MEASURING TECHNIQUE –

REPORT No 6

Formmätare
Form-measuring machines
och and their application
deras användning

Published by Volvo Length Metrology Group in co-operation with Volvo Standard Dept. 2000-04-17
 1 Table of contents

Form-measuring machines and their application Page

1. Introduction 3

2. Form-measuring machines 3
2.1 General 3
2.2 Design of form-measuring machines 4
2.3 Reporting results 5
2.4 Graphical presentation 5

3. Alignment 6
3.1 General 6
3.2 Basic alignment 6

4. Methods of evaluation 8
4.1 Evaluation of section centre 8
4.2 Evaluation of straight line 10
4.3 Recommendations for the selection of evaluation method 12

5. Filtering 14
5.1 Introduction 14
5.2 Stylus tip radius 16
5.3 Measuring points - measuring speed 20
5.4 Electronic filtering 20
5.5 Guide to filter selection 23
5.6 Other bases for filter selection 25

6. Examples, general measuring cases 26

6.1 Straightness for generatrix 26
6.2 Flatness 27
6.3 Roundness 28
6.4 Cylindricity 29
6.5 Perpendicularity on generatrices 30
6.6 Perpendicularity on centreline 31
6.7 Angularity on generatrix 32
6.8 Coaxiality 33
6.9 Radial run-out –circular 35
6.10 Axial run-out 38
6.11 Total run-out –radially 39
6.12 Total run-out –axially 40

7. Examples, particular measuring cases 41

7.1 Evaluation of straightness on centreline 41
7.2 Evaluation of roundness for a circle segment 47

2
 Form-measuring machines
and their application
1.Introduction
This handbook is intended for those working with the inspection and approval of parts using
form-measuring machines. The handbook can also serve as a guide for designers,
manufacturing engineers, purchasers and production personnel looking to enhance their
knowledge within the field of form measuring and geometrical tolerances. A form-measuring
machine is used also for purposes other than form measuring, and examples of such purposes
can also be found in this handbook.

2.Form-measuring machines
2.1 General
There are many different types of form-measuring machines, from small portable ones to large
CNC machines.

The most basic form-measuring machines can deal with evaluations such as roundness,
concentricity, coaxiality and run-out, whereas the most advanced ones can evaluate most
geometrical tolerances. There may also be additional opportunities for evaluations such as taper,
angle sector or Fourier analyses.

Some of the advantages of a form-measuring machine compared to a coordinate measuring

machine (CMM) are that a large number of measuring points can be calculated for each section,
and that measuring/evaluation is relatively quick with a high degree of accuracy.

3
 2.2 Design of form-measurement machines
It is most common to use a rotating table, see fig.1. The measuring tables are mechanical or air
bearing, and have a very high degree of accuracy. There are also machines with a rotating
spindle, as shown in figure 3.

The measuring tables are tiltable for levelling, and have setting options for centring the
measuring object, see figure 2. The alignment can be done manually or automatically.

Figure 1 Figure 1 Figure 1

The vertical axis (Z) is normally constituted by a pillar fixed to the machine bed. When
measuring, e.g. straightness, perpendicularity, total run-out and cylindricity, the design of the Z-
axis must be very precise.

The horizontal axis (R) is normally fixed in the Z-axis, and runs perpendicular to this. If
measurements in several radial sections are evaluated as one single feature, e.g. for axial total
run-out and flatness, the design of the R-axis must be very precise. The positioning of the R and
Z-axes can be done manually or motorized depending on the type of machine.

4
 2.3 Reporting results
Measuring equipment: machine, software, stylus tips

Measuring object: Part, serial number

Document information: Part number, issue, department

Further information: Information required for an unambiguous interpretation and repetition of

the measurement, in applicable cases an assessment of measuring uncertainty.

Under this item it should be stated whether the evaluation has been done in a manner other than
that stated on the drawing, etc.

2.4 Graphical presentation

Profile printouts show no connection between the true diameter/length and the graphical
presentation. The parts, the profile printout of which is shown in the pictures below, have been
cut into segments with a major diameter of 200 mm. The part is obviously perceived as being
round, but in the graphical presentation, the shape of the circle segments can appear as convex,
straight or concave depending on the grade of magnification used.

Measuring object

Graphical presentation illustrating how different magnification influences the

curves.

5
3 Alignment
3.1 General
This section describes the way in which the first alignment – the basic alignment- affects the
results of form measurements.

3.2 Basic alignment

In order to obtain an accurate record of the shape of a cylindrical part, the measuring must be
done at right angles to the centreline of the feature to be measured. Compare the surface of a
section of a tube when cut in a straight line or obliquely!

The basic alignment can often be done against an axial surface provided that this surface is
approximately 90° to the centreline of the measuring surface. The best thing is to level the table
in a way as to make the centreline as parallel as possible with the pillar of the form-measuring
machine. The pictures in figure 4 show a misalignment and a correct alignment of the part!

