Noise Standards Vehicles

Partner name Contract number Proposal number Page
AVL G4RT-CT-2001-05043 GTC2-2000-33026 1 (47)

CALM Work package no. Date (DD-MMM-200X) Document type Deliverable no.
WP1A+B 17 November 2003 Report 1A+B
Authors Receivers
A. Rust CALM Team, EC
Subject
Noise Technology Status Report
TECHNICAL REPORT:
CONTRACT N° : G4RT-CT-2001-05043
PROJECT N° : GTC2-2000-33026
ACRONYM : CALM
TITLE : Community Noise Research Strategy Plan
PROJECT CO-ORDINATOR : AVL List GmbH, Austria

(J. Affenzeller, A. Rust)
MEMBERS : MB 2 B. Berglund / Univ. Stockholm / Sweden

MB 3 V. Irmer / Federal Environm. Agency / Germany
MB 4 J. Hinton / Birmingham City Council / UK
MB 5 S.-L. Paikkala / Min. of Environment / Finland
MB 6 M. Jaecker-Cueppers / Fed. Environm. Agency / Germany
MB 7 G. Billi / Unacoma and Min. of Environment / Italy
MB 8 H. Steven / RWTUEV / Germany
MB 11 M. van den Berg / Min. VROM / Netherlands
PROJECT START DATE : 1 Oct. 2001 DURATION : 36 Months
Date of issue of this report : 17 Nov. 2003
Project funded by the European Community

under the ‘Competitive and Sustainable
Growth’ Programme (1998-2002)
NoiseTechnology-Final.doc
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Table of Contents
Page
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 3
2. Road Traffic...................................................................................................... 4
2.1. Rolling Noise ......................................................................................................................5
2.1.1. Tyres ............................................................................................................................5
2.1.2. Road Surface................................................................................................................7
2.2. Propulsion Noise ..............................................................................................................10
3. Railway............................................................................................................ 15
3.1. Rolling Noise ....................................................................................................................16
3.2. Aerodynamic Noise..........................................................................................................17
3.3. Traction Noise ..................................................................................................................18
3.4. Curve Squeal ....................................................................................................................18
3.5. Brake Screech ..................................................................................................................18
3.6. General .............................................................................................................................18
4. Aeronautics ..................................................................................................... 22
5. Outdoor Equipment ....................................................................................... 26
6. Glossary of Terminology ............................................................................... 30
7. References ....................................................................................................... 31
8. Appendix A: Classification of OE .............................................................. 38
9. Appendix B: Noise Research Data Base .................................................... 42
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1. Introduction
This Noise Technology Status Report describes the state-of-the-art of noise technologies and
summarises noise research activities primarily in the EU but also on a more global scale. An
extract of technology and research centres is given at the end of each section. However, it should
be noted that the lists of technology and research centres provided are without any classification
and merely exemplary, therefore, cannot be considered to be anywhere near complete.
The report is thematically focussed on the main sources of environmental noise which are road
transport, railways, air traffic and outdoor machinery. However, other environmental noise
sources may be included in future updates of this report which are scheduled in the CALM work
plan.
An essential basis of this report and future updates is the "Noise Research Data Base" provided
on the CALM homepage www.calm-network.com. This database includes research projects
which were either completed within the last five years, are still in progress or in the planning
stage. Some information about contents and handling of this database is given in the Appendix B
of this report.
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2. Road Traffic
The main types of noises produced from road vehicles are rolling noise (arising from the tyre-
road interaction) and propulsion noise (comprising noise emission from the engine, transmission,
intake and exhaust system). A typical example of a passenger car noise emission is illustrated in
Figure 1. This figure gives a quantitative breakdown of the noise emission from the vehicle under
the fully accelerated passing-by according to ISO 362. The vehicle fulfils the 74 dBA noise limit
currently in force and thus represents the state-of-the-art. The vehicle speed is approx. 55 km/h at
the moment of maximum measured noise level.
Emission on
people
Νο.1
Tires
Rolling noise
Exhaust system
Intake system Engine
Tail pipe
Intake pipe
Remaining Noise:
air noise,
Powertrain exhaust system
Load influence engine,
Surface Radiation Surface radiation Transmission tires,
etc...
Air-cleaner box Oil pan Exhaust Alternator
manifold
Drive train
Intake
Hose connections Accessories Cylinder Valve Engine
manifold
head cover block
Front pipes Rear muffler
Catalyst Mid muffler Cardan shaft
Figure 1: Noise source distribution of a 74 dBA car in pass-by test [1]
The dominance of the individual noise sources on a particular vehicle depends, first of all, on the
vehicle speed, but also on the vehicle category. The dominating noise sources are
rolling noise for vehicle speed v > 55 km/h

propulsion noise for v < 15 km/h
exhaust noise of powered two-wheelers (PTW)
combustion noise of diesel engines at low idle and cold running conditions
The speed values relating to the dominance of rolling and propulsion noise need further
explanation. The large vehicle speed range from 15 to 55 km/h covers a transition window where
the dominance of either rolling noise or propulsion noise depends on the vehicle category (cars or
trucks & buses), the age of the vehicle (model year: before or after 1996), the driving conditions
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(e.g. cruising or accelerating) and, of course, the acoustic properties of the road surface [2].
Nevertheless, this split into the main sources shows that rolling noise is the predominant noise
source in many situations of real traffic.
2.1. Rolling Noise

Rolling noise is the result of the interaction between tyre and road surface. As described in [2],
there are basically two noise generating mechanisms: structure-dynamic and aerodynamic
mechanisms. Both include several detail mechanisms:
Structure-dynamic mechanisms
Impact mechanisms (causing mainly radial vibration)
Tread impacts (impacts of tyre tread elements on road surface)
Texture impacts (impacts of road surface texture on tyre tread)
Running deflection (deflection of tyre at leading and trailing edges)
Adhesion mechanisms (causing mainly tangential vibration)
Stick-slip ("scrubbing" of tread elements on road surface)
Stick-snap (adhesive effect of rubber to road)
Aerodynamic mechanisms
Air turbulences (around rolling tyre)
Air-pumping (in/out displacement of air in cavities in or between tyre tread and road
surface)
Pipe resonances (λ/2-resonances in grooves of tyre tread)
Helmholtz resonances (resonances in connected cavities in tyre tread pattern and
road surface)
In addition to these noise-generating mechanisms, there are some further effects which either
amplify or attenuate the generated noise:
Horn effect (exponential horn built by leading/trailing tyre edges and road surface
amplifying airborne noise)
Acoustical impedance effect (sound absorption by communicating voids in road surface)
Mechanical impedance effect (road surface reaction on tyre block impact depending on
dynamic stiffness ratio between tyre and road)
Tyre resonances (mechanical belt resonances or air resonances in torus cavity)
Apart from meteorological influences, these noise generating mechanisms and secondary effects
are influenced by tyre-related and/or road-related parameters. Consequently, research activities
and technologies for low rolling noise refer to tyres and road surface.
2.1.1. Tyres
Regarding research in the fields of tyres and the tyre-road interaction, there are many activities in
the research centres of tyre manufactures. Some of them refer to progress in low-noise treads and
tyres, like [3], [4], [5], [6], others report on the advances in simulation models and tools, like [7],
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[8], [9]. Additional investigations have been carried out at universities and research institutions,
such as [10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15] ,[16].
On a European level, the following important research projects have been undertaken or are still
in progress.
• Measuring, Understanding and Reducing Tyre Noise Emission under Realistic

Vehicle Operation Conditions, Including the Contribution of the Road Surface
(TINO).
Project from 1996 to 1999 under the leadership of Pirelli, Italy.
• Road and Tyre Interaction (RATIN).
(Goal: A complete and physically consistent model for the prediction of exterior and
interior tyre/road noise in the audible range).
Ongoing project under leadership of Chalmers University, Gothenburg, Sweden.
• Determination of Road Induced Tyre Noise by Measuring of the Torus Sound.
(Goal: A new measurement method to determine road-induced tyre noise on the basis
of sound measurements within the tyre torus cavity).
Project within the German research network "Leiser Verkehr", led by Aeroakustik,
Munich, Germany.
• Determination of the Current State of the Art of Rolling Noise and Rolling Resistance
of Modern Passenger Car Tyres.
(Goal: Based on an update of tyre characteristics regarding rolling noise and rolling
friction, the potential for reduction of noise and fuel consumption in road traffic are
investigated).
Ongoing project led by TUEV Automotive Munich, Germany.
• Tyre Noise.
Project within the Dutch research network "Noise Innovation Program", started 2002,
led by Dutch ministry of transport, public works and water management, Netherlands.
• Low-Noise Road: Optimisation of the system Vehicle – Tyres – Road.
(Goal: Demonstration of the 70 dBA car and an extra low-noise truck in combination
with an adequate road surface).
Joint research project from 1996 to 1999 led by the Technical University of Vienna,
Austria.
Many of the key technologies for quieter tyres are focused on the tyre tread. The most important
elements of such technologies are:
• Well randomised tread pattern (to avoid high tonal noise components)
• Well ventilated tread grooves (for better air pressure equalisation)
• No coincidence of tread pattern elements with the outline of the footprint
• Narrow lateral grooves
• Acoustic choking of longitudinal grooves if not well ventilated [2]
• Optimised tread block shapes for low stiffness gradients
• Lamellate tread (for winter tyres)
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Not tread related:

• Stiff belts
• "Flat" cross section in the tread area
• Softer rubber compounds (especially for winter tyres)
Exemplary list of technology and research centres for tyre noise:

Bridgestone, Japan
Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
Continental, Hannover, Germany
Goodyear SA, Luxembourg
Michelin, France
Nokian Tyres, Finland
Pirelli, Italy
Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI), Linköping, Sweden
Technical University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
Despite of the current state of knowledge and technology, a future noise reduction potential of
tyres is estimated to about 5 dBA [17] expecting different solutions for car and heavy duty truck
tyres. Of course, this will demand for further intensive research particularly in a still better
understanding of the road-tyre interaction leading to further improved simulation tools and low-
noise technologies.
2.1.2. Road Surface

