2E
g = self weight per unit volume
Tensile Compressive
L
STR ESS TENS OR
• used to define state of stress at a point d
• always a square matrix gL2
• symmetric about diagonal Elongation of a conical bar under its self weight =
6E
50
STRAIN SHEAR STRESS
Strain is defined as the ratio of change in dimension to original It is defined as the change in initial right angle between two line
dimension. elements which are parallel to x and y axes respectively.
Strain P B B¢ C C¢ y
x

L z
Normal Strain Shear Strain f

A
D
Longitudinal Lateral Volumetric Shear strain = Shear angle (f)
Strain (elong) Strain (elateral) Strain (ev) d
z \ f=
y x L
d

Compressive Tensile STR ESS TENS OR

Strain Strain • Strain tensor is used to define the state of a strain at a point
Consider a rod of length Lo subjected to load P
e : normal strain g : shear strain
• Shear strain like complementary shear stress are equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction.
P P é ex g xy/2 ù
[e]2D = ê ú
Lo ëê g yx/2 e y ûú
gxy = gyx
Lf Strain Tensor in 3D
é ex g xy/2 g xz/2 ù
ê ú
DL L f - L o [e]3D = ê g yx/2 e y g yz/2 ú
elong = e x = =
Lo Lo ê ú
ëê g 2 x/2 g zy/2 e z ûú
D d -( d o - d f ) Stress-Strain Relationship & Elastic constants
elateral = e y = e z = =
d do • Elastic constants are needed to obtain stress-strain
relationship.
dV • These constants are used to determine strain theoretically.
eV = = ex + e y + ez
V Elastic constants: E (Young’s Modulus)
Another example of rectangular block is considered G (Modulus of Rigity/Shear Modulus)
K (Bulk Modulus)
m (Poisson’s Ratio)
b • For a homogeneous isotropic material, no. of independent
elastic constants are two.
• For orthotropic material, nine indepedent elastic constants
t are required.
• For anisotropic material, twenty one independent elastic
constants are required.
l Relationship Between Elastic Constants
V = lbt
E = 2G(1 + m)
dV dl db dt E = 3K(1 – 2m)
eV = = + +
V l b t 9KG
For a sphere, E=
3K+G
dD E 1
eV = D : diameter of sphere G= ´
D 2 1+ m
 51
s
E 1
K= ´
3 1 - 2m
Value of any EC ³ 0
Note : mcork = 0
s
Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity
As per Hooke’s law upto proportional limit normal stress is
directly propotional to longitudinal strain
s µ elong
s = E = young’s modulus elong s
E ­ Þ elong ¯ Þ d l ¯
\ A material having higher E value is chosen HYDROSTATIC STATE OF STRESS
(NO DISTORTION, ONLY
EMS = 200 GPa VOLUME CHANGES)
ECI = 100 GPa 1
For m= , K=¥
200 2
EAl = GPa Þ ev = dv = 0
3
\ (dl)MS < (dl)CI < (d)Al \ The material neither expands in volume nor contracts in
volume. Thus, it is called as incompressible material and
Elastic Limit : Maximum value of stress upto which a material for that m = 0.5.
can be completely elastic. Poisson’s Ratio
Proportional Limit ® used to determine lateral strain theoretically.
It is the maximum value of stress upto which materials obey – lateral strain
Hooke’s Law. m=
longitudinal strain

EL B
df do
PL A

‘E’ is the slope of s v/s Ï e diagram Lo

Lf
e
æ dd ö
–ç ÷
Load è d0 ø
Engineering Stress (s) = m=
Original ´ section area æ dl ö
çè l ø÷
0
Instantaneous load
True stress = dd
Instantaneous ´ section If m = 0 Þ =0
d0
Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity s
F
As per Hooke’s law,
Shear stress µ shear strain
t = Gg C G
1 PL B D
\ for a given t, G µ . E
g EL A

Bulk Modulus (K)