Measuring
object

Figure 4

Misalignment, the measuring is not Correct alignment, the measuring

perpendicular to the centreline, is made at 90° to the centreline,
and the machine will perceive the and the machine can record the correct
round section as oval. shape.

If the section is not centred in relation to the circular table axis, the stylus tip, which in most cases
actually moves in an arc, will record an oval shape that does not exist on the part. This can be
described as a “cosine error”. The errors caused by poor levelling or centring are minor, but not
negligible when performing thorough calculations.

6
Basic alignment without datum feature
The alignment of the part is significant even when there are no external datums.
- Base the alignment of the part on the toleranced hole or axis in order to avoid axial run-
out as shown in figure 4.
- Centre the part with the toleranced feature

In order to simplify the alignment, the procedure can be initiated by the alignment of an
“auxiliary plane”.

Example: The diagrams in figure 5 show the way in which the roundness seems to vary as a
result of the different alignments.

Figure 5

Example: In the table below, a setting ring has been centred and measured, followed by the
intentional addition of eccentricity in accordance with the left-hand column.

Eccentricity-deviation Roundness-deviation

0,40 µm 0,35 µm

50,05 µm 0,40 µm

99,75 µm 0,60 µm

260,25 µm 2,45 µm

509,45 µm 7,60 µm

The error is caused by the measuring object not being centred around the circular-table axis
(eccentricity), but may be wrongly interpreted as the setting ring being oval. The error can also
be described as a cosine error.
Basic alignment with datum feature
- For holes: use MIC, maximum inscribed circle in accordance with section 4.
- For shafts: use MCC, minimum circumscribed circle in accordance with section 4.
- For planes: use tangent planes (if a stable level has been attained)

7
4. Evaluation methods
4.1 Evaluation of section centre
All radial measurements require the determination of a section centre. There are four different
ways of doing so, and modern form-measuring machines usually offer the opportunity to choose
between all of these. The different methods have slightly different designations in different
literature. This document uses the international designations used by ISO:

LSC – Least Square Circle

Least Square Circle is calculated using the least square method. From the circle centre, the radius
variation is calculated in a roundness evaluation. The centre of the least square circle will serve as
centre also if the circle is used as datum at future evaluations. Applying the same method (LSC)
on cylinder measuring, a cylinder would constitute a least square cylinder, calculated using the
least square method for the collected measuring points, and the centreline of the least square
cylinder would serve as the datum of the cylinder at future evaluations. See figure 6.

LSC (Least Square Circle): Mean circle.

A least square circle is calculated and its centre point determined

Figure 6

MCC- Minimum Circumscribed Circle

The minimum circumscribed circle is constituted by the smallest circle possible to draw around
the outline, and the centre of the circumscribed circle is then used for determining radius
variation when evaluating roundness, and as datum for other evaluations. An MCC-cylinder is the
minimum circumscribed cylinder around all measuring points. See figure 7.

Note: The method applies to external surfaces (shafts).

8
 MCC (Minimum Circumscribed Circle):
A minimum circumscribed circle is calculated and its centre point determined

Figure 7

MIC - Maximum Inscribed Circle

The maximum inscribed circle is constituted by the largest circle possible to draw inside an
outline, and the centre of the inscribed circle will then be used for determining the radius
variation when evaluating roundness, and as datum for other evaluations. An MIC-cylinder is
analogously the maximum inscribed cylinder inside all measuring points. See figure 8.

Note: The method applies to internal surfaces (holes).

MIC (Maximum Inscribed Circle):

A maximum inscribed circle is calculated and its centre point determined

Figure 8

9
MZC Minimum Zone Circle
For evaluations using the minimum zone circle, the point is sought which provides the smallest
possible variation in radiuses between two concentric circles. The circles are constituted by an
inscribed circle and a circumscribed circle. The centre point of these circles constitutes the
starting point for the determination of radius variation, and serves as datum for other evaluations.
When measuring cylinders, that centreline is determined which provides the smallest possible
radius variation with regard to all collected measuring points along the entire cylinder.
See figure 9.

MZC (Minimum Zone Circles):

A maximum inscribed circle and a minimum circumscribed circle with the same centre and
forming a minimum zone is calculated Their centre point is determined

Figure 9

4.2 Evaluation of a straight line

When measuring in the axial direction, e.g. when measuring a generatrix, a calculation model is
selected in order to obtain a datum for the measurement. Usually there are at least two methods,
LSL and MZL, but some form-measuring machines may have more options, and one of those,
LSP, will also be described here.

LSL –Least Square Line

When measuring, a least square line is calculated using the least square method. With this datum
line as a starting point, the straightness deviations of the generatrix can be calculated. The least
square line will also serve as a datum at future evaluations. See figure 10

10
 LSL (Least Square Line):
An evaluation line is determined by the least square method. Highest and lowest point on
the generatrix is measured in 90° to the evaluation line and constitutes the straightness
deviation.