The two essential noise-generating mechanisms directly influenced by the road surface are firstly
the excitation of tyre vibration by impact from the road roughness (road surface texture) and
secondly aerodynamic excitations like air pumping in tyre tread and road surface cavities [18]. In
addition to these effects on the noise generation, the acoustic quality of the road surface
influences also the sound propagation, both locally (e.g. horn effect) and globally (sound
propagation into the environmental areas). For all these effects, the main road surface parameters
are the roughness (mega-, macro- and microtexture) and the porosity of the road surface [1]. Due
to the lot of studies and research carried out over the last 10 to 20 years – they are well described
in [19] – the typical low-noise road surface technologies use either porous or poroelastic surfaces
or surface treatments of non-porous surfaces.
Today, porous asphalt surfaces are composed of a single porous layer or double porous layers
laid on the top of a thin impervious layer so that water cannot penetrate to the base course. The
typical porosity (expressed as residual air void content) lies in the range of 20 to 25 %. For a low
roughness of the surface, the maximum chipping size is in the range of 8 to 11 mm. The double
layer (or two-layer or twin-layer) surface consists of a bottom layer with a large chipping size and
a top layer with small chipping size. The top layer with the small chipping size (4 to 8 mm)
ensures an even surface as required for low rolling noise. This layer acts like a filter keeping out
some of the dirt. The large chipping size of the bottom layer (11 to 16 mm) ensures that dirt and
water penetrating the top layer can be drained off without clogging the pores. The void content of
both layers is in the range of 25 %.
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A Danish study with two-layer porous asphalt surfaces on urban roads [20] showed noise
reductions of 4 to 6 dBA (compared to the reference surface of dense asphalt concrete). Dutch
studies of two-layer porous asphalt with very small chipping size in the top layer revealed noise
reductions from 3 to 4 dBA at 50 km/h up to 5.5 dBA at 100 km/h. Clogging problems led to the
development of a special cleaning technique and a new drainage profile [21].
A poroelastic road surface is highly porous (typically 25 to 35 % voids) and elastic due to the
high content of granules or fibres of rubber (at least 20 % of the volume; the rubber may be
produced from scrap tyres). The elasticity of the surface is beneficial to the vibration-excited
rolling noise. Together with the high porosity, this gives a very effective reduction of road traffic
noise between 5 and 15 dBA compared with conventional dense asphalt surfaces as shown by the
promising results of Swedish-Japanese studies [22]. Since the elastic movement due to rolling
tyres should avoid dirt to stuck inside the voids, clogging of these road surface may be minimised
which would be a big advantage over non-elastic porous surfaces. At present, further research
and development effort is still needed to make the poroelastic surfaces sufficiently durable and
safe.
Surface treatments of non-porous road surfaces with small chippings (grip surfaces) are noise
reducing under the following conditions [18]. The chipping shape shall be angular and as cubic
as possible. The chippings shall form a dense mono-layer grain at grain without oversized
particles. The maximum chipping size shall be below 5 mm. Narrow grain fraction (e.g. 3/4 mm)
shall be used to enlarge the cross sections of the channels between the chippings.
Another important item of research in the field of road surfaces are the simulation tools and
prediction methods which can be separated in the three topics noise emission, absorption and
propagation.
The noise emission models either use a statistical approach or are based on physical models or
hybrid techniques. The statistical approach is able to establish the correlation between the
acoustic and the texture wavelength and is very well adapted to dense pavements [23], [24]. This
approach needs still to be adapted for surfaces considering the absorption effects. For the
physical models, the main theoretical concepts are based on the works of [25], [26] and comprise
separate models for the tyre, the contact and the sound radiation including the road pavement
characteristics. A more simplified analytical model called "TRIAS" has been developed in The
Netherlands enabling the prediction of tendencies [27]. Hybrid methods use a physical approach
(mainly Kropp's model) when considering the tyre, and a statistical approach when considering
the pavement texture [28].
Concerning noise absorption, two different kinds of models for impedance are used which are
either adapted to a dense asphalt surface [29] or to porous pavements [30].
Regarding the noise propagation, various approaches are available depending on the complexity
of the problem to be treated [31], [32]. Existing engineering models (French method and Nordic
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methods), more adapted to general sound pressure predictions, form the basis for the elaboration
of the new harmonised European model in the HARMONOISE project [33].
Besides the research activities as described above, there were and are the following important
research projects on a European scale:
• Quiet Road Traffic "LeiStra" (Leiser Straßenverkehr).

Project of the German tyre, vehicle and road construction industry, from 2001 to
2003, under the leadership of BASt (Bundesanstalt für Straßenwesen), Germany.
• Silent Roads.
Project within the Dutch research network "Noise Innovation Program", started 2002,
led by Dutch ministry of transport, public works and water management, Netherlands.
• New Products and the Development of Thin Surfacing Materials for Poland (ROAD
SURFMAT).
Project from 1997 to 1999 led by BP Exploration Operating Company Ltd., UK.
• Silent Road for Urban and Extra-Urban use (SIRUUS).
(Goal: Development of road pavement types able to control rolling noise and low-
frequency noise).
Project from 1998 to 2001 led by Autostrade Concessioni e Construzioni Autostrade
S.p.A., Italy.
• Costs and Perceived Noise Reduction of Porous Asphalt.
(Goal: Comparison of the costs and effects of porous asphalt with those of noise
barriers and sound insulation of facades).
Project led by the Danish Transport Research Institute, Denmark.
• Investigation on Road Surface Transitions for Noise Reduction.
(Goal: Recommendations regarding noise reduction at roadway transitions of
bridges).
Project led by BASt, Germany.
• Evaluation of Previous Noise Reduction Measures at Road Cover Transitions of
Bridges.
(Goal: Systematic editing of noise protection measures already accomplished at
roadway transitions).
Project led by BASt, Germany.
• Measurements for the Pavement Noise Reduction of New Road-Surface Layers.
Project since 1996 led by BASt, Germany.
• Study to Low-Noise Road Surfaces for Low Speed.
Project led by the Bundesamt fuer Umwelt, Wald und Landschaft, Abteilung
Laermbekaempfung, Switzerland.
• Noise-Reducing Road Surfaces.
(Goal: Creation of a manual for the application of noise-reducing road surfaces in
cities and on motorways).
Project from 1998 to 1999 led by Grolimud and Partner, Switzerland.
• Noise-reducing pavements, criteria and qualification methods (HILJA).
Project from 2001 to 2003 led by Helsinki University of Technology, Finland.
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• Sustainable road surface for traffic noise control (SILVIA).

(Goal: Establishing a procedure for assessing the noise performance of a given road
surface in a representative and reproducible way).
Project lead by Belgian Road Research Centre (BRRC), Belgium.
Exemplary list of technology and research centres for road surfaces:

Danish Road Institute, Denmark
Belgian Road Research Center, Belgium
Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI), Linköping, Sweden
Members of EAPA (European Asphalt Pavement Association), Breukelen, Netherlands
Bundesanstalt für Straßenwesen (BASt, Federal Highway Research Institute), Germany
Institut für Baumechanik und numerische Mechanik, University of Hannover, Germany
M+P raadgevende ingenieurs bv, Hertogenbosch, Netherlands
Transport Research Laboratory Ltd (TRL), Crowthorne, UK
RWTÜV Automotive, Aachen, Germany
Forum of European National Highway Research Laboratories (FEHRL), Brussels,
Belgium
Helsinki University of Technology, Laboratories of Highway and Automotive
Engineering, Helsinki, Finland.
2.2. Propulsion Noise

With state-of-the-art powertrains the most significant contributions to the noise emission from
the complete powertrain are ranked below according to their typical significance:
• engine noise (arising from combustion noise and mechanical noise, influenced by the
dynamic behaviour of the engine structure)
• exhaust noise (mainly orifice noise)
• gearbox noise (especially with trucks)
• air intake noise (mainly orifice noise)
Figure 2 illustrates this situation of propulsion noise.
As described in [35], the simulation of dynamic and acoustic behaviour plays an important role
in the acoustic development of powertrains. The simulation tools have already reached a high
level and include modelling of most of the relevant noise excitation mechanisms [36]. Such tools
provide important support for the development of noise control at the source, i.e. to minimise the
generation of vibration in powertrains and to reduce its transfer via the powertrain structure to
the noise-radiating surface. Application examples of such technologies for noise control at the
powertrain like quiet combustion systems and optimised structure dynamics are given in [37],
[38].
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Passenger Cars - 2nd Gear Engine
3 51 14 21 14 0
Intake
System
Passenger Cars - 3rd Gear
Exhaust
2 35 11 31 23 0 System
Gearbox
Trucks &
Driveline
1 32 15 16 27 10 Cooling
System
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Contribution to Pass-By Noise
Figure 2: Typical contributions to propulsion noise of cars and trucks in pass-by test
(based on [34])
Despite of the progress in powertrain noise control, a certain amount of acoustic shielding is still
required to fulfil the European legislative requirements regarding vehicle noise emission. Most of
the acoustic shielding is applied directly to the vehicle or even integrated in the vehicle body.
The very typical engine-mounted type of acoustic shielding is the widely used "top cover" of
engines often used also as "beauty cover" to emphasise good styling. The basic technologies were
already developed in the 70's [39], the progress achieved meanwhile mainly refers to the use of
new materials and production technologies (plastics, compounds, rubber isolators etc.). Some
examples of "noise reduction packages" typically applied to passenger cars and trucks are given
in [34]. These packages, defined for two different degrees of vehicle noise reduction, reflect the
present situation of vehicle noise source priorities and noise technologies. Another
comprehensive description of vehicle noise countermeasures is provided by [40].
In summary, the key noise technologies for the major components of propulsion noise are as
follows:
• Control of powertrain noise (= engine + transmission) by low-noise design (low-noise

concept, optimisation of structure dynamics, control of clearances, use of low-noise
materials etc.)
• Specific injection and combustion characteristics of diesel engine to control
combustion noise under cold running condition and low idle (common rail injection
system, pilot injection, exhaust gas recirculation, electronic powertrain management)
• Acoustic shielding or encapsulation of powertrains
• Multiple muffler systems for control of exhaust noise
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• Noise-optimised lay-out of intake system (by advanced simulation tools) (resonators,

broadband dampers)
• Active noise cancellation for control of intake and exhaust orifice noise (technologies
are still in applied research)
Exemplary list of technology and research centres for the above noise technologies:
General: all (European, Japanese, Korean, US) producers of automotive
engines & vehicles and their research centres
Vehicle and powertrain acoustics, acoustic shielding & encapsulation, simulation tools:
AVL List, Graz, Austria
Chalmers University, Gothenburg, Sweden
Cidaut, Spain
FEV, Aachen, Germany
FKSM, Stuttgart, Germany
Head Acoustics, Germany
IDIADA, Spain
IKA, RWTH-Aachen, Germany
INSA Lyon, France
ISVR, Southampton, UK
KTH Stockholm, Sweden
KUL, Catholic University Leuven, Belgium
LMS, Leuven, Belgium
Metravib, France
MIRA, Nuneaton, UK
Polytechnic University of Valencia, Spain
Ricardo, Shoreham-by-Sea, UK
Salford University, UK
STRACO, France
University of Patras, Greece
VTI, Linköping, Sweden
Exhaust system: Faurecia, France
Gillet, Germany
Zeuner-Stärker, Germany
Loughborough University, UK
Intake system: Behr, Stuttgart, Germany
Valeo, France
Woco, Germany
Active noise cancellation: Fraunhofer Institute, Darmstadt, Germany
Technical Research Centre (VTT) of Finland
Acoustic materials: Collins & Aikman, Sweden (especially laminated sheet steel)
Freudenberg, Weinheim, Germany (especially damping and
absorbing materials, isolators)
Rieter, Switzerland
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As already mentioned above, it is important to realise that adequate and powerful simulation
tools are the decisive and basic requirement for the successful application of such technologies in
the product development. In addition, the prediction of the total vehicle noise emission and its
contribution to the overall noise emission of road traffic is also of highest interest for the
assessment and mitigation of the road traffic contribution to the environmental noise.
In this context, there are two EU research projects of particular importance:
• Vehicle Integral Simulation for Pass-By Noise Reduction (VISPER).