Normal stress s
K= = e
ev ev
Eng. stress v/s Eng. strain curve MS under tension test
52
A ® Proportional Limit Determination of Magnitude of s
1 and s
2
B ® Elastic Limit
1é 2 ù
(s x – s y )
2
C ® Upper yield point s1, 2 = ês x + s y ± + 4t xy ú.
2ë û
D ® Lower yield point
F ® Ultimate point Location of Principal Planes
G ® Fracture point 2 t xy
DE ® Yielding region tan 2q =
sx – sy
EF ® Strain Hardening region
FG ® Necking region tmax planes are mutually perpendicular to each other but are
® Sudden fall of stress occurs from C to D due to slipping inclined at 45° with respect to both principal planes.
of carbon atoms in molecular structure of mild steel. \ By knowing the location of principal planes, we can
® Increase in carbon content increases strength, cast determine the location of tmax planes.
surface hardness and modulus of resilience. (sn)* : normal stress present on tmax planes.
® Increase in carbon content decreases ductility. s1 + s 2
® For the most metals, its value is between 0.25 to 0.33. (sn)* =
2
MOHR CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRESS AND PLANE In plane, maximum shear stress represents the maximum shear
STRAIN stress developed in a plane.
Absolute maximum shear stress represents the maximum shear
Principal planes are complementary oblique planes at which
stress developed at a point.
normal stress is either maximum or minimum but shear stress
is zero. s1 – s 2
In plane tmax = ± (on s1 s2 plane)
Principal plane on which normal stress is maximum is known as 2
major principal plane while principal plane on which normal s 2 – s3
stress is minimum is known as minor principal plane. = ± (on s2 s3 plane)
2
Maximum shear stress planes (tmax) planes are planes at which s3 – s1
shear stress is maximum but normal stress is not equal to zero. = ± (on s3 s1 plane)
2
Expression for Normal and Shear Stress on an Oblique
Plane é s – s2 s – s3 s – s1 ù
Absolute tmax = larger of ê 1 , 2 , 3 ú
sy ë 2 2 2 û
Zxy Under biaxial state of stress, s3 = 0.
Mohr Circle (Graphical Method)
Sign Convention
q t
sx sx
P(s, t)
–s s
Zxy
sy
–t
BIAXIAL STATE OF STRESS For the Mohr circle as shown below determine the following:
1 1
(sn )q = 2 éës x + s y ùû + 2 éës x – s y ùû cos 2q + t xy sin 2q t
(–40, 50)
1
( t)q = – és x – s y ù sin 2q + t xy cos 2q
2ë û
(–90, 0)
s n + s n ¢ = s x + s y = s1 + s 2 B A(10, 0)
–s s
(40, 0) (0, 0)
radius of
s n ¢ : complementary normal stress circle = 50
s1 : major principal stress
s2 : minor principal stress
ts¢ = –ts (–40, –50)
–t
tmax plane
ts¢ : complementary shear stress
 53
(i) Coordinates of centre of Mohr circle: Diameter = e1 – e2 = In plane rmax
–90 + 10 e1 + e 2
x= = –40, y = 0 en =
2 2
(ii) Magnitude of principal stresses (points where circle cuts e1 : major principal strain
s axis):
e2 : minor principal strain
s1 = –90 MPa, s2 = 10 MPa
(iii) Normal stress on tmax planes: Analytical Method for Strain Analysis
s1 + s 2 –80
1é 2 ù
=
( ) (ex – ey )
(sn)* = = –40 MPa 2
2 2 e1, 2 = ê ex + e y ± + r xy ú
2ë û
(iv) Resultant stress on tmax plane:
\ tmax = radius of circle = 50 MPa e1 + e2 = ex + ey

sr = t 2 + s 2n = 502 + ( 40)
2
= 64.03 MPa Absolute rmax = max ( e1 – e 2 , e 2 – e3 , e3 – e1 )
(To obtain resultant stress join the point to origin) Relationship Between Principal Stress and
(v) In plane shear stress = radius of circle = 50 MPa. Principal Strain
Mohr Circle For Strain
r s2
2