Figure 10

MZL –Minimum Zone Line

Two parallel lines with the smallest possible relative distance are inserted in such a way that they
just surround the measured generatrix. The distance between these datum lines constitute the
straightness deviation of the generatrix. The direction of these lines will also set out the direction
of the generatrix if it will be used as datum for future measurements. See figure 11.

MZL (Minimum Zone Line):

Figure 11

11
LSP – Least Square Parabola
Using some form-measuring machines, the shape of a generatrix that is not supposed to be
straight, but is rather constituted by a radius, can be measured. Instead of forming a straight least
square line, the LSP method is used to form a matching curve to the measured profile. The match
is made by using the least square method, and a “least square curve” serves as datum for the form
measurement. The form deviation is then evaluated as the distance between two lines running
alongside the least square curve, touching the lowest and highest points of the measured profile.
This is, in principle, a profile form measurement. See figure 12.

LSP (Least Square Parabel):

A ”mean curve” is determined as reference for evaluation of form deviation.

Figure 12

4.3 Recommendations for the selection of evaluation

methods.
The geometrical tolerance standards STD 5062,15 and STD 5062,2 contain definitions for both
form tolerances such as roundness, straightness and cylindricity, and for the way in which to
determine circles, generatrices and cylinders when they are to be used as datum for run-out,
coaxiality, etc. The definitions are based on principle and the standards therefore also contain
examples demonstrating the way in which evaluations may be carried out.

The different evaluation methods LSC, MCC, etc, are not standardized on a detail level, and the
operator and manufacturer of the form-measuring machines may therefore have a significant
influence on the measuring results.

Centre for datum

When determining a centre point to serve as datum for geometrical tolerances, the MCC method
is standardized for external features whereas the MIC method applies for internal ones. Both
methods are based on tangential points, which means that only the extreme points will provide
measures for the position of the feature. In addition to the difficulties in finding the extreme
points, the methods will also make the measuring procedure hard to repeat. The smallest
movement of the stylus tip results in the origin of a new extreme point or the elimination of
another, which could cause great differences with regard to the centre position of the feature.

12
Dirt particles, occasional surface defects, etc, can also cause serious measuring errors. In many
machines, such points can be eliminated, but in others the measurement will have to be repeated.
In these cases, as when there are heavy requirements on correspondence at comparisons, etc, the
LSC method may prove useful. If, for instance, the reason for a leakage shall be investigated, the
MCC method can sometimes provide useful information. A datum circle evaluated as minimum
circumscribed circle can then simulate the mating part, and the roundness value will provide a
measure of the extent to which the radius in the tangential points differs from the radius where
the largest “clearance” to the mating part is. In the same way, the MIC method can provide useful
information on the function of an internal diameter, a hole.

Form measuring
When measuring radial form tolerances, measuring principle I, the evaluation shall be based on
that centre which gives the smallest variation in radius. This means that the MZC method shall be
applied when determining roundness and cylindricty, if measuring principle I applies.

When conducting axial measuring of straightness on a generatrix, the MZL method applies in the
same way according to standard when measuring principle I is indicated. However, a least square
line, LSL, can also be of use here if occasional defects disturb the measuring process.

Least square circles and lines

Evaluations of least square circles in accordance with the LSC method have the advantage of
being insensitive to individual extreme points, and generating similar results in several
evaluations. The LSC method is often also the only calculation option available in older form-
measuring machines or coordinate-measuring machines. Calculation of least square circle does
not comply with the definitions stated in the standard for geometrical tolerances.

Conclusion
- MZC and MZL correspond best to the definitions when measuring form in accordance
with measuring principle I.
- MCC corresponds best to the definition when determining centre position for an external
datum feature.
- MIC correspond best to the definition when determining centre position for an internal
datum feature.

In some cases, other methods than the standardized ones can be suitable, but it is important that it
is clarified with the assignor and in reports that, and why, a standardized method has not been
applied.

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5. Filtering
5.1 Introduction
This section covers stylus tips, measuring speed, number of measuring points and electronic
filters.

During measuring, the deviations are filtered in various ways. The shape and size of the stylus tip
will bring about a purely mechanical filtering, and the signal is filtered into the measuring
machine via an electronic filter.

Before any measuring is initiated, the question –which errors are in demand? is important. Filters
are intended to reduce the influence of non-relevant surface defects or form errors on the
measuring object, and can be regarded as an aid in clearly defining the type of errors that is of
interest. When used incorrectly, the effect may be the opposite and an interesting error may be
erased.

The measured profile normally consists of several different components superimposed each
other. The profile can be divided into form –long wavelengths, waviness – medium wavelengths
and surface roughness – short wavelengths. Modern form-measuring machines offer a variety of
filtering options in order to separate these components.