(Goal: A basic methodology for the simulation of vehicle pass-by noise based on
engine, intake and exhaust noise sources).
Project from 2001 to 2004 led by AVL List GmbH, Austria.
• Development of a Microscopic Road Traffic Noise Model for the Assessment of
Noise Reduction Measures (ROTRANOMO).
(Goal: A subtly differentiated road traffic noise calculation model which can be used
for the development of effective and economic noise reduction action plans on a local
base as well as for the assessment of noise reduction strategies within the frame of
environmental protection policies).
Project from 2003 to 2005 led by Volkswagen AG, Germany.
The first project will provide a very important tool for the development of tailor-made noise
reduction solutions of the individual vehicles. The second project will enable the prediction of
noise emission from road traffic flows and the assessment of various flow scenarios.
Further important research projects on a European level are:
• Optimal Acoustic Equivalent Source Descriptors for Automotive Noise Modelling

(ACES).
(Goal: Development of a hybrid analysis and testing tool based on the combination
between up-to-date acquisition and measurement techniques and a novel inverse
boundary element method).
Project from 2000 to 2003 led by Straco, France.
• Acoustic Research on Turbocharged Engine Modelling of Exhaust and Inlet Systems
(ARTEMIS).
Project from 2001 to 2004 led by KTH Stockholm, Dept. of Vehicle Engineering,
Sweden.
• Methods and Tools to Address Friction-Induced Noise and Vibration in Brakes and
Wheels (BRAKE NOISE).
Project from 1999 to 2002 led by Robert Bosch GmbH, Germany.
• Development of Innovative Low Pollutant, Low Noise, Low Fuel Consumption Two
Spark Ignition Engines for Future Vehicles for Individual Urban Mobility (DOLCE).
Project from 1997 to 2000 led by Piaggi S.p.A., Italy.
• DI Diesel Engine Noise and Vibration Control Technologies (DINOISE).
Project from 1996 to 1999 led by Centro Ricerche Fiat, Italy.
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• Healthier Environment through Abatement of Vehicle Emission and Noise

(HEAVEN).
Project from 2000 to 2003 led by Societa Trasporti Automobilistici, Italy.
• Sound Quality of Vehicle Exterior Noise (SVEN).
Project from 2000 to 2003 led by Head Acoustics, Germany.
• Vibration and Noise Drop by Light High Damping Structures (VINO).
Project from 2001 to 2004 led by Nicolas Correa SA, Spain.
• Quiet Road Traffic.
Project within the German research network "Quiet Traffic"
• Silent Vehicles and Tyres.
Research Cluster within the Dutch "Noise Innovation Program", Part "Road Traffic",
Netherlands.
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3. Railway
The noise emission from a train is characterised by a number of noise sources:

• Rolling noise (wheel-rail interaction)
• Traction and auxiliary systems (propulsion, cooling fans, compressors)
• Aerodynamic
• Curve squeal
• Brake screech
• Impacts
The relevance of these noise sources depends on the particular operational situations [41]. In
particular, train speed has a significant influence on the noise emission. Table 1 provides a
summary of the major noise sources. Figure 3 gives a typical example of the dependency of
exterior noise sources on train speed.
Emission situation
Pass-by (v in km/h) In and
Noise Source
Low speed Mid speed High speed around Shunting
(v < 60 km/h) (v < 200...300) (v > 250...300) stations
Rolling + ++ ++ +
Traction and auxiliary
++ + ++ ++
systems
Aerodynamic ++
Curve squeal + ++ ++
Brake screech + ++ ++
Impact, bridges + + + ++
+ relevant
++ highly relevant
Table 1: Major noise sources
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130
Sound pressure level as function of train speed
Traction noise
Rolling noise
Sound pressure level dB(A)
120 Aerodynamic noise

Total
110
100
90
80
70
10 20 50 100 200 300 400
Train speed [km/h]
Figure 3: Typical speed dependence of railway exterior noise sources [42]
Rolling noise is currently the most important noise source. It depends strongly on the surface
quality (roughness) of both wheels and rails. The aerodynamic noise depends on the streamlining
of the vehicle. Both railway noise components depend strongly on the train speed, but they differ
clearly in their speed dependence [42]: Rolling noise varies approximately in v3, whereas
aerodynamic noise varies in v6 to v7, as shown in Figure 3. The traction noise is influenced
mainly by the engine noise and the fan noise of the cooling system. The control of all these noise
components can be addressed most efficiently and at a lower cost if it is planned at a new design
stage. Re-design (or retrofitting) is also technically conceivable, given the lifetime of railway
rolling stock, but has strong cost and scheduling implications. Noise oriented maintenance of
both vehicles and tracks still deserve further study in terms of efficiency and costs.
3.1. Rolling Noise

Due to the high importance of rolling noise over a large range of speeds, modelling of rolling
noise had and still has a high priority within railway noise research. Based on a comprehensive
model developed by [43], a refinement mainly for track modelling was performed resulting in the
development of the TWINS (Track-Wheel Interaction Noise Software) model [44], [45]. The
TWINS model is based on the displacement related vibration excitation of the wheel and rail due
to the micro defects along the contact patch between wheel and rail (wheel and rail roughness
with an amplitude of a few microns and a wavelength of 1 to 20 cm). With several European
railway configurations including high speeds, TWINS has been validated thereby showing that
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rolling noise third octave levels can be predicted within 2 to 3 dB between 250 and 4000 Hz [45],
[46], [47]. Further refinements and developments around TWINS consider specific influences
like those of wheel and rail shape, load or defects (wheel flats, rail joints) [48], [49]. Within the
STAIRRS project (cf. later list of research projects), methods (either on a hybrid base or on a
purely experimental base) were developed in order to separate the noise contributions from wheel
and track. The results show that the typically dominating frequency ranges are about 400 Hz for
the sleepers, about 600 to 1000 Hz for the rails and above 1500 Hz for the wheels. A further
important result is that the track/rail contribution dominates the wheel contribution in many
European configurations [42].
According to the research results achieved from rolling noise modelling, the rolling noise
reduction possibilities focus on two areas. Firstly, the reduction of the rolling noise excitation by
reducing both wheel and rail roughness. Secondly, the reduction of vibration in and radiation
from track and wheel by structure optimisation, damping and shielding.
The main origin of wheel and rail roughness are the cast iron block brakes widely used on freight
wagons and older passenger wagons. Therefore, the measures for control of rolling noise aim at
replacing cast iron block brakes by disc brakes or by "composite" brake blocks which keep the
wheels smooth. The related rolling noise reduction potential amounts up to 10 dBA. Due to the
current state of technology, composite blocks exist for new brake designs, but not for the
economic retrofitting of brake blocks on existing wagons [50]. Furthermore, regular grinding of
the rails is a measure that keeps the roughness and hence rolling noise excitation small.
The second area of rolling noise control is directed towards lowering the track and wheel
vibration and noise radiation. The control methods comprise structure optimisation to control
wheel modes [51] and wheel damping by absorbers, rings or constrained layers [52], [53]. Also
on the track side, damping devices have been developed [52], [54], [55] yielding rolling noise
reduction of about 4 to 6 dBA. If combined with wheel-based solutions, the reductions reached 7
to 8 dBA [54]. Also promising results were obtained from low-noise track design developed in a
Dutch project [56]. Practical implementation and integration in the railway system still deserves
research activities.
3.2. Aerodynamic Noise

As modelling of the aerodynamic noise is very complex [57], the research activities were
focussed on the identification and ranking of the main sources of aerodynamic noise [58]. The
main sources for typical existing high-speed trains are therefore the bogie cavities, the
pantograph recess (if present) and the pantograph itself. Pantograph optimisations were carried
out in Germany [59] and in Japan [60]. The Japanese solution is applied now on a series of
Shinkansen trains.
The aerodynamic noise generated at the front and rear end of a train was found to be of less
importance for exterior noise.
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3.3. Traction Noise

Traction noise yields essential noise contributions particularly at low speeds, especially from
diesel locomotives. The typical technologies applied in this field are low-noise design of the
diesel engine including quieter components like turbocharger, compressors and fans, use of
efficient powertrain enclosures and vibration isolation, high performance muffler for the intake
and exhaust systems. An essential contribution to the traction noise can arise from the cooling
equipment (fan noise) which requires proper attention in the design phase. Fan noise can become
a key issue, particularly in the context of urban or sub-urban railways (light railways).
3.4. Curve Squeal

As curve squeal normally occurs in small radius curves, this noise phenomenon is relevant
mainly for urban rails (trams, metro). The squeal noise is generated by specific wheel modes
excited by non linear phenomena at the wheel rail contact during curving. The detail mechanisms
are not yet fully understood so that curve squeal modelling is still in development.
Countermeasures refer to damping of the wheel modes by wheel dampers [61] and to modifying
the wheel rail friction.
3.5. Brake Screech