æ rö
P ç e, ÷
è 2ø

–e e s1

s3
–r
2
Example: 1
ey e1 = és1 – m (s 2 + s3 )ùû
Eë

1
e2 = és 2 – m (s3 + s1 )ùû
ex ex Eë

1
e3 = és3 – m ( s1 + s2 )ùû
Eë
ey
ey > ex (assumed) \ for biaxial state of stress/plane stress problems s3 = 0 but
æ Ymax ö e3 ¹ 0
çè e n , ÷
2 ø \ s1 = E(e1) + m s2
s2 = E e2 + m s1
or

s1 = E
( e1 + m e 2 ) , s2 = E
( e2 + m e1 ) .
(ex, 0) (ey, 0) 1– m 2
1 – m2

T HIN CY LIND ER S
Pressure vessel is defined as a closed cylindrical or spherical
æ –Ymax ö container designed to store gases or liquids at a pressure
çè e n , ÷
2 ø substantially different from ambient pressure.
e1 = ey, e2 = ex
54
dL pd
Pressure vessel elong = = (1 – 2m )
L 4tE
dV pd
ev = = ( 5 – 4m )
V 4tE
Moreover, it can be seen from expressions of ehoop and elong
Thick Thin d : diameter that
d d t : thickness elong < ehoop
£ 20 > 20
t t \ The chances of failure of thin cylinder is more
longitudinally.
SHEAR F ORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
on the basis of
shape of shell DIAGRAMS
® SFD and BMD play an important role in design of beams.
® To design a beam, maximum value of shear force and
Cylindrical Spherical bending moment are required which are determined from
Pressure Pressure SFD and BMD.
Vessel Vessel
Shear Force Sign Convention
Example of Thin Cylinder:
Hydraulic Cylinder. X
Example of Thick Cylinder:
LPG Cylinder, Steam Pipes. P
+ve shear force
Assumptions for Thin Cylindrical Vessels P
® Stresses are assumed to be uniformly distributed as
thickness ‘t’ is small.
X
® Radial stresses are neglected.

y
–ve shear force
P P
x
z
Bending Moment Sign Convention
slong X

shoop
STATE OF STRESS AT A POINT concave
IN THIN CYLINDER X upwards +ve bending
moment
(+ve)
pd pd SAGGING
slong = , shoop = BENDING
4t 2t
Sometimes h of circumferential joint and longitudinal joint are given.
In that case, X
pd pd
slong = , shoop =
4t h eJ 2t h LJ
pd pd
\ s1 = , s2 =
2t 4t
X HOGGING
s1 pd convex –ve bending
Absolute tmax = = upwards
2 4t
–ve
dd pd
ehoop = = (2 – m) HOGGING
d 4tE BENDING
 55
Beams

X
Statically Statically
Determinate Beam Indeterminate Beam 2
WX
(SF)xx =
2L
3
Cantilever Simply Over Fixed Propped Continuous L WX
Supported Hanging Beam Cantilever Beam x
(BM )xx =–
6L
Beam Beam Beam
X
SFD and BMD for Cantilever Beam WL2
6
WL parabola
Case I : (Cantilever beam subjected to point load) 2
(+ve)
W SFD

–ve
2
WL
cubic parabola
6 BMD
L
WL Case IV : (Cantilever beam subjected to moment at free end)

WL
W (+ve)
(SF)xx = (+W)
SFD
A B
(BM)xx = –Wx
–ve
(SF)xx = 0
M M
WL BMD (BM)xx = –M

SF = zero
A B
SFD
Case II : (Cantilever beam subjected to uniformly
distributing load) –ve
M
BMD

W N/m Case V : (Cantilever beam subjected to moment on middle)