As a guideline, a deviation with a wavelength of 0,8 mm or more is regarded part of the form
deviations, and these components are consequently normally included in form measurements
with a form-measuring machine. According to ISO, deviations below 0,8 mm are referred to as
surface structure. Deviations exceeding 0,8 mm are referred to as waviness, and the boundary
between waviness and form is as of yet not established.

The following page contains a fundamental description of the way in which to select measuring
conditions for different types of measurements.

14
 What kind of deviations of the surface is interesting?
What is the function of the surface?

SURFACE WAVINESS FORM

ROUGHNESS medium wavelength long wavelength
short wavelength part of form measurements
but does also influence
surface roughness
measurements

Surface roughness Form Form

Can to some extent be a part
of surface roughness

15
5.2 Stylus tip radius
The form and dimension of the stylus tip affects the results of the measurement to varying extents
since the tip works as a mechanical filter. Spherical tips with a diameter ranging from 1-5 mm are
normally included as standard equipment when a measuring machine is delivered.

In principle, a stylus tip radius shall be sufficiently small for deviations with a wavelength of 0,8
mm to be recorded. Minor errors in form are detected with a small stylus tip radius where a large
tip radius cannot reach, as shown in figures 13-16. Measuring will, however, be less stable, the
tip “springs” more easily and less pressure can be exerted while measuring.

Figure 13

16
A theoretical example of the purely mechanical differences that can arise when sensing surfaces
is shown below. The example is based on one, not entirely realistic, serrated profile, and
calculations have been made with regard to the difference between the tip radiuses 0,5 and 1,5
mm.

Thereafter follows a practical example with measurements using different tips.

Figure 14

Basic data:

S = 1 mm

As ball radiuses, r, 0,5 and 1,5 mm are used.

H is set to the following values: 0,005 mm, 0,01 mm, 0,02 mm, 0,03 mm, 0,05 mm, 0,075 mm
and 0,1 mm

The following calculations are used:

H
The angle α is calculated as: tan α =
0,5 S

r
Y (position of ball centre at its lowest) is calculated as: Y =
cos α

X (position of ball centre at its highest) is calculated as: X = H + r

The vertical movement of ball when measuring will be X-Y

Results are reported in the following page.

17
Results when H = 0,005

Movement

The difference between ballradius 0,5 and 1,5 mm is ~ 0,00005

Movement with radius 1,5 is ~99 % of the movement with radius 0,5

Results when H = 0,01

Movement

The difference between ballradius 0,5 and 1,5 mm is ~ 0,0002

Movement with radius 1,5 is ~98 % of the movement with radius 0,5

Results when H = 0,05

Movement

The difference between ballradius 0,5 and 1,5 mm is ~ 0,005

Movement with radius 1,5 is ~89,5 % of the movement with radius 0,5

Results when H = 0,1

Movement

The difference between ballradius 0,5 and 1,5 mm is ~ 0,0198

Movement with radius 1,5 is ~78 % of the movement with radius 0,5

18
Conclusion from these calculations
The example using the depth 0,1 and serrated shape is rather unrealistic. The results show,
however, that the differences between different radiuses increase absolutely as well as relatively
along with the increase of the depth H.

A practical example: the figures 15 and 16 show the results from the measurement of straightness
of a coarse-honed surface with a filter of 0,8 waves/mm. Figure 15 shows the outcome of
measurements using a spherical stylus tip with a diameter of 3,0. Figure 16 shows the outcome of
measurements using a spherical stylus tip with a diameter of 1,0.

Figure 15 Spherical tip Ø 3,0

Figure 16 Spherical tip Ø 1,0

19
Using the smaller stylus tip, the downward valleys with relatively small wavelengths will be
easier to detect than when the larger tip is used. In the example, a generatrix has been measured
and the straightness deviation increases form 2,68 µm to 2,90 µm, ~8,2 % when the tip radius
decreases from 1,5 to 0,5 mm.

Guidelines for tip selection

Since a wavelength of 0,8 mm is normally considered to be a boundary between surface and

form, the tip radius must be relatively small in order to cover this area.

Within ISO, it is indicated for a number of materials as default case, i.e. unless otherwise stated,
that the tip radius for radial measuring shall be 0,5 mm except for very small diameters, ∅ 4 mm
and smaller, where 0,3 mm is indicated.

For axial measuring such as straightness, tip radius is connected to electronic filter and measuring
length, see table 3 and 4, section 5.5.

At times there may be reason to abandon these stylus tip radiuses, see section 5.6, but this should
bee agreed upon and recorded by measurement engineers and the assignor.

5.3 Measuring points – Measuring speed

Measuring speed is the distance between the measuring points in mm when measuring
straightness. For polar measurements, it is the angle value between the measuring points, which
means that the distance varies along with the diameter of the measuring object. The measuring
speed can affect the measuring results rather significantly in some processing methods if filter
with high waviness frequency (exceeding 50 waves/360 degrees) is used. Filters with less than 50
waves/360 degrees do not cause any noticeable difference.