Brake screech is an important topic for noise in and around stations and in shunting yards. It
occurs with both the modern disc brake systems and conventional shoe brakes. For the disc brake
situation, models and methodologies might be taken over from the automotive or aeronautic
sector. Activities in this field of research have recently been intensified [62].
3.6. General
In addition to the research status described above, the following research projects have been
undertaken or are still in progress on a European scale:
• Methods and Tools to Address Friction-Induced Noise and Vibration in Brakes and
Wheels (BRAKE NOISE).
(Goal: Development of methods and tools to assess, model and predict friction-
induced vibrations).
Project from 1999 to 2002 led by Robert Bosch GmbH, Germany.
• Consistent Semiactive System Control (CASCO).
(Goal: Noise Reduction using advanced materials in damping elements).
Project from 2000 to 2003 led by VCE Holding GmbH, Germany.
• Control of Vibration from Underground Rail Traffic (CONVURT).
(Goal: Creation of innovative tools to predict and minimise ground-borne vibrations).
Project from 2001 to 2003 led by London Underground Ltd., UK.
• Euro Rolling Silently (ERS).
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(Goal: Reducing rolling noise generated by tread-braked railway rolling stock

incorporating an innovative braking product).
Project from 2002 to 2005 led by SNCF, France.
• Quieter rail traffic project (Stiller Trainverkeer).
(Goal: Development of demonstrator of quieter track & freight wagon and
development of knowledge base).
National project from 1995 to 1998 led by NS, Netherlands.
• Squeal noise project.
(Goal: Development of new squeal noise model ranking of abatement measures, new
measures and field tests).
National project from 1999 to 2002 led by Railinfrabeheer, Netherlands.
• Methodologies and Actions for Rail Noise and Vibration (METARAIL).
Project from 1997 to 1999 led by Schreiner Consulting, Austria.
• Harmonised, Accurate and Reliable Prediction Methods for the EU Directive on the
Assessment and Management of Environmental Noise (HARMONOISE).
Project from 2001 to 2004 led by AEA Technology Rail Bv., Netherlands.
• Development of an Innovative High-Performance Railway Wheelset
(HIPERWHEEL).
(Goal: Reduction of the wheel rail contact noise).
Project from 2000 to 2004 led by the Centro Ricerche Fiat SCpA, Italy.
• Improving Railway Infrastructure Productivity by Sustainable Two-Material Rail
Development (INFRA-STAR).
(Goal: Reduction of noise emission up to 15-20dB).
Project from 2000 to 2003 led by Nederlandse Spoorwegen N.V., Netherlands.
• Optimisation of Structural Connections for Noise and Vibration Reduction.
Project from 1997 to 1999 led by Saint-Gobain Vitrage, France.
• Sound attenuation by optimized tread brakes (EUROSABOT).
(Goal: Noise measurements and reduction of rolling and braking noise of freight
trains).
Project from 1996 to 1999 led by ABB Daimler-Benz Transportation, Switzerland.
• Advanced Composite Sandwich Steel Structures (SANDWICH).
(Goal: Improvement of structures in weight, size, noise reduction and vibration
properties).
Project from 2000 to 2003 led by Jos. L. Meyer GmbH, Germany.
• Development of New Technologies for Low Noise Freight (SILENT FREIGHT).
Project from 1996 to 1999 led by European Rail Research Institute, Netherlands.
• Development of New Technologies for Low Noise Railways Infrastructure (SILENT
TRACK).
• Squeal Noise Reduction in Urban Transport by Rail Treatment (SQUEAL).
Project from 1997 to 2000 led by Alfa Products & Technologies NV.
• Strategies and Tools to Assess and Implement Noise Reducing Measures for Railway
Systems (STAIRRS).
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• Adaptive dampening of vibrations and structure-borne noise for high-speed rail

vehicles (ADAPTRONIC).
Project since 1998 led by Daimler Chrysler, Germany.
• Characterisation of Aerodynamic Noise Sources and of Some Components of
Mechanically Induced of High-Speed Guided Transport (DEUFRAKO Appendix
K2).
(Goal: Evaluation of acoustic sources and creation of acoustic noise prognosis
models).
Project led by Deutsche Bahn AG, Germany.
• Development of a light-weight and low-noise bogie for goods wagons (LEILA-DG).
Project since 2000 led by Technical University Berlin, Germany.
• Low emission bogie (LEMBO).
(Goal: Development of an economically and acoustically improved bogie for railway
freight wagons).
Project since 2000 led by Deutsche Bahn AG, Germany.
• Light rail thematic network (LIBERTIN).
(Goal: Promoting the attractiveness and competitiveness of light rail / light metro
systems and accelerating the establishment of an international market in EU and
associated countries).
Project from 2002 to 2005 led by Transport Technologie-Consult Karlsruhe (TTK
GmbH), Germany.
• Procedures for Rolling Stock Procurement with Environmental Requirements
(PROSPER):
(Goal: Establishing guidelines for setting-up environmental requirements and
recommending values for the environmental performance of new rolling stock).
Projects I + II from 2002 to 2005 led by Deutsche Bahn AG, Germany.
According to this current state of knowledge and research, the railway noise technologies can be
summarised as follows [41].
• Rolling noise:
The most effective means of control is that of wheel and rail roughness. Here, the technology
is available (K-blocks/disc brakes, rail grinding systems) but also depends on the cost. Add-
on systems such as rail and wheel dampers are also available for further reduction. Wheel and
bogie shielding have only limited effect due to gauge constraints. New design of wheels and
tracks provides the next best option after roughness control; vehicles with smaller and less
wheels, and quieter track design are longer term, but could be beneficial investments. Local
application of low noise track has the potential to reduce noise at low and medium speeds.
This can even be applied on cast iron brake blocked vehicles, thereby adding to the effects of
long term retrofit programmes before all retrofitting is complete.
• Aerodynamic noise:
Recent generations of high speed trains have illustrated the improvements in this field; the
streamline design of new trains often benefits both noise and energy consumption. Further
streamlining is possible, in particular the covering of the bogie areas; this however has cost
and maintenance consequences.
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• Traction noise:
In principle, all of the above mentioned noise control measures are available to minimise
traction noise at the design stage. The remaining issues are then the cost and maintainability.
Retrofitting only for the purpose of noise reduction is generally not economically feasible.
Exemplary list of technology and research centres for railway noise:

AEA Technology Rail BV, Utrecht, Netherlands
Bombardier Transportation, Québec, Canada
Deutsche Bahn AG, Germany
Deutsches Zentrum fuer Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR), Germany
European Rail Research Institute (ERRI), Utrecht, Netherlands
ISVR, Southampton, UK
Knorr Bremse AG, Germany
Metravib, France
psiA-Consult, Vienna, Austria
RATP, France
SBB, Switzerland
Siemens Transportation, Germany
SNCF, France
Technical University Berlin, Germany
TNO-TPD, Netherlands
University of Naples, Italy
Vibratec, France
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4. Aeronautics
The overall noise emission from aircrafts is determined by the propulsion noise and the airframe
noise. The main contributions to the propulsion noise (engine noise) arise from the fan, jet and
turbine which can be significantly influenced by the engine installation conditions (installation
noise). The main contributors to the airframe noise are the flaps and slats of the high lift devices
on wings and landing gears with open stowage bay doors. So airframe noise is particularly high
during the approach to the airport. Before these movable structures are deployed, airframe noise
can be up to 15 dB lower [63].
In the early 70's, the introduction of the High Bypass Ratio (HBR) turbofan was a significant
milestone in the development of engine technology and jet aircraft noise reduction. These
engines were significantly quieter than their immediate predecessors [64]. The noise level
reduction reached up to 10 dB resulting mainly from reduced jet noise and additional control of
fan and turbine noise. Due to the combined effects of further developed engine technology and
low speed airframe aerodynamic improvements leading to a progressive decrease of the
propulsion system noise, airframe aerodynamic noise has become the dominant source in
approach conditions. This situation initiated specific research activities for the reduction of
airframe and installation noise [65] in the context of large European research initiatives co-
ordinated by X-Noise and X2-Noise respectively [66].
The results of a survey of these research activities covering the recent past until the near future
are given in Figure 4. The topics are split into methodologies (advanced simulation tools, better
understanding of sources), technologies for noise control at source in the fields of engine noise
and airframe noise (including installation noise) and operational aspects. These research
activities are supplemented by industry-based research or national research programmes like the
German research network "Quiet Traffic". Recent research results demonstrated further noise
reduction potentials in engine noise and airframe noise [68]. The reduction of engine noise was
achieved by modifications in the inlet duct and by modified exhaust nozzle shape. Essential
airframe noise reduction was realised by the application of small turbulence devices on the wings
suppressing two strong tonal and dissonant components. Other research results have
demonstrated efficient reduction of inlet noise by so-called Herschel-Quincke waveguides [69]
and significant reduction of tonal fan noise by active control [70].
The main technologies for low aircraft noise comprise quiet HBR turbofan engines and
acoustically and aerodynamically optimised airframes. The quiet HBR engines have low noise
design of the inlet and nozzle. This includes also low noise design of the fan and its tip region,
acoustic lining along the ducts and adequate mixing of the core and by-pass air flows. Another
important item is the optimised installation of the engines onto the airframe yielding minimised
installation effects, i.e. minimising the noise increasing effects arising from the interactions
between the noise radiated from the engine and the adjacent airframe.
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Although considerable advances in aircraft noise reduction have been achieved in the last
decades, the needs for further development of noise reduction technologies is evident and
reflected in Figure 4 as well as in the following large list of research activities.
Years 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
JEAN
Basic Tools Advanced CFD Models
& Source TurboNoise CFD
Understanding
FANPAC RESOUND
-- Source Models
Advanced National / Industry Research RAIN ROSAS
Configurations
Propagation Models DUCAT
Turbomachinery Noise Reduction RESOUND

FANPAC
Noise at Source
Reduction
Technology Nacelle Technologies FANPAC RANNTAC
Exhaust
Noise Nozzle Design & SILENCE(R)
National / Industry Research
Reduction Liner Technology
Technology
Technology
Platform
Airframe noise High Lift Devices RAIN

Reduction
& Landing Gear
Techniques
National programs
Operational Noise Abatement
Aspects Procedures SOURDINE SOURDINE II
Figure 4: X-NOISE Roadmap for aircraft noise research [67]
On a European scale, the following important research projects have been undertaken or are still
in progress:
• Advanced Grinding Technology of New Aircraft Engine Materials (AGNETA).