L
WL B
WL2 A C
2
M
WL
(+ve)
SFD SF = zero
A C
B
–ve
2
WL –ve
2 BMD M
56
Case VI : (Cantilever beam subjected to multiple moments)
Important points regarding this case:—

2M Net moment
® Magnitude of reaction at support = .
4M 2M
Total length
® Reactions are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
A ® The magnitude of reaction is independent of location of
B C D E concentrated moment.
Case III: (Simply supported beam under uniformly
3M M distributed moments, having an intensity ‘m’)
M M M M M M
RA= 0
SF = zero A B
SFD
2M M
A (+) B C(+) D E
(–) (–)
M RA = M RB = M
2M M M
BMD
(+ve)
Points B, C and D are points of contra-flexure as BM changes A B
sign.
SFD and BMD for Simply Supported Beams BM = zero
A B
Case I : Simply supported beam subjected to couple,
i.e. under pure bending. Case IV: Simply supported beam subjected to point load
at centre
M M W

A B L/2 L/2

W/2 W/2
SF = zero
W/2 At this point
SFD +ve shear force
M M changes sign.
(+ve) –ve \ BM is
BMD W/2 maximum at
this point
Case II: Simply supported beam subjected to concentrated
Mmax WL
moment at its mid-span M max =
4
M
A BMD B
C
Case V: Simply supported beam subjected to
A B uniformly distributed load
L W N/m

RA = M/L RB = M/L A B
L/2 C L/2
– ve WL WL
M/L M/L 2 2
SFD
M/2 WL
C (+ve) 2
A B +ve
(–ve) A B
C –ve
SFD WL
M/2
2
C ® point of contra flexure
 57
The BMD is as follows: Bending Stress
• Normal stresses introduced due to the bending of a
C shaft / member.
WL2 • Pure Bending: If the magnitude of bending moment
M max =
Mmax 8 remains constant throughout the length of beam, the beam
is said to be under pure bending.
(+ve)
C P
A B B B
A A
P D P
Relationship between W, F and M
dF MA= P(CD) M = P(CD)
® –W =
dX
B –ve
\ FA – FB = ò wdx = Area of loading diagram between As BM = const
M
A
\ above beam is under pure bending.
A and B.
Bending Equation
M R (s b ) E
= =
I NA y R
W N/m
MR : moment of resistance offered by plane of cross-section
of beam.
(sb) : bending stress at a distance ‘y’ from Neutral Axis.
A B R : Radius of curvature.
E : Young’s modulus.
INA : area moment of inertia of plane of cross-section about
wl wl Neutral Axis.
6 3 From bending eqn,
Ey
FA – FB = Area of loading diagram sb = ® to be used when ‘R’ is known.
R
wl 1
– FB = wl M
6 2 (sb)max = ±
Z NA
–wl \ ZNA ­ Þ (sb)max ¯ Þ chances of failure ¯
Þ FB = .
3 For a given beam, (sb) µ y
B This fibre is
dM subjected
® F = MB – MA = ò Fdx = Area of SFD between M M
dX to compression
A
B and A Neutral Axis is
Given: neither in tension
nor in compression
WL
2 L/2 This fibre is
(+ve) B subjected
A C to tension
(–ve)
L/2 WL (sb )max Y
(sb) = .
SFD 2 Ymax
Determine max bending moment, • A beam offering higher moment of resistance is stronger.
• I-section beams are strongest as they have high section
=0 1 WL L WL2 modulus.
MB – MA = =
2 2 2 8 • For a given cross-sectional area and material square
cross-section beam is stronger than circular cross-section
WL2 beam as
Þ Mmax = . Zsquare > Zcircle
8
58
Beams of Uniform Strength Shear Stresses in Beams
A beam is said to be a beam of uniform strength when bending PA y
stress developed at each and every cross-section is same. t=
I NA × b
2 X 1 P : shear force on plane of cross-section.
M M A : area.
y : distance of hatched portion from neutral axis.
INA : moment of inertia of entire cross-section about neutral
d
axis.
b : width.
x Consider a Beam of Rectangular Cross-Section
L
2 1
X