5.4 Electronic filtering

When measuring form, an electronic filter is connected in order to ensure that deviations are
divided in such a way that desired deviations are included in the form calculation while undesired
ones are attenuated. These filters may be of various kinds. Modern filters are digital and often
have phase correction. Phase correct filters are profile filters which do not cause any phase
displacement leading to asymmetric profile distortions in accordance with STD 5068,812. Most
common is the “Gaussian filter”.

Older and less technically advanced instruments often have only one filter, normally referred to
as the 2CR filter. Characteristic for such a filter is that a phase distortion occurs, which in
particular can be seen from asymmetric deviations with small wavelengths. A single deep valley
can with such a filter be perceived as an S-shaped deviation, i.e., part of the amplitude of the
deviation is placed on the diagram as a peak instead of showing the entire deviation as the valley
it really is. Unless there are special circumstances, the Gaussian filter shall be used if available in
the instrument.

20
The filters work in such a way that the wavelengths of the deviations are continuously calculated
and assessed as frequency/rotation. Gaussian filtering attenuates the set filter so that 50 % of the
deviation amplitude passes through the filter at a frequency equalling the limit value of the filter.

There is often the option of reversed filtering. With a bandpass filter, both upper and lower limits
are established so that deviations with frequencies ranging within these limits are allowed to pass
through.

Attention must be paid to the fact that the function of the electronic filters can interact with the
tip radius. A larger radius can have the effect that, in the limit zone of the selected filter, a
deviation may be perceived as having a larger wavelength than is actually the case, allowing the
wavelength to pass through the filter to a higher degree than it otherwise would. In this way, a
larger tip radius can actually in some cases, due to the function of the filter, cause a greater form
deviation than a smaller tip radius would.

Below is a graphic demonstration of the way in which filtering works in principle. In figure 17, a
circle has been recorded with a very small stylus tip and with an electronic filter allowing also
small deviations to pass through; filter 1-500. The recorded deviations are surface deviations,
waviness deviations and pure roundness deviations in the shape of an ovality.

Figure 18 shows the same measurement but with a larger stylus tip. Surface deviations are not
recorded at all, but they are filtered off mechanically. Using the electronic filter 1-150, waviness
and out-of-roundness remain.
The last picture, figure 19, shows a measurement using the larger stylus tip and the electronic
filter 1-15. This filter attenuates waviness since it is of such a frequency that the deviation occurs
approximately 50-55 times during each rotation. Only ovality remains.

21
 Figure 17 : A circle measured with
small tip radius and filter 1 - 500

Figure 19 : Same circle measured with

Figure 18 : Same circle measured with
big tip radius and filter 1 - 15
big tip radius and filter 1 - 150

22
5.5. Guide to filter selection
When selecting filters for radial measuring, e.g. roundness, the measuring object diameter should
determine the filter selection. One wavelength of a deviation will generate a larger number of
waves/rotation if the diameter increases.

Table 1 provides guidelines for the selection of filters unless otherwise agreed or specified.

Table 2 specifies the number of measuring points connected to different filters.

Table 1
Selecting filters for radial measuring

Diameter of objekt Waves / revolution

Table 2

Parameters associated
with filters
Waves / Number
revolution of points

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When selecting filters for axial measurements such as straightness, the selection of filter and
stylus tip radius is determined by the measuring length, unless otherwise agreed or specified.

Table 3 provides guidelines for filter selection and stylus tip radius as default case.

Note that these values may be difficult to attain in some instruments. If the measuring lengths are
very long, the number of points may be so large that the computer capacity is not sufficient for
processing them, and it becomes necessary to abandon the guidelines and use a larger filter than
that which is specified in the table. It is important to report such exceptions when presenting the
measuring results!

Table 4 specifies the maximum distance between measuring points and the maximum tip radiuses
connected to different filters, including filter sizes other than those indicated in table 3.

Table 3
Measuring length in mm

From Up to and Filter Tip radius

including mm

Table 4
Filters associated with tip radius and spacing between points
Max tip radius Filter Max spacing between
mm measuring points, in mm

24
5.6 Other bases for filter selection
When selecting filters, an assessment is made of the type of deviations to be included in the
measuring. There may be grounds, as agreed with the assignor, to use tips and/or filters other than
those commonly used.

Many form measurements are carried out without any direct form requirements being specified.
This may concern the recording of form when diameter measurements demonstrate great
variation, or serve as a basis for production-engineering work such as determining which pressure
can be used in a chuck without causing the diameter to be out-of-roundness to an extent where
there is a risk of exceeding the dimensional tolerances. In the abovementioned case, only macro-
geometric properties are of interest. A filter is therefore selected that eliminates the impact of
surface and waviness deviations, perhaps 15 or 50 waves per rotation as upper limit.