(Goal: Material improvements regarded to noise and emission reduction, and fuel
consumption decrease).
Project from 2000 to 2004 led by the Rheinisch-Westfaelische Technische
Hochschule Aachen, Germany.
• Acoustic Radiation of Small Turbomachines (AROMA).
(Goal: Noise prediction of turbomachines).
Project from 2001 to 2003 led by the Free Field Technologies S.A., France.
• Basic Research in Aircraft Interior Noise (BRAIN).
(Goal: Investigation of the mechanisms of noise transmission through fuselage
structures).
Project from 1992 to 1996 led by the Katholike Universiteit Leuven, Netherlands.
• Basic Research on Duct Acoustic and Radiation (DUCAT).
(Goal: Development of computational methods for the propagation and radiation of
fan noise of turbofans).
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Project from 1998 to 2000 led by the National Lucht en Ruimtevaart Laboratorium,
Netherlands.
• Environmental Noise Associated with Turbulent Boundary Layer Excitation
(ENABLE).
(Goal: Determination of interior noise generated by turbulent boundary layer around
an aircraft).
Project from 2000 to 2003 led by Dassault Aviation S.A., France.
• Modelling Sound Generation and Propagation in Fluid Machinery Systems (EQUIP).
(Goal: Design of fans for minimum noise production, minimisation of sound
transmission, etc.).
Project from 1997 to 2001 led by Kungliga Tekniska Hoegskolan, Sweden.
• Friendly Aircraft Cabin Environment (FACE).
Project from 2002 to 2006 led by Alenia Aeronautica Spa, Italy.
• Aeroacoustic Methods for Fan-Noise Prediction and Control (FANPAC).
Project from 1993 to 1996 led by Rolls Royce plc, Great Britain.
• Helicopter Noise and Vibration Reduction (HELINOVI).
Project from 2002 to 2005 led by the German Aerospace Centre, Germany.
• Jet Exhaust Aerodynamics and Noise (JEAN).
Project from 2001 to 2004 led by the Trinity College Dublin, Ireland.
• High Performance Damping Material for Aeronautical Use (PARVIS).
Project from 2001 to 2002 led by Artec Aerospace SARL, France.
• Reduction of Airframe and Installation Noise (RAIN).
Project from 1998 to 2000 led by the British Airbus Ltd, Great Britain.
• Reduction of Aircraft Noise by Nacelle Treatment and Active Control (RANNTAC).
Project from 1998 to 2000 led by Aerospatiale Matra Airbus, France.
• Reduction of Engine Noise Through Understanding and Novel Design (RESOUND).
• Research on Silent Aircraft Concepts (ROSAS).
Project from 2002 to 2004 led by Airbus France SAS, France.
• Significantly Lower Community Exposure to Aircraft Noise (SILENCE).
Project from 2001 to 2005 led by Snecma Moteurs, France.
• Study of Noise and Aerodynamics of Advanced Propellers (SNAAP).
Project from 1993 to 1996 led by Alenia Aerospazio, Italy.
• Study of Optimisation Procedures for Decreasing the Impact of Noise around Airports
(SOURDINE).
Project from 1998 to 1999 led by ISR, France.
• Study of Optimisation Procedures for Decreasing the Impact of Noise around Airports
II (SOURDINE II).
Project from 2001 to 2004 led by Stiching National Lucht- en Riumtevaart
Laboratorium, Netherlands.
• Turbomachinery Noise Source CFD Models for Low Noise Aircraft Engine Designs
(TURBONOISECFD).
• Aircraft External Noise Thematic Network (X-NOISE).
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Project from 1998 to 2001 led by Société Nationale d'Etudes et de Construction de

Moteurs d'Aviation, France.
• Development of a multi-channel control unit for active noise reduction (HTGT-
Turbotech II).
Project since 1996 led by Daimler-Benz Forschung und Technik, Aeroakustik,
Germany.
• Investigation of Airframe and Jet Noise in High-Speed flight with a Microphone
Array.
Project led by the Department of Turbulence Research in Berlin, Germany.
• Quiet Aircraft.
Part of the German research network "Quiet Traffic".
Exemplary list of technology and research centres for aeronautic noise:

Aerospatiale Aircraft Business SN, Toulouse, France
Aerospatiale Matra Airbus, France
Alenia Aeronautica Spa, Italy
British Aerospace Airbus Ltd., Bristol, UK
Daimler Chrysler Aerospace Airbus GmbH, Hamburg, Germany
Deutsches Zentrum fuer Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR), Germany
Dornier GmbH, Friedrichshafen, Germany
EADS Corporate Research Centre Germany, Munich, Germany
Eurocopter, France
Free Field Technologies (FFT), France
LMS, Belgium
Metravib, France
National Aerospace Laboratory (NLR), Amsterdam, Netherlands
National Aviation University, Kyiv, Ukraine
Roll Royce PLC, UK
Snecma Moteurs, France
University of Manchester, UK
University of Naples, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, Italy
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5. Outdoor Equipment
Outdoor equipment (OE) covers a wide range of very different mechanical devices. A survey on
these types of equipment can be found in the EC directive 2000/14/EC [71]. Although the
variation of OE is very wide, the predominant noise sources are similar in many cases due to the
fact that most of these devices are operated by internal combustion engines. This means that
there are two major noise sources on most of these devices – "engine" and "cooling system
(fan)".
Concerning the engine noise, the research activities and also the noise control technologies are
mostly the same as for automotive engines (Section 2.2.). Also the cooling technologies are
similar in the case of water-cooled systems. However, very often air-cooling systems are in use
for practical reasons. This implies special care for low fan noise. Basic design guides for low
noise axial fans are given in [72], examples for the practical application of a low noise cooling
fan and system is described in [73], [74], [75]. Another study on acoustic emission of OE has
been published in [76].
The use of lawnmowers often leads to high noise pollution of the adjacent environment because
of its high and specific noise emission (engine, rotor blades). The fact that the lawnmowers are
mainly used in residential areas results in serious annoyance of neighbours. Due to this special
noise situation of lawnmowers, a study on "possibilities and limits of noise reduction on
lawnmowers" was carried out by CETIM as described in [77]. The study shows that the main
noise generators are the engine (combustion engine, electric drives) and the aerodynamics of the
cutting device. More research work can be found in [78], [79], [80]. Concerning noise radiation,
the deck of the lawnmower can give significant contributions besides the airborne noise
contributions directly radiated from the engine and cutter blades. The noise reduction
technologies for lawnmowers refer to quieter combustion engines (quieter combustion) including
more efficient cooling fans and better exhaust silencers. Some manufacturers use elastic
mounting of the engine, but with only slight acoustic benefit, since the mounting elements must
not be too soft for safety reasons. Also the deck structure has been developed towards lower
vibration and noise radiation by optimised deck profiles or use of sandwich materials.
An important topic of OE is the correlation (or divergence) between its legislative testing
(defined by the Directive 2000/14/EC [71]) and typical noise-relevant modes of real-life
operation of OE [81]. Although the Directive provides a classification of the machines according
to their type, no specifications are made regarding different operating conditions. Yet in practise,
they substantially affect the noise level of running OE. For each machine, the Directive includes
a particular section relating to:
• Basic standard on acoustic emission
• Operating conditions during the test
While the first point in each case refers to the EN ISO 3744:1995 standard [82] unifying
procedures for signal acquisition and elaboration with only relatively marginal differences, the
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second point presents significant differences between machines due to the diversity of the
operating conditions in practice.
The description of the operating conditions for each machine includes:
• The configuration of the machine
• The description of the test (whether no- or full-load and the procedures to be
followed)
• The observation time interval
In order to highlight the differences between the procedures for the experimental characterisation
of OE as prescribed by the standard and the real operating conditions, a separate classification
can be made of the machines (covered in Art. 12 of the Directive) with the following distinction:
a: Representative of the real operating conditions;
b1: Potentially incomplete, because certain significant operating conditions are
excluded but which, on subsequent verification, are found to represent an issue of
secondary importance in terms of acoustic emission;
b2: Potentially incomplete, because certain significant operating conditions are
excluded which could, on subsequent verification, be found to be of primary
importance with regard to acoustic emission.
The summary of this evaluation regarding divergence between the requirements of the standard
and the real operating conditions is outlined in Appendix A [81].
Especially for construction machinery the test standards or testing procedure might differ
considerably from real operating conditions. In many cases this is related to the lack of
interaction with the ground, which may often correspond to the prevalent source of noise in
practice. Thus, the significance of the test standard with respect to the real operating condition
represents an essential aspect to guarantee the effectiveness of the legislative requirements
through the progressive reduction of acoustic emission limits in order to decrease the noise
pollution of that specific machine. In fact, if the test conditions for the machine are not
completely representative of the effective mode of operation, it is possible that a reduction in the
maximum level allowed does not correspond to a real benefit in terms of an acoustic emission
reduction during the equipment's life.
A further important topic is related to the feasibility of an acoustic quality index to quantify and
classify the annoyance caused by the noise of OE.
Specific features ("quality") of the noise emitted and the way in which these are perceived by
observers ("listeners") are also of great concern, e.g. [83]. In terms of perception, it is known that
the level of emitted sound power is generally one of the most important aspects, though not the
only. For instance, the noise produced by a mosquito is around 30 dBA but is generally agreed to
be highly annoying, whereas orchestra music can reach levels of 90 dBA without representing a
disturbance for those attending the concert. Evidently, the relation between the sound emitted and
the perception of pleasantness depends on the diverse nature of the sources and the general
incompatibility of the contexts. The project SVEN started to study the sound quality of the
exterior noise.
The effect of the combination of OE noise sources on the perception is of particular interest and
high importance. It considers the issue of noise being caused from a number of machines
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operating close to each other at the same time in order to evaluate and address the potential
combination effect of several sources emitting noise simultaneously.
The EC directive does not suggest any general testing procedure. The only relevant standard ISO
8297/94 [84] specifies an engineering method to determine the sound power emitted from
industrial equipment based on the post-processing of microphone measurements taken around the
equipment itself. A relatively common procedure is the superposition of continuous noise
sources (that are assumed to be uncorrelated), yielding the energetic sum as result. Such an
approach can provide a qualitative first approximation, though it is certainly not exhaustive,
particularly when coherent sources of noise may need to be taken into account. (For example, an
approximate approach may prove sufficient to predict the noise emitted from a site in the far
field, whereas in the vicinity of the site the noise perceived strongly depends on various factors
including the position of the equipment with respect to the reference listening location.)
Considering more specifically the real equipment and not ideal continuous acoustic sources,
another complication arises due to the variations in time depending on the type of operation
being performed.
A more sophisticated approach to obtain the equivalent sound pressure level Leq on a working
site is described in [85]. The algorithm is based on neural networks taking into account the type
of equipment in operation and the type of operation being performed.
An initial attempt at defining a prediction methodology to evaluate the effect of combing the
noise emitted from several machines has been proposed by C.P.T., a local authority located in
Turin, Italy, [86]. Specifically a database of measurements from approximately 360 machines has
been created, including the sound power (overall and in third-octave band) measured in real
operational conditions. Furthermore, approximately 125 standard modes of operation have been
catalogued, indicating the activities performed in a specific phase of the on-site work progress
together with the type machine that is deployed. Correspondingly, in order to determine a
quantitative measure of significance, a relative proportion has been assigned to the machines, the
operations performed and the duration of the activities. Based on the data available, a method has
been proposed for determining the average sound power emitted from the site. By taking into
account the proportion of time that machine is used to perform a specific operation, a weighted
sum has been proposed with regard to the effective contribution of generated noise to the sound
power level for each single machine.
In this context, the subsequent EU research projects are of particular importance:
• Modelling sound generation and propagation in fluid machinery systems (FLODAC)

Project led by KTH Stockholm, Sweden.
• Sound Quality of Exterior Vehicle Noise (SVEN)
(Goal: Investigation of acoustical emission of vehicles causing significant
annoyance.)
Project from 2000 to 2003 led by Head Acoustics, Germany.
• Sound Quality of Exterior Vehicle Noise (EMISSIO)
(Goal: Measurement and simulation of vehicles and machinery regarding noise
emission.)
Project from 1999 to 2002 led by VTT, Finland.
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• Vibration and noise control of transport equipment and mobile work machines(Liikku
VÄRE)
Project since 1999 led by VTT, Finland.
• Vibration control of rotating machinery (Pyöri VÄRE)
Project since 1999 led by VTT, Finland.
Exemplary list of technology and research centres for OE noise:

ABB Ventilation Products, Vaexjoe, Sweden
AV Technology Ltd., Cheshire, UK
Centro Ricerche Fiat (CRF), Italy
CETIM, Senlis, France
IMAMOTER Institute (National research Council of Italy), Ferrara, Italy
TORO Company, Bloomington, MN, USA
UNACOMA, Bologna, Italy
VTT Industrial Systems, Tampere, Finland
Engine manufacturers (like Hatz, Lombardini, Briggs&Stratton, ...)
Members of Euromot (European Association of Internal Combustion Engine
Manufacturers, Frankfurt, Germany, www.euromot.org)
Members of Cema (Japan Construction Equipment Manufacturers Association, Tokyo,
Japan, www.cema.or.jp)
Members of AEM (Association of Equipment Manufacturers, Milwaukee WI, USA,
www.aem.org)
Members of Pneurop (European Committee of Manufacturers of Compressors, Vacuum
Pumps and Pneumatic Tools, Brussels, Belgium, www.pneurop.com)
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6. Glossary of Terminology
Acoustic shielding Reduction of airborne sound radiated from a source by a noise

attenuating panel near the source (but no sound-tight fixation of panel on
source structure, compare "enclosure")
Airframe noise Noise generated by the flaps and slats of the high lift devices on wings
and landing gears with open stowage bay doors
Brake screech often also called "brake squeal"
Combustion noise Noise component of internal combustion engine excited by the sharp gas
pressure rise in the combustion chamber due to the combustion
dBA Decibel, A-weighted
Enclosure Acoustic covering of a noise-radiating surface of a noise source by means

of panels with sound-tight fixation on the surface
Exhaust noise Noise component comprising noise emerging at the exhaust orifice and at
the surface of the entire exhaust system
HBR High By-pass Ratio
Installation noise Component of aircraft noise arising from engine noise increase due to
interaction of engine noise with adjacent airframe structure
OE Outdoor Equipment
Propulsion noise Noise of the vehicle driving system, in road vehicle consisting of engine,
transmission, drive line, intake and exhaust noise
PTW Powered Two-Wheeler
Rolling noise Noise generated by the interaction between tyres or wheels and the
ground (road surface, rail)
Traction noise Noise part considering powertrain noise (especially important for diesel
engines) and fan noise of the cooling system
AVL G4RT-CT-2001-05043 GTC2-2000-33026 31 (47)
Authors Receivers
Subject
7. References
[1] P. Ehinger: Noise Reduction Potential of Passenger Cars. Workshop "Further Noise
Reduction for Motorised Road Vehicles", Umweltbundesamt Berlin, Germany, 17 – 18
Sep. 2001.
[2] U. Sandberg, J. A. Ejsmont: Tyre/Road Noise Reference Book. Informex, Sweden, 2002.
[3] Bridgestone Corp., Patent 2001 (cf. www.bridgestone-

eu.com/english/bs/range/psr/tech/supp.htm)
[4] E.-U. Saemann, W. Liederer, H. Schmidt, W. Fornefeld: Tyre/Road Noise – Causes,

Influences, Potential for Improvement and Target Conflicts. Workshop "Further Noise
Reduction for Motorised Road Vehicles", Umweltbundesamt Berlin, Germany, 17 – 18
Sep. 2001.
[5] G. J. Kim: Flexural Wave propagation and Sound Radiation of the Tyre Shell. Paper 594,
Internoise 2001, The Hague, Netherlands, 27 – 30 Aug. 2001.
[6] E.-U. Saemann, T. Dodt: Advanced Passive Noise Control of Truck Tyres. Internoise 1996,
Liverpool, UK, 1996.
[7] M. Brusarosco: TINO Test Results Overview and Validation. First International
Colloquium on Vehicle Tyre Road Interaction, Rome, Italy, 28 May 1999.
[8] A. Pietrzyk, J. Leyssens, A. Lerusse: FE Modelling for Tyre Noise. Paper 462, Euronoise
2003, Naples, Italy, 19 – 21 May 2003.
[9] Y. H. Kim, S. K. Lee, S. J. Lee: Tyre Noise & Vibration Characteristic Analysis using SEA
– Based on Tyre FE Modelling. Paper 050, Euronoise 2003, Naples, Italy, 19 – 21 May
2003.
[10] J. A. Ejsmont: Tyre-Road Noise Simulation for Optimisation of the Tread Pattern.
Internoise 2000, Nice, France, 2000.
[11] P. Guisset, W. Hendricx, C. McCulloch: Tyre Noise Models, Analysis and Prediction.
ISATA Conference 2000, Dublin, Ireland, 2000.
[12] K. Iwao, I. Yamazaki: A Study on the Mechanism of Tyre-Road Noise. JSAE Review 17
(1996) 139-144.
[13] W. Kropp, F. X. Becot, S. Barrelet: On the Sound Radiation from Tyres. Acta Acustica,
Vol. 86 (2000) 769-779.
AVL G4RT-CT-2001-05043 GTC2-2000-33026 32 (47)
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Subject
[14] K. Larsson, W. Kropp: A High Frequency Range Tyre Model Based on Two Coupled
Elastic Layers. Internoise 1999, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA, 1999.
[15] U. Sandberg, J. A. Ejsmont: Noise Emission, Friction and Rolling Resistance of Car Tyres
– Summary of an Experimental Study. NOISE-CON 2000, Newport Beach, California,
USA.
[16] R. Stenschke, P. Vietzke: Tyre-Road Noise Emissions, Rolling Resistance and Wet
Braking Behaviour of Modern Tyres for Heavy-Duty Vehicles (State of the Art). Internoise
2001, The Hague, Netherlands, 27 - 30 Aug. 2001.
[17] Report on CALM workshop "Road Transport Noise", held in Brussels on 29 April 2003,
www.calm-network.com.
[18] S. Ullrich: Noise Reduction Potential of Motorway Pavements. Workshop "Further Noise
Reduction for Motorised Road Vehicles", Umweltbundesamt Berlin, Germany, 17 - 18
Sep. 2001.
[19] M. Berengier, G. Licitra: Traffic Noise and Road Surfaces: a State-of-the-Art. Paper 194,
Euronoise 2003, Naples, Italy, 19 – 21 May 2003.
[20] J. Kragh, H. Bendtsen: Performance of New Twin-Lay Drainage Asphalt Laid in Denmark.
Internoise 2000, Nice France, 2000.
[21] G. van Bochove: Twin-Lay, a New Concept of Drainage Asphalt Concrete. Euronoise
1998, Munich, Germany, 1998.
[22] U. Sandberg, H. Ohinishi, N. Kondo, S. Meiarashi: Poroelastic Road Surfaces - State of the
Art, Review. Internoise 2000, Nice, France, 2000.
[23] U. Sandberg, G. Descornet: Road Surface Influence on Tyre/Road Noise - Part 1 & 2.
Internoise 80, Miami, Florida, USA, 1980.
[24] V. Legeay: Macrotexture and Low Frequency Tyre/Road Noise Correlation. Introc 90,
Gothenburg, Sweden, 1990.
[25] W. Kropp: Ein Modell zur Beschreibung des Rollgeraeusches eines unprofilierten
Guertdlreifens auf rauher Strassenoberflaeche. Doctor thesis, VDI Fortschritte-Berichte
Reihe 11, Nr. 166, Düsseldorf, 1992.
[26] W. Kropp, K. Larsson, F. Wullens, P. Andersson, F. X. Becot, T. Beckenbauer: The

Modelling of Tyre/Road Noise - A Quasi Three-Dimensional Model. Internoise 2001, The
Hague, Netherlands, 2001.
AVL G4RT-CT-2001-05043 GTC2-2000-33026 33 (47)
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Subject
[27] F. de Roo, E. Gerretsen, E. H. Mulder: Predictive Performance of the Tyre-Road Noise

Model TRIAS. Internoise 2001, The Hague, Netherlands, 2001.
[28] J. F. Hamet, P. Klein: Road Texture and Tyre Noise. Internoise 2000, Nice, France, 2000.
[29] M. EW. Delany, E. N. Bazley: Acoustical Properties of Fibrous Absorbent Materials.

Applied Acoustics, Vol. 3, 1970, pp. 105 - 116.
[30] J. F. Hamet, M. Berengier: Acoustical Characteristics of Porous Pavements: A New

Phenomenological Model. Internoise 93, Leuven, Belgium, 1993.
[31] M. C. Berengier, M. R. Stinson, G. A. Daigle, J. F. Hamet: Porous Road Pavements:

Acoustical Characteristics and Propagation Effects. Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America, Vol. 101, No. 1, 1997, pp. 155 - 162.
[32] M. C. Berengier, B. Gauvreau, P. Blanc-Benon, D. Juve: Outdoor Sound Propagation: A

Short Review on Analytical and Numerical Approaches. To be published in Acta Acustica
united with Acustica.
[33] H. van Leuven, R. Nota: The Harmonoise Engineering Model. Paper 275, Euronoise 2003,
Naples, Italy, 19 – 21 May 2003.
[34] A. Rust: Environmental Noise Control at Source: Passenger Cars and Trucks. Internoise
2001, The Hague, Netherlands, 2001.
[35] M. Pflueger, A. Rust, T. Resch: Stand der Technik und Perspektiven in der
rechnergestuetzten Motorakustik (State-of-the-Art and Perspectives of the Computer-Aided
Engine Acoustics). Wiener Motorensymposium, Vienna, Austria, 2002.
[36] H. H. Priebsch, J. Krasser: Simulation of Vibration and Structure Borne Noise of Engines -
A Combined Technique of FEM and Multi Body Dynamics. 16th CAD-FEM Users’
Meeting, Bad Neuenahr, Germany, 1998.
[37] G. Biaggini, V. Buzio, R. Ellensohn, W. Knecht: Der neue Dieselmotor Cursor 8 von Iveco
(The New Diesel Engine Cursor 8 of Iveco). MTZ Motortechnische Zeitschrift 60 (1999)
10, 1999.
[38] F. W. Leipold, R. A. Zima: Development Stages for Reducing Noise Emissions of the New
OM 904 LA Commercial Vehicle Diesel Engine. SAE972040, SAE Noise and Vibration
Conference 1997, Traverse City, Michigan, USA, 1997
[39] G. E. Thien: The Use of Specially Designed Covers and Shields to Reduce Diesel Engine
Noise. SAE 730244, Detroit, USA, 1973.
AVL G4RT-CT-2001-05043 GTC2-2000-33026 34 (47)
Authors Receivers
Subject
[40] U. Sandberg: Noise Emission of Road Vehicles - Effect of Regulations. Final report of the
I-INCE Working Party on Noise Emissions of Road Vehicles (WP-NERV), July 2001.
[41] WG Railway Noise of the European Commission: Position Paper on the "European
Strategies and Priorities for Railway Noise Abatement", May 2003.
[42] P.-E. Gautier: Railway Noise: A Review of Recent Progress and Research. Paper 494,
[43] D. J. Thompson: Wheel-Rail Noise Generation, Part 1. Journal of Sound and Vibration 161
(3), 1993.
[44] D. J. Thompson, B. Hemsworth, N. Vincent: Experimental Validation of the TWINS