M
d/2 y y
(+ve) b
d
Z11 = Z22 = Zxx
M11 = M22 = Mxx
\ (sb)11 = (sb)22 = (sb)xx
\ (sb) is independent of ‘x’.
If beam is subjected to transverse shear load, the bending
moment varies. b
\ (sb) varies. By using the above formulae, we get
To make beam a beam of uniform strength:—
éæ d ö 2 ù
(i) depth is varied. 6P êç ÷ – Y 2 ú
è ø
x ëê 2 ûú
dx = d t=
L bd3
\ depth should be varied parabolically. \ t µ y2 (parabolic variation)
As t µ f (y2)
(ii) width ‘b’ is varied
\ As ‘y’ ­ t ¯
éxù at extreme fibres t = 0
\ bx = b ê ú
ëLû 3
\ width should be varied linearly. tmax = ty = 0 Þ tmax = t
2 avg
Consider a log, out of which a rectangle is to be cut such that
P
it is strongest in bending. where, tavg = .
\ b and d ® arbitrary dimensions of rectangle A
Expression for Maximum Shear Stress Across
Various Cross-Sections

d 3
a d tNA = tmax = tavg
2

a b
A = a2 A = bd
b
D ® diameter of log (given) 3 3
K= K=
\ final dimensions of strongest rectangular cross-section 2 2
are 4
For circle, K=
3
D æ 2ö b 1
b= , d= ç
3 ÷D \ d = 2 4
3 è ø \ in a circular cross-section tmax = t .
3 avg
 59
® For square, circle, rectangle, tNA is the maximum shear
d2 y 1 M xx
stress. But in triangular cross-section, it isn’t so. 2
= =
dx R EIxx
In triangular cross-section,
3 4 dy
tmax = tavg, tNA = t q=
2 3 avg dx

t max 9 æ dy ö
\ = = 1.125. ò M xx + C1 = EI çè dx ø÷ ® slope equation is obtianed
t NA 8
® I section:
ò ò Mxx + C1x + C2 = EI ( y) ® deflection eqn
Sign Convention
® Deflection upwards (+ve) ® q +ve
tmax = tNA
Deflection downwards (–ve) q –ve
Also,

Shear stress Distribution d3 y 3 times integration to

Fxx = EI
3
®
dx obtain deflection ' y '
® T section: shear
force
d4 y 4 times integration to
Wxx = EI ®
tmax = tNA dx 4 obtain deflection ' y '
load
intensity
Expression for Deflection in Cantilever Beams
Case I: Cantilever beam subjected to point load W at free end
® Square with Diagonals Vertical:
X W

h a
a = 9
2 2 tmax = t
h 8 avg L
8 x
tNA = tavg X
h
8 tmax WL2
qmax = qx = 0 =
2EI
2a é –Wx3 WL2
1 WL3 ù
y= ê + x– ú
EI
ëê 6 2 3 ûú
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS For cantilever, y = ymax at x = 0
• Deflection of beams plays an important role in design of
–WL3
beams for rigidity criterion. \ ymax = .
• The expressions of deflections are further used for 3EI
determination of natural frequencies of shaft under Case II: Cantilever beam subjected to uniformly distributed
transverse vibrations. load
• For a cantilever beam under any loading condition
W N/m
deflection is maximum at free end.
• In simply supported beam, deflection is maximum at A B
mid-span (when beam is subjected to symmetric loading L
only).
Relationship between R, q and Y
q : slope WL3 WL4
qmax = qB = ; Ymax = YB =
Y : deflection 6EI 8EI
R : radius of curvature
60
Case III: Cantilever beam subjected to uniformly varying load Case II: Simply supported beam subjected to concentrated
point load ‘W’ at mid-span.
W N/m
W
C
A B A B
L
L/2
WL 3
WL 4 L
qmax = qB = ; Ymax = YB =
24EI 30EI
Case IV: Cantilever beam subjected to concentrated moment WL WL3
Mmax = ; Ymax = YC =
‘M’ at free end. 4 48EI