Also when measuring radial run-out or coaxiality, it may be useful to select a filter with a
relatively low upper limit: 15 or 50 waves/rotation. This is to attain a result that does not deviate
too much from a measuring result obtained with coordinate measuring machines or with
instruments specified in standards for geometrical measuring principles. Deviations with respect
to waviness are normally not included in these instruments.

Small high-frequency vibrations often occur during measuring. Since the measuring force is
directed 90° to the tangent of the point where the measuring occurs, while the friction between
stylus tip and measuring object is directed parallel with the tangent, such a vibration in the stylus
tip can disturb the measurement. A filter can then help damping the vibrations and eliminate
these from the measuring result. It is often enough to connect a filter with a permeability of 150
waves/rotation to eliminate such vibrations.

When calibrating the form on setting masters such as setting rings or setting gauges, it is wise to
choose the same stylus ball radius in each step. This means that the stylus tip radius of the
instrument set with the master also controls which radius is used when calibrating the master,
both with regard to dimension and form. This rule cannot be applied in full since the same radius
is not always available in all instruments. In such cases, a tip with the nearest smaller radius than
that used when setting instruments to the master shall be selected for form measurements.

Apart from the previously established guidelines it is, however, important to agree with the
assignor on using particular stylus tip radiuses and/or filters.

25
6 Examples, general measuring cases
The examples 6.1-6.9 demonstrate general measuring cases, the interpretation of which has been
aided by available standards.

6.1 Straightness for generatrix

Definition

The tolerance zone projection in one plane is limited by two parallel straight lines with the
relative distance t.

Measuring strategy
The tolerance zone is applicable for generatrices, edges and specified sections in surfaces.
Straightness for generatrices is a form requirement which does not require any additional external
datums. A basic alignment should, however, be done in order to ensure that the right section is
measured along the entire length.
The measuring extends over the entire toleranced feature on the required number of sections.

Factors to consider
The measuring object must be aligned parallel to the stylus tip movement.

If the purpose of the measurement is to make a comparison between different processing

methods, the number of measuring points, filter selection and stylus tip radius are important.

26
6.2 Flatness

Definition

The tolerance zone is limited by two parallel planes with the relative distance t.

Measuring strategy
Flatness is a pure form requirement and does not require a datum feature. An alignment should,
however, be made with regard to the toleranced feature in order to ensure that the measuring
range of the sensor is sufficient. The measurement shall be performed on a required number of
flatness sections along the entire toleranced feature. Each section is evaluated separately.

Factors to consider
When flatness sections are measured on the same radius, problems may arise if the toleranced
feature is conical. If so, the flatness deviation will remain undetected. Only the deviation in the
single section will be presented. The larger the surface, the bigger the risk. It may be appropriate
to use an alternative method in such cases. The measuring is performed on a required number of
generatrices along the entire toleranced feature. The influence of alignment errors is described in
section 3 Alignment.

27
6.3 Roundness

Definition

In the concerned plane, the tolerance zone is limited by two concentric circles with the relative
radial distance t.

Measuring strategy
Roundness is a form requirement and does not require a datum.

The influence of alignment errors is described in chapter 3 Alignment.

The measuring is performed in a required number of generatrices along the entire toleranced
feature.
Each section is evaluated separately.

28
6.4 Cylindricity

Definition

The tolerance zone is limited by two coaxial cylinders with the relative distance t (see picture).

Measuring strategy
Cylindricity is a form requirement and does not require a datum.

The influence of alignment errors is described in chapter 3 Alignment

The measuring is performed in a required number of sections, however no less than two, along
the entire toleranced feature.

Note: The concept cylindricity tolerance covers roundness and straightness tolerance as well as
parallelism for the opposite generatrix.

Factors to consider
The sensor may not be moved along the R-axis in between measurements included in the
evaluation of cylindricity. This is to prevent potential positioning errors in the R-axis from
influencing the results.

29
6.5 Perpendicularity on generatrices

Definition

Datum plane

The tolerance zone projection in one plane is limited by two parallel straight lines, perpendicular
to the datum plane and with the relative distance t, if the tolerance has been specified in one
direction only.

Measuring strategy
According to the tolerance definition applied within Volvo, the datum shall be evaluated as
tangential planes. Since the form-measuring machine uses points, the alignment and evaluations
should resemble the actual plane insofar as possible. In practice, the mean plane is often used;
paying consideration to the sources of errors this may give rise to.

30
6.6 Perpendicularity on centreline

Definition

Datum plane

The tolerance zone is limited by a cylinder, perpendicular to the datum plane, with the diameter t
if the tolerance value is preceded by the symbol ∅.