Prediction Program for Rolling Noise, Part 1: Description of the Model and Method.
Journal of Sound and Vibration 193, pp. 123 - 135, 1996.
[45] D. J. Thompson, P. Fodiman, H. Mahe: Experimental Validation of the TWINS Prediction

Program for Rolling Noise, Part 2: Results. Journal of Sound and Vibration 193, pp. 137 -
147, 1996.
[46] L. Castel, P.-E. Gautier, N. Vincent, J.-P. Goudard: 350 kph Running Tests to Assess a
New Railway Noise Model. Internoise 93, Leuven, Belgium, 1993.
[47] C. J. C. Jones, D. J. Thompson: Extended Validation of a Theoretical Model for Railway

Rolling Noise Using Novel Wheel and Track Designs. Proceedings of 7th IWRN, Portland,
Maine, USA, 2001.
[48] D. J. Thompson, P. J. Remington: The Effects of Transverse Profile on the Excitation of

Wheel/Rail Noise. Journal of Sound and Vibration 231 (3), pp. 537 - 548, 2000.
[49] T. Wu, D. J. Thompson: On the Impact Noise Generation due to a Wheel Passing over Rail
Joints. Proceedings of 7th IWRN, Portland, Maine, USA, 2001.
[50] P. de Vos, S. van Lier: Noise-Related Roughness on Railway wheels Generated by Tread
Braking. Internoise 2000, Nice, France, 2000.
[51] P.-E. Gautier, N. Vincent, D. J. Thompson, G. Hoelzl: Railway Wheel Optimization.

Internoise 93, pp. 1455 - 1458, Leuven, Belgium, 1993.
[52] B. Hemsworth, P.-E. Gautier, R. Jones: Silent Freight and Silent Track Projects. Internoise
2000, Nice, France, 2000.
[53] C. Jones, D. J. Thompson, A. Frid, M. O. Wallentin: Desing of a Railway Wheel with

Acoustically Improved Cross-Section and Constrained Layer Damping. Internoise 2000,
Nice, France, 2000.
AVL G4RT-CT-2001-05043 GTC2-2000-33026 35 (47)
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[54] L. Guccia, P. Fodiman, P.-E. Gautier, N. Vincent, P. Bouvet: High-Speed Rolling Noise:
Design and Validation of Low Noise Components. World Congress on Rail Research,
Florence, Italy, 1997.
[55] D. J. Thompson, C. J. C. Jones, D. Farrington: The Development of a Rail Damping

Device for Reducing Noise from Railway Track. Internoise 2000, Nice, France, 2000.
[56] M. H. A. Janssens: Low Noise Slab-Track Design: Acoustic Development and Final Tests.
Sixth International Congress on Sound and Vibration, Lyngby, Sweden, 1999.
[57] C. Talotte: Aerodynamic Noise, a Critical Survey. Journal of Sound and Vibration 231 (3),
pp. 549 - 562, 2000.
[58] DEUFRAKO Annex K (1994) and K2 (1999): Sources de Bruit des Transports Guides a
Grande Vitesse. Final Reports.
[59] W. Behr, T. Loelgen, W. Baldauf, L. Willenbrink, R. Blascko, K. Jaeger, J. Kremlacek:

Low Noise Pantograph ASP, Recent Developments. Internoise 2000, Nice, France, 2000.
[60] T. Okamura, Y. Kusumi, T. Hariyama: Development and Prospect for Low Noise
Pantograph. Internoise 2000, Nice, France, 2000.
[61] J. T. Nelson: Wheel Squeal Noise Control with Wheel and Rail Vibration Absorbers.
Internoise 2001, The Hague, Netherlands, 2001.
[62] A. A. van Lier: The Break Squeal of Tread-Braked Trains. Euronoise 98, Munich,
Germany, 1998.
[63] Transport Noise Reference Book. Ed. by P. M. Nelson, Butterworth & Co. Ltd., 1987.
[64] D. Collin: Aircraft Noise Engineering - Issues and Challenges. Internoise 2002, Dearborn,
Michigan, USA, 2002.
[65] L. C. Chow, P. Lempereur, K. Mau: Reduction of Airframe and Installation Noise.

Internoise 99, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA, 1999.
[66] European Thematic Network "X2-NOISE": www2.x-noise.net
[67] Report on CALM Workshop with Stakeholder, Brussels, 18 - 19 March 2002 (www.calm-
network.com).
[68] W. Dobrzynski, U. Michel: Neue Massnahmen zur Laermminderung (New Measures for
Noise Reduction). DLR-Nachrichten Nr. 102, April 2002. (www.fv-leiserverkehr.de/FV-
LeiserVerkehr/Veroeffentlichungen.htm)
AVL G4RT-CT-2001-05043 GTC2-2000-33026 36 (47)
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[69] R. A. Burdisso:. Reduction of Inlet Noise from Turbofan Engines Using Herschel-Quincke
Waveguides. Internoise 2001, The Hague, Netherlands, 2001.
[70] J. Zillmann, R. Maier, W. Just, I. Borchers, E. Bouty, H. Antoine, L. Enghard, U. Tapken:

Active Control of Fan Noise by Active Stators. Internoise 2001, The Hague, Netherlands,
2001.
[71] Directive 2000/14/EC relating to the Noise Emission in the Environment by Equipment for
Use Outdoors. Brussels, 2000.
[72] G. Karfalk: Low Noise Design of Axial Fans. Internoise 2001, The Hague, Netherlands,
2001.
[73] J. Hyrynen, A. Karjalainen: Low Noise Cooling Fan Integration in an Induction Machine
Application. Paper 226, Euronoise 2003, Naples, Italy, 19 – 21 May 2003.
[74] E. Carletti: Effectiveness of Some Noise Solutions Applied to Small Agricultural

Machines. Paper 351, Euronoise 2003, Naples, Italy, 19 – 21 May 2003.
[75] A. Karjalainen, J. Hyrynen: Experiments on Design Parameters Affecting Cooling Fans in

an Induction Machine. Part I: Specific Sound Power Level. Part II: Results from Design of
Experiment. Internoise 2001, The Hague, Netherlands, 27 – 30 August 2001.
[76] J.P.J. Oostdijk, H. Kuypers, J.H. Granneman: Acoustic Aspects of the Development of
Silent Loading and Unloading Devices. Internoise 2001, The Hague, Netherlands, 27 – 30
August 2001.
[77] M. Bockhoff: Possibilities and Limits of Noise Reduction on Lawnmowers. Paper 303,
[78] Product Group Lawnmowers: Determination of noise emission values and studies related
to noise within the work on EC-Directive. Landesgewerbeanstalt Bayern, February 2002.
[79] M. Bockhoff, P. Thoquenne, J. Tourret: Characterisation of Structure-borne Noise Emitted

by Small Combustion Engines Powering Lawnmovers and Other Garden Equipments.
Internoise 2000, Nice, France, 2000.
[80] C. Drutowski: Lawnmover Noise Emission. Internoise 2001, The Hague, Netherlands, 27 –
30 August 2001.
[81] C. Baret, G. Boreanaz: Study on the status of research related to the noise of outdoor
equipment in operation. Report for the CALM Network, Sept. 2003, www.calm-
network.com.
AVL G4RT-CT-2001-05043 GTC2-2000-33026 37 (47)
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[82] Standard EN ISO 3744:1995 – Acoustics: Determination of sound power levels of noise
sources using sound pressure – Engineering method in an essential free field over a
reflecting plane.
[83] P. Cho, A. Karavadi: Sound Quality Target Development Process for Agricultural and
Construction Machinery. SAE Paper 1999-01-2820, September 1999.
[84] Standard EN ISO 8297:1994 – Determination of sound power levels of multisource

industrial plants for evaluation of sound pressure levels in the environment – Engineering
method.
[85] M.F. Hamoda, N.Z. Al-Mutairi, I. Al-Ghusain, M.A. Ali: Prediction of noise from
construction sites using artificial neural network. Internoise 2002, Dearborn, Michigan
USA, 19 – 21 August 2002.
[86] Comitato paritetico territoriale per la prevenzione infortuni, l'igiene e l'ambiente di lavoro
di Torino e provincia: Conoscere per prevenire n. 11 – La valutazione dell'inquinamento
acustico prodotto dai cantieri edili, 2002.
AVL G4RT-CT-2001-05043 GTC2-2000-33026 38 (47)
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8. Appendix A: Classification of OE
In the following table, a classification of OE regarding evaluation of divergence between
standard testing and real operation is given acc. to [81].
ref. Proposed
Class Equipment Type Picture Remarks
n. Classification
The test under load includes the action of the compacting
mechanism, but it introduces two differences regarding the
possible real conditions of use:
1) The machine shall be tested in a stationary position;
COMPACTION 2) The vibrating roller shall be installed on one or more
A MACHINES, 8 b1 or b2 appropriate elastic material(s) such as air-cushion(s).
VIBRATING
To verify that the fact to operate on asphalt or gravel does not
modify in meaningful way the acoustic emission.
To verify that the disconnection of the moving mechanism(s)
does not alter the levels of acoustic emission.
It is a test in motion (for the tracked ones, on sand) but that it
does not preview neither movement neither operativity of the
TRACKED mounted equipment.
16 b1 or b2
DOZERS
To verify that the operativity of the shovel does not introduce
one dominant acoustic source.
TRACKED
EXCAVATORS- 21 b2 Extremely insufficient diffusion.
LOADERS
B The test shall be carried out in two cycles:
1) Travel Mode: test in motion (bucket without movement and
the machine shall be operated in a constant forward and
reverse travel velocity through the emisphere measurement
surface)
TRACKED
37 b2 2) Stationary Hydraulic mode: bucket in movement and
LOADERS machine stationary.
There aren't all the possible interactions of the bucket with the
ground, beyond the operations of material unloading (may be
noisy, at least for some type of material).
Analogous test to those of the loaders (of the previous point),
with some difference with regard to the modalities of
movement of the open body.
DUMPERS 18 b2
The test is carried out with the open body empty and the
problem of the dumping of the material is not considered.
Analogous test to those of the dozers.
The interaction with the ground is not considered.