WL2
qmax = qA, B =
16EI
A B
L Case III: Simply supported beam subjected to uniformly
M distributed load
W N/m
ML ML2 C
qmax = qB = ; Ymax = YB =
EI 2EI A B
Case V: Cantilever beam of length ‘L’ subjected to point load
‘W’ at its mid-span.
L/2 L/2
W

B
A C 5 WL4 WL3
Ymax = Yc = ; qmax = qB = qA =
L/2 384 EI 24EI
Case IV: Simply supported beam subjected to a concentrated
point load acting not at mid-span
WL2 5 WL3
qB = qC = qmax = ; Ymax = YC = . W
8EI 48 EI
Case VI: Cantilever beam subjected to uniformly distributed a b
load over half its length from fixed end. A B
C
W N/m
B
A
L/2
C qc =
Wb 2
3EIL
(
a – ab ) Yc =
Wa 2 b 2
3EIL
doesn’t give doesn’t give
max. slope max. deflection
7 WL4 WL3 Load
Yc = Ymax = ; qmax = qB = qC = .
384 EI 48EI ® Stiffness of beam =
Max. deflection
Expressions for Deflections in Simply Supported Beam \ Higher flexural rigidity is an indicative of higher stiffness
Case I: Simply supported beam subjected to pure bending. of beam but lower deflection and slope.
M M ® Maxwell’s Reciprocal Theorem
(valid for beams under point load and having
C
A B same L, E and I)
Load at C
L/2 L/2
WB YBC = WC YCB
Load at B
ML ML2 Deflection at B Deflection at C
qmax = qB, A = ; Ymax = YC = .
2EI 8EI due to load at C due to load at B
 61

W T
tmax =
Zp
C
A B
VCB Zp : polar section modulus
p 3
For solid shafts, Zp = d
16
p 3
5 WL3 For hollow shafts, Zp = D (1 – K4)
YCB = , WB = W 16
48 EI
D : outer diameter
\ WC YCB = WB YBC
d : inner diameter
W d
K=
C D
A B ® A shaft offering higher value of Tr, has more strength.
YBC \ Shafts with high value of polar section modulus are
preferred.
® Torsional Rigidity
GJ : Torsional rigidity
5 WL3
YBC = , WC = W TL
48 EI q=
GJ
TORSION
Pure Torsion GJ ­ Þ q ¯ Þ f ¯ Þ t ¯ Þ chances of failure ¯
A member of a shaft is subjected to pure torsion when the ® Torsional Stiffness (q)
magnitude of twisting moment remains constant throughout T GJ
q= =
the length of shaft. q L
® Torsion of a Tapered Shaft
f P
q
tmax TA = T
T = Pd d T = Pd T
t = tmax æ ö
r
è Rø
d1 d2
L tmax
P Shear Stress Distribution
q : angle of twist
f : shear angle
L : distance of cross-section from fixed end é 2 2ù
32TL ê d 1 + d1 d 2 + d 2 ú
q=
Torsion Equation pG ê 3 3
3 d1 d 2 ú
ë û
Tr Gq t max
= = Shafts in Series
J L R
q : maximum angle of twist. T
A T
f : maximum shear angle.
J : polar moment of inertia.
Tr : Twisting moment A¢ A B C D
3
B¢ 1 2
Rq r B
Now, f =
L C¢
R
Moreover, f µ r and q µ L
T = T1 = T2 = T3
tA = tB = tC = tmax
C qtotal = q1 + q2 + q3
t A¢ = t B¢ = tC¢ = t max Cross-section of a shaft at free end Þ qDA = qDC + qCB + qBA
qA ¢ = qB¢ = qC¢ = qA = qB = qC
é 3 Li ù
fA = fB = fC = f \ qtotal = ê å úT
êi = 1 G1 J1 ú
f A ¢ = f B ¢ = fC ¢ ( < f ) ë û
62
Shafts in Parallel Euler’s Formulae
T T Assumptions
® The self weight of column is neglected.
1
® Crushing effect is neglected.
2 d D ® Flexural rigidity is uniform.
® Load applied is truly axial.
® Length is very large compared to cross-section.
T = T1 + T2 \ Pe µ f [E, Imin, end conditions, L2]
q p 2 E Imin
Þ T = (G1 J1 + G2 J2) \ Pe = .
L
L 2e
q1 = q2 = q
Shafts with Both Ends Fixed Pe : Euler’s buckling load.
Imin : min [Ixx and Iyy].
T TC
TA Le : effective length of column.
L : actual length of column.
1 2 Le = aL
length fixity coefficient

