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ANTARCTICA
INTRODUCTION
Antarctica is Earth's southernmost continent,
underlying the South Pole. It is situated in the Antarctic
region of the southern hemisphere, almost entirely south
of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern
Ocean. At 14.0 million km² (5.4 million sq mi), it is the
fifth-largest continent in area after Asia, Africa, North
America, and South America. About 98% of Antarctica is
covered by ice, which averages at least 1.6 kilometres (1.0
mi) in thickness.
Antarctica, on average, is the coldest, driest, and
windiest continent, and has the highest average elevation
of all the continents.[2] Antarctica is considered a desert,
with annual precipitation of only 200 mm (8 inches) along
the coast and far less inland.[3] There are no permanent
human residents but anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people
reside throughout the year at the research stations
scattered across the continent. Only cold-adapted plants
and animals survive there, including penguins, seals,
many types of algae, and tundra vegetation.
Although myths and speculation about a Terra
Australis ("Southern Land") date back to antiquity, the first
confirmed sighting of the continent is commonly accepted
to have occurred in 1820 by the Russian expedition of
Mikhail Lazarev and Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen.
The continent, however, remained largely neglected for
the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile
environment, lack of resources, and isolation. The first
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formal use of the name "Antarctica" as a continental name

in the 1890s is attributed to the Scottish cartographer John
George Bartholomew. The name Antarctica is the
romanized version of the Greek compound word ανταρκτική
(antarktiké), feminine of ανταρκτικός (antarktikos),[4]
meaning "opposite to the north"

PHYSICAL FEATURES
Antarctica is a mountainous countenet covered in
mountains and snow not many people know this because
they are covered in snow. it is also a extremely cold place
and does not have any permanent residents.

CLIMATE:
Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth. The coldest
natural temperature ever recorded on Earth was −89.2 °C
(−128.6 °F) at the Russian Vostok Station in Antarctica on
21 July 1983.[30] For comparison, this is 11 °C (20 °F)
colder than subliming dry ice. Antarctica is a frozen desert
with little precipitation; the South Pole itself receives less
than 10 cm (4 in) per year, on average. Temperatures
reach a minimum of between −80 °C (−112 °F) and −90
°C (−130 °F) in the interior in winter and reach a
maximum of between 5 °C (41 °F) and 15 °C (59 °F) near
the coast in summer. Sunburn is often a health issue as
the snow surface reflects almost all of the ultraviolet light
falling on it.[31]
East Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart
because of its higher elevation. Weather fronts rarely
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penetrate far into the continent, leaving the center cold

and dry. Despite the lack of precipitation over the central
portion of the continent, ice there lasts for extended time
periods. Heavy snowfalls are not uncommon on the
coastal portion of the continent, where snowfalls of up to
1.22 metres (48 in) in 48 hours have been recorded.
At the edge of the continent, strong katabatic winds
off the polar plateau often blow at storm force. In the
interior, however, wind speeds are typically moderate.
During summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface
during clear days at the South Pole than at the equator
because of the 24 hours of sunlight each day at the Pole.

VEGETATION AND ANIMAL LIFE

Few terrestrial vertebrates live in Antarctica.[42]
Invertebrate life includes microscopic mites like the
Alaskozetes antarcticus, lice, nematodes, tardigrades,
rotifers, krill and springtails. Recently ancient ecosystems
consisting of several types of bacteria have been found
living trapped deep beneath glaciers.[43] The flightless
midge Belgica antarctica, just 12 millimeters (0.5 in) in
size, is the largest purely terrestrial animal in Antarctica.
The Snow Petrel is one of only three birds that breed
exclusively in Antarctica.[44]
A variety of marine animals exist and rely, directly or
indirectly, on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes
penguins, blue whales, orcas, colossal squids and fur
seals. The Emperor penguin is the only penguin that
breeds during the winter in Antarctica, while the Adélie
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Penguin breeds farther south than any other penguin. The

Rockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the
eyes, giving the appearance of elaborate eyelashes. King
penguins, Chinstrap penguins, and Gentoo Penguins also
breed in the Antarctic.

NATURAL RESOURCES ANDE UTILIZATION

Although coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum,
copper, chromium, nickel, gold and other minerals have
been found, they have not been in large enough quantities
to exploit. The 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection
to the Antarctic Treaty also restricts a struggle for
resources. In 1998, a compromise agreement was reached
to place an indefinite ban on mining, to be reviewed in
2048, further limiting economic development and
exploitation. The primary economic activity is the capture
and offshore trading of fish. Antarctic fisheries in 2000–01
reported landing 112,934 tonnes.
Small-scale "expedition tourism" has existed since
1957 and is currently subject to Antarctic Treaty and
Environmental Protocol provisions, but in effect self-
regulated by the International Association of Antarctica
Tour Operators (IAATO). Not all vessels associated with
Antarctic tourism are members of IAATO, but IAATO
members account for 95% of the tourist activity. Travel is
largely by small or medium ship, focusing on specific
scenic locations with accessible concentrations of iconic
wildlife. A total of 37,506 tourists visited during the 2006–
07 Austral summer with nearly all of them coming from
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commercial ships. The number is predicted to increase to

over 80,000 by 2010.

EXPLORATION OF ANTARCTICA
It was the ancient Greeks who first came up with the
idea of Antarctica. They knew about the Arctic - named
Arktos - The Bear, from the constellation the great bear
and decided that in order to balance the world, there
should be a similar cold Southern landmass that was the
same but the opposite "Ant - Arktos" - opposite The Bear.
They never actually went there, it was just a lucky guess!
In January, James Cook crosses the Antarctic circle
and circumnavigates Antarctica, though he doesn't sight
land, deposits of rock seen in icebergs showed that a
southern continent exists. His comment - "I make bold to
declare that the world will derive no benefit from it".
International Geophysical Year (IGY) 12 nations
establish over 60 stations in Antarctica. The beginning of
international cooperation in Antarctica and the start of the
process by which Antarctica becomes "non-national".
The first successful land crossing via the South Pole is
led by British geologist Vivian Fuchs with New Zealander
Edmund Hillary leading the back up party, over 40 years
after Shackleton's expedition set out with the same aim.

THE ANTARTICA TREATY

The Antarctic Treaty and related agreements,
collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System or ATS,
regulate international relations with respect to Antarctica,
Earth's only continent without a native human population.
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For the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica is

defined as all land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude.
The treaty has now been signed by 47 countries, and set
aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established
freedom of scientific investigation and banned military
activity on that continent. This was the first arms control
agreement established during the Cold War.
The Main Antarctic Treaty
The main treaty was opened for signature on December 1,
1959, and officially entered into force on June 23, 1961.[1]
The original signatories were the 12 countries active in
Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY)
of 1957-58 and willing to accept a US invitation to the
conference at which the treaty was negotiated. These
countries were the ones with significant interests in
Antarctica at the time: Argentina, Australia, Belgium,
Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa,
the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United
States. Among them, the signatories had established over
50 Antarctic stations for the IGY. The treaty was a
diplomatic expression of the operational and scientific
cooperation that had been achieved "on the ice"