GRADERS 23 b1 or b2
The conditions of test, free of load, essentially are the same of

the real conditions of exercise.
C HYDRAULIC It is necessary to consider that these machines operate mostly

29 a in connection with noisier machines (i.e.: concrete-breakers
POWER PACKS
and picks) but more intermittent.
It is necessary to verify, in deepened way, the modalities of
superposition of the effects.
The noise test shall be carried out with the machines
stationary; for non-vibrating rollers it is reasonable to think that
NON-VIBRATING the engine source is prevailing to that relative one of the
8 a impact of the rollers with the ground.
ROLLERS
It does not seem any exist; however the test is analogous to

that one of the tracked dozers (except the different speed
WHEELED
16 b1 or b2 during the test and the type of ground: a hard reflecting plane
DOZERS in this case and sand for the tracked Dozers). In any way, it
can be considered commercially NOT IMPORTANT.
AVL G4RT-CT-2001-05043 GTC2-2000-33026 39 (47)
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ref. Proposed
n. Classification
The test is carry out with the machine stationary.
WHEELED The interaction with the ground is not considered.

EXCAVATORS- 21 b2
LOADERS
See TRACKED LOADERS

WHEELED
37 b2 The absence of the crawler, generally the prevailing acoustic
LOADERS source, demands still more attention towards the analysis of
the exercise conditions.
See Loaders.
We classify in b1 category since, although the operating
condition of the bucket is not present, the type of dealt
LANDFILL material could make the loading and unloading a secondary
31 b1 acoustic source.
COMPACTORS
To verify the interaction of the "steel wheels" with the material.
C The test is diveded in two operating conditions:
* Lifting condition
* Drive condition
LIFT TRUCKS 36 a They appear exaustive of the real conditions of use.
The 4 operating conditions of the test appair axaustive. They

are:
* Hoisting
MOBILE CRANES 38 a * Slewing
* Derricking
* Telescoping (if applicable)
All working units shall be activated and operate at the

indicated speeds (conveying system, spreading system,
PAVER- tamper, vibrators, pressure bars)
41 a
FINISHERS
The power-operated machine (the only one included in art.12)

can be considered commercially NOT IMPORTANT.
The test is free of load; the winch shall be connected but no
load shall be applied.
CONSTRUCTION
12 a or b1
WINCHES To verify if the test under load changes the acoustic emission
of the machinery in a significant way.
During the test, the machine is stationary.

Different operation for:
a. Hoe attachment
b. Shovel bucket attachment
c. Grab type attachment
d. Dragline attachment
D EXCAVATORS 20 b2
To verify the influence of:
1) the movement of the excavator (even if the machine
operates almost exclusively stationary);
2) the interaction with the ground.
AVL G4RT-CT-2001-05043 GTC2-2000-33026 40 (47)
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ref. Proposed
n. Classification
The test is free of load and probabily it is representative of the
real conditions of use.
BUILDERS’ To verify the effect of the load towards the level of acoustic
HOISTS FOR THE emission.
E 3 a or b1
TRANSPORT OF
GOODS
The test appears representative of the real conditions of use.
The test is articulated on the real conditions of use. The

emission values obtained from various executions of the test
CONCRETE- are different between they.
BREAKERS AND Rather than on prescription of the real conditions of use, in this
10 a class the review would have to regard the aspects of
PICKS, HAND-
HELD robustness of the test as today it is conceived.
F
The test is carried out free of load and under load.
TOWER CRANES 53 a
The test described in ISO 8528-10.2 appears representative of

the real conditions of use.
POWER
45 a
GENERATORS
G The test described in ISO 8528-10.2 appears representative of

the real conditions of use.
It could be favourable a verification on the acoustic effect of

WELDING
57 a the flash of the welding.
GENERATORS
The test is under load and, essentially, seems representative

of the real conditions of use.
H COMPRESSORS 9 a
AVL G4RT-CT-2001-05043 GTC2-2000-33026 41 (47)
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ref. Proposed
n. Classification
The test is free of load and the test area is similar to the real
operating environment.
The effect of the impact of the blade with grass and stones
LAWNMOWERS 32 a can be, in this case, considered negligible in terms of acoustic
emission.
The test is free of load and the test area is similar to the real
I operating environment.
The effect of the impact of the blade with grass and stones
can be, in this case, considered not negligible in terms of
LAWN TRIMMERS acoustic emission.
/ LAWN EDGE 33 a or b1
TRIMMERS
AVL G4RT-CT-2001-05043 GTC2-2000-33026 42 (47)
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9. Appendix B: Noise Research Data Base
The "Noise Research Data Base" is available with free access on the CALM homepage
"www.calm-network.com". First of all, the database contains research projects related to
environmental noise. Projects are considered that were either completed within the last five years
(= Project Status "Executed"), are still in hand (= Project Status "Live") or are in the planning
stage (= Project Status "Planned"). Usually, public research projects are indicated by an
Acronym. In addition to the research projects, the data base contains also a lot of information
obtained from publications which are supposed to describe noise research projects. Such data
base entries are characterised by "no Acronym" and a conference as "Data Source".
A view of the whole Data Base Search Form which has to be scrolled is given in Figure 5. For
searching, there are two possibilities which can be used either individually or combined.
The first possibility is to select from pre-defined and structured choices which offer the thematic
areas
• Project Topic → Topic Choice (see Figure 6)
• Project Country → Project Choice (see Figure 7, above)
• Project Status → Project Status Choice (see Figure 7, below)
The second possibility is to use the Keyword Choice as shown in Figure 8 and Figure 9.
Keywords can be entered in maximum three groups with maximum three entries per group. The
logical connection within each group is AND, the connection between groups is OR. For
example, the entries in Figure 8 would select all noise projects which deal with "Tyres" and
"Road Surface". A further possibility for the Keyword Choice is to use the keyword list which is
automatically generated and extended with the data base entries and contains Project Acronyms
and Project Keywords. For this purpose, the bottom window in Figure 8 has to be clicked
activating the keyword list as shown in Figure 9.
When one or several choices are made, the search procedure can be started with the "Search"
button at the bottom of the search form. The search results are listed as shown in Figure 10. To
select one of the listed projects, the project acronym, title or the coloured triangle has to be
clicked activating the project information sheet as shown in Figure 11.
It is important to know that all entries in the keyword section are used to search in the following
three project information elements (see Figure 11): Project Title, Acronym, Project Keywords.
This means that - if acronym or project keywords are not known - any other word can be used
which is supposed to be part of the title.
For a new selection using the full search form, the triangle "Search Form" below the project list
in Figure 10 has to be clicked. In order to return from Figure 11 to Figure 10, the window of
Figure 11 has to be closed.
AVL G4RT-CT-2001-05043 GTC2-2000-33026 43 (47)
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Figure 5
AVL G4RT-CT-2001-05043 GTC2-2000-33026 44 (47)
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Figure 6
AVL G4RT-CT-2001-05043 GTC2-2000-33026 45 (47)
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Figure 7
Figure 8
AVL G4RT-CT-2001-05043 GTC2-2000-33026 46 (47)
Authors Receivers
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Figure 9
Figure 10
AVL G4RT-CT-2001-05043 GTC2-2000-33026 47 (47)
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Figure 11

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Partner name Contract number Proposal number Page

AVL G4RT-CT-2001-05043 GTC2-2000-33026 1 (47)

TITLE : Community Noise Research Strategy Plan

PROJECT CO-ORDINATOR : AVL List GmbH, Austria

MEMBERS : MB 2 B. Berglund / Univ. Stockholm / Sweden

PROJECT START DATE : 1 Oct. 2001 DURATION : 36 Months

Date of issue of this report : 17 Nov. 2003

Project funded by the European Community

5. Outdoor Equipment ....................................................................................... 26

6. Glossary of Terminology ............................................................................... 30

8. Appendix A: Classification of OE .............................................................. 38

9. Appendix B: Noise Research Data Base .................................................... 42

Figure 1: Noise source distribution of a 74 dBA car in pass-by test [1]

rolling noise for vehicle speed v > 55 km/h

2.1. Rolling Noise

• Measuring, Understanding and Reducing Tyre Noise Emission under Realistic

Not tread related:

Exemplary list of technology and research centres for tyre noise:

2.1.2. Road Surface

• Quiet Road Traffic "LeiStra" (Leiser Straßenverkehr).

• Sustainable road surface for traffic noise control (SILVIA).

Exemplary list of technology and research centres for road surfaces:

2.2. Propulsion Noise

Passenger Cars - 2nd Gear Engine

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

• Control of powertrain noise (= engine + transmission) by low-noise design (low-noise

• Noise-optimised lay-out of intake system (by advanced simulation tools) (resonators,

In this context, there are two EU research projects of particular importance:

• Vehicle Integral Simulation for Pass-By Noise Reduction (VISPER).

Further important research projects on a European level are:

• Optimal Acoustic Equivalent Source Descriptors for Automotive Noise Modelling

• Healthier Environment through Abatement of Vehicle Emission and Noise

The noise emission from a train is characterised by a number of noise sources:

120 Aerodynamic noise

Train speed [km/h]

Figure 3: Typical speed dependence of railway exterior noise sources [42]

3.1. Rolling Noise

3.2. Aerodynamic Noise

3.3. Traction Noise

3.4. Curve Squeal

3.5. Brake Screech

(Goal: Reducing rolling noise generated by tread-braked railway rolling stock

• Adaptive dampening of vibrations and structure-borne noise for high-speed rail

Exemplary list of technology and research centres for railway noise:

Turbomachinery Noise Reduction RESOUND

Airframe noise High Lift Devices RAIN

Figure 4: X-NOISE Roadmap for aircraft noise research [67]

• Advanced Grinding Technology of New Aircraft Engine Materials (AGNETA).

Project from 1998 to 2001 led by Société Nationale d'Etudes et de Construction de

Exemplary list of technology and research centres for aeronautic noise:

In this context, the subsequent EU research projects are of particular importance:

• Modelling sound generation and propagation in fluid machinery systems (FLODAC)

Exemplary list of technology and research centres for OE noise:

Acoustic shielding Reduction of airborne sound radiated from a source by a noise

Brake screech often also called "brake squeal"

dBA Decibel, A-weighted

Enclosure Acoustic covering of a noise-radiating surface of a noise source by means

HBR High By-pass Ratio

PTW Powered Two-Wheeler

[3] Bridgestone Corp., Patent 2001 (cf. www.bridgestone-

[4] E.-U. Saemann, W. Liederer, H. Schmidt, W. Fornefeld: Tyre/Road Noise – Causes,

[26] W. Kropp, K. Larsson, F. Wullens, P. Andersson, F. X. Becot, T. Beckenbauer: The

[27] F. de Roo, E. Gerretsen, E. H. Mulder: Predictive Performance of the Tyre-Road Noise