G1 J1 = G2 J2 1
n=
1. Net TM = T (anti-clock) a2
\ Rxn = T (clock) (end fixity coefficient)
\ T.
2. T1 = TA, T2 = TA – T. End
3. TA + TC = T. Conditions ® Both Ends Both Ends Fixed and Fixed and
¯ Values of Hinged Fixed Hinged Free
4. q1 + q2 = f0 (BH) (BF) (F & H) (FF)
a and h
Þ q1 = (–q2)
1 1
3T a 1 2
Þ TA = . 2 2
4
1 1
h= 1 4 2
3T –T a2 4
5. T1 = , T2 = .
4 4
If remaining all other parameters are same,
æ +3 ö (Pe)BF > (Pe)FH > (Pe)BH > (Pe)FF
t max çè ÷ø T
4
6. = = –3. Which of the following column is stronger?
t min
( – ) æçè öø÷
T
4
A, E
THEORY OF COLUMNS are
1m 0.7 m
same
Column is defined as a vertical structural member which is
fixed at both ends and is subjected to an axial compressive
load. (1) (2)
Strut is defined as a structural member subjected to an axial
compressive load. ( Pe )1 æ I ö æL ö
2
= ç 1÷ ç 2÷
All columns are struts but vice-versa isn’t true. ( Pe )2 è I2 ø è L1 ø
Type of Columns
a4 p r4 p a4 a4
I1 = , I2 = = 2 =
12 4 p ( 4) 4p
Long Columns
(fail due to buckling)
Medium Columns
(fail due to buckling
Short Columns
(fail due to crushing) ( Pe )1
=
4p 2
0.7 =
4p 0.7 2 ( )
= 0.513
as well as crushing)
( Pe )2 12 12
® As the length of structure, chances of it failing by
buckling are more. \ (2) is stronger.
 63
Slenderness Ratio ® Strain energy of hollow circular × section shaft.
® Used to compare buckling loads of various columns d : Inner diameter.
having same material and same cross-section. D : Outer diameter.
Le Imin d
S= where K = K=
K A D
se : buckling stress K = 0 for solid
K<1
p2E
se = p 3
s2 Zp = D (1 – K4)
16
\ S ­ Þ Pe ¯ Þ buckling tendency is increased
\ (S)SC < (SMC) < (SLC) t2 T
SC : Short Column \ SE = (AL) (1 + K2), where t = .
MC : Medium Column 4G Z p
LC : Long Column • Proof Resilience : It is the maximum strain energy stored
For steels, if up to elastic limit.
S £ 30 Þ short column • Modulus of Resilience is proof resilience per unit volume.
S > 100 Þ long column • Modulus of Resilience is the property of material. Proof
30 < S £ 100 Þ medium column Resilience is function of volume of component.
STRAIN ENERGY METHODS
• Strain energy is defined as energy absorbtion capacity of s
the component during its functionality.
• Resilience is energy absorbtion capacity of the component
within elastic region.
• Energy absorbtion capacity of a component just before
fracture is known as toughness. Modulus
EL of
PL Toughness