Measuring strategy
According to the tolerance definition applied within Volvo, the datum shall be evaluated as
tangential planes. Since the form-measuring machine uses points, the alignment and evaluations
should resemble the actual plane insofar as possible. In practice, the mean plane is often used;
paying consideration to the sources of errors this may give rise to.

For the evaluation of the toleranced feature, there are sometimes two in principle different
methods:

Method 1: When determining an imaginary feature such as a centreline, the Volvo standard
5062,2 states than an evaluation in general shall be done as maximum inscribed/minimum
circumscribed cylinder. Applications of this can be found in section 4 Evaluation methods.

In a form-measuring machine, this can be simulated by measuring a cylinder; in the example the
minimum circumscribed cylinder, and evaluating coaxiality for the centreline of this cylinder.
Sometimes the designation Coaxiality in accordance with ISO is used for this evaluation.

Method 2: As an alternative, another type of coaxiality evaluation may be used, in which a

cylinder formed by a number of circular sections is evaluated, and the centre point of each section
is evaluated in relation to the datum line. Double the distance from the datum line to the centre
point of individual sections is determined.
The largest of these values is presented, sometimes referred to as Coaxiality in accordance with
DIN, and this will correspond to a measurement where the toleranced feature is not measured as a
cylinder but as concentricity in a number of sections. This evaluation ensures that form deviations
on the cylinder centreline are included in the coaxiality evaluation.

Note: Compare to section 6.8, which is similar from a measuring strategy point of view.

Factors to consider

This type of perpendicularity is normally measured as circular sections along the measuring axle.
Depending on the geometry of the measuring object, the measurement can be carried out also by
measuring on generatrices.

31
6.7 Angularity on generatrix

Definition

Datum line

The projection of the tolerance zone in one plane is limited by two parallel straight lines with the
relative distance t, inclined at a specific angle to the datum line.

Measuring strategy
According to the tolerance definition, the datum for an axis shall be evaluated as the minimum
circumscribed cylinder, and for a hole as the maximum inscribed cylinder.

Factors to consider
In order to complete the calculation, the instruments must be calibrated with regard to the length
and angles of the sensor arm. These data are indicated manually or calculated automatically by
the form-measuring machine. It is important that these conditions do not change during the
measuring process.

32
6.8 Coaxiality
Toleranced centre line
Definition

Datum line

The tolerance zone is limited by a cylinder with the diameter t, the centre line of which coincides
with the datum line.

If both the toleranced feature and the datum feature are constituted by circles, e.g. in a defined
section, the tolerance is instead a concentricity tolerance. In software, the measuring of circles is
usually referred to as concentricity, whereas the measuring of cylinders is referred to as
coaxiality.

Drawing requirements

Measuring strategy
The datum is constituted by a centreline determined through an evaluation of the maximum
inscribed cylinder in the hole. When determining the datum, the number of sections measured
must be sufficiently large to ensure an accurate determination of direction.

For the evaluation of the toleranced feature, there are sometimes two in principle different
methods:

Method 1: When determining an imaginary feature such as a centreline, the Volvo standard
5062,2 states than an evaluation in general shall be done as maximum inscribed/minimum
circumscribed cylinder.

33
In a form-measuring machine, this can be simulated by measuring a cylinder; in the example the
minimum circumscribed cylinder, and evaluating coaxialtiy for the centreline of this cylinder.
Sometimes the designation Coaxiality in accordance with ISO is used for this evaluation.

Method 2: As an alternative, another type of coaxiality evaluation may be used, in which a

cylinder formed by a number of circular sections is evaluated, and the centre point of each section
is evaluated in relation to the datum line. Double the distance from the datum line to the centre
point of individual sections is determined.

The largest of these values is presented, sometimes referred to as Coaxiality in accordance with
DIN, and this will correspond to a measurement where the toleranced feature is not measured as a
cylinder but as concentricity in a number of sections. This evaluation ensures that form deviations
on the cylinder centreline are included in the coaxiality evaluation.

Note: Compare to section 6.6, which is similar from a measuring strategy point of view.

Factors to consider

Coaxiality is evaluated as double the distance between the datum line and the centreline of the
toleranced feature, measured from the point where the distance is at its largest.

An alignment of the feature requires levelling. If, for a concentricity tolerance, the datum is a
circle, it cannot be used for levelling the part. This means that a surface or a cylinder which does
not constitute a datum must be used for alignment. There is a risk of differences in measurements
occurring if the alignment is not controlled by some agreed measuring method!

34
6.9 Radial run-out – circular
Toleranced feature

Definition

Measuring plane

In each measuring plane, the tolerance zone is perpendicular to the datum axis, limited by two
concentric circles with the relative distance t, the tolerance, the centre of which coincides with
the datum line.

Drawing requirements

Measuring strategy
The datum line normally consists of the centreline of a cylinder, determined as the maximum
inscribed cylinder for a hole and as the minimum circumscribed cylinder for a shaft.