L
e
d
Modulus of Resilience
P ® Two bars A and B are as shown:—
SE of bar = work done by load P
1 P2 L s2 s e AL
Strain energy of bar = Pd = = ´ AL = .
2 2AE 2E 2 2d
® Strain energy of solid circular shaft subjected to torsion 2L
L L 3 2
T T d
1
d L d
3
P
(A) P
T (B)
t= ,
Zp
where 1 2P2 L
UA = Pd =
T : twisting moment. 2 p d2E
Zp : polar section modulus for circular × section.
UB = U1 + U2
æ pö
Zp = ç ÷ d3 . æ Lö æ 2L ö
è 16 ø 2P 2 ç ÷ P2 ç ÷
è 3ø è 3ø
= + = 0.5 UA.
1 1 T 2 L t2 p d2 E 2p d 2 E
\ SE = Tq = = ( AL).
2 2 GJ 4G
64
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO BENDING (eTH)x = (eTH)y = (eTH)2 = µ DT
(sTH)x = (sTH)y = (sTH)z = 0
b
( M xx )2 dx [as free expansion of rod is taking place]
U= ò 2EI xx Hence, no thermal stresses are induced during the free
a
expansion of a member.
U : strain energy Case II: Partially restricted longitudinal expansion
Mxx : moment at section x-x l : expansion permitted
X
æ d TH – l ö
sTH = ç
è ÷E
B L ø
A

M flexible support
X x
Mxx = –M
L d
M2 M2L
U= ò 2EI
dx =
2EI
O
l

W
dTH
a b
Case III: (Completely restricted case)
For this case, l = 0
l
d TH
Wb Wa \ (sTH) = E = ± µ DTE.
L
l l ® The stresses introduced are tensile in nature when the
\ In this case using the above relation, we get temperature decreases and the stress are compressive
when temperature increases.
Wa 2 b 2 ® Consider two bars:
U=
6EI l
a, E a, E
THERMAL STRESSES
® Thermal stresses are stresses introduced due to temperature
variation. d 1 2d 2 (DT)1 = (DT)2
Condition for Thermal Stress
L L
1. Pr esen ce of temperature gradient leading to
expansion/contraction. (sTH)1 = (sTH)2
2. Restriction of expansion/contraction either partially or [as a, E are same for both bars]
completely.
Thus, thermal stresses are independent of dimensions of the
Expression for Thermal Stress
product.
Case I: Free expansion:
(sTH) = f (a, E, DT)
DT = +ve (i.e. Temp ­)
In the below example, another 2 rods are given:

d B B¢ 2A, E, a A, E, a
2
1
L
dl = dTH (DT)1 = (DT)2, i.e. rods are heated to same temperature.
However, (sTH)1 ¹ (sTH)2
(dl)x = µ DT l
(dl)y = (dl)z = µ DT d [Q both the bars are not completely restricted.
It is a compound bar]
 65
Expression for Thermal Stress Introduced in Compound If DT is +ve ® compressive stress.
Bars If DT is –ve ® tensile stress.
Case I: Bars in Series Case II: Bars in Parallel
Two bars of Cu and Brass are heated. ® Consider the following parallel arrangement:

Cu tube (1)
a1 > a2
R1 Brass Cu R2 Steel bar (2)
1 2

DT = +ve
s1 A 2
=
s1 A 2 s2 A1
=
s 2 A1 s1 s 2
( a1 – a2 ) DT = +
E1 E 2
R1 l1 R 2 l 2
a1 (DT)1 l1 + a2 (DT)2 l2 = + .
A1 E1 A 2 E 2 ® When temperature of composite bar increases, the bar
If both bars are of same material, with high coefficient of thermal expansion is subjected to
a1 = a2 compressive stress and that with low coefficient of thermal
expansion is subjected to tensile stress.
E1 = E2
® Thus, nature of stress introduced in both the bars is not
® When bars are in series, the nature of stress introduced
same.
in both bars is same.