When measuring a toleranced feature, circles which have been evaluated separately are
measured. The result of each single section is constituted by the difference between the greatest
distance from the datum line to a single measuring point and the shortest distance from the datum
line to a single measuring point.

This evaluation agrees completely with the definition of radial run-out.

35
The datum can also be indicated as two features, either as a line formed by two cylinders or as a
system with a plane as primary and a cylinder as secondary datum.

Example 1: A radial run-out with two cylinders as datum.

In example 1, the datum line is constituted by the centreline of two coaxial cylinders
circumscribing the datums A and B.

If the software only permits elements such as circles, cylinders, etc to be formed by measuring
points, two circles are measured, one for each datum feature. The circles are measured in the
centre of each datum feature, axially.

A cylinder is formed using the LSC method to evaluate the measuring points obtained when
measuring circles. Especially in cases where one cylinder is a minor diameter while the other one
is major, it is recommended to use the LSC evaluation method.

36
Example 2: A radial run-out with a surface as primary and a cylinder as secondary datum.

The plane B is used for levelling the part, and as datum plane when measuring the secondary
datum. When determining the secondary datum, it is recommended to do so using a section
located in the centre of cylinder A, axially. Normally, a datum line is then obtained, which is
perpendicular to B and coincides with the, against B circumscribed, cylinder for diameter A.

Factors to consider

In modern form-measuring machines, radial run-out measuring is a very thorough method.

Some consideration must, however, be paid to the way in which software forms datum lines,
particularly in cases where more than one geometric feature is included as datum for a
requirement. Problems may arise here if the alignments and datum formations are not based on
centrelines but on measuring points in the software. If the measurements are small, attention has
to be paid to stylus tip radius, and the filter used has a significant impact.

37
6.10 Axial run-out
Cylindrical tolerance zone

Definition

For each radius, the tolerance zone is limited by two circles with the relative distance t, located in
a cylindrical tolerance zone, the centre of which coincides with the datum axis.

Measuring strategy

The datum for a shaft is constituted by the minimum circumscribed cylinder, and for a hole by
the maximum inscribed cylinder.

The measurement is performed on a required number of radial measuring circles. Each measuring
circle (section) is evaluated separately.

Note: Axial run-out measuring covers in each section both potential angle errors and flatness
deviation, but not taper or other symmetric nonuniformity.

38
6.11 Total run-out – radial

Definition

The tolerance zone is limited by two coaxial cylinders with the relative distance t, the centrelines
of which coincide with the datum line.

Measuring strategy
According to the tolerance definition, the datum for a shaft shall be evaluated as the minimum
circumscribed cylinder, and for a hole as the maximum inscribed cylinder.

The measuring of the toleranced feature can be performed either in the form of round sections
(roundness measuring), or in the form of generatrices (straightness measuring).

In both cases, the measuring must be performed on a required number of sections, no less than
two, however, along the entire toleranced feature.

Note: Radial measuring of total run-out includes roundness, radial run-out and diameter
variation.

Factors to consider
The sensor may not be moved along the R-axis in between measurements that are part of the
evaluation of total run-out. Thos is to prevent potential positioning errors in the R-axis from
affecting the results.

39
6.12 Total run-out – axial

Definition

The tolerance zone is limited by two parallel planes with the relative distance t, perpendicular to
the datum axis.

Measuring strategy
According to the tolerance definition, the datum for a shaft shall be evaluated as the minimum
circumscribed cylinder, and for a hole as the maximum inscribed cylinder.

The measuring of the toleranced feature can be done either in the form of round sections
(roundness measurement), or in the form of generatrices (straightness measurement).

In both cases, the measuring must be performed on a required number of sections, no less than
two, however, along the entire toleranced feature.

Note: Axial measuring of total run-out includes flatness, axial run-out and perpendicularity.

Factors to consider
The sensor may not be moved along the Z-axis in between measurements that are part of the
evaluation of total run-out. This is to prevent potential positioning errors in the Z-axis from
affecting the results.

40
7 Examples, general measuring cases
Examples 7.1 and 7.2 show specific measuring cases that have been interpreted without access to
unambiguous definitions in available standards.

7.1 Evaluation of straightness on centreline

Most form-measuring machines of a roundness measuring type lack the ability to evaluate
centreline straightness. On the other hand, the centre points of a number of sections can be
determined, which means that all information required for such an evaluation can be collected. A
description of how to carry out your own straightness evaluation on a centreline using software
will now follow.
STD 5062,2 contains the following definition of straightness: The tolerance zone is limited by a
cylinder of diameter t if the tolerance value is preceded by the sign ∅.

The letter t refers to the tolerance value indicated in the tolerance rectangle, and since the
tolerance zone is cylindrical, the form deviations are limited in all directions, as opposed to
straightness on a generatrix, which limits straightness deviations in one direction only.

A drawing of a function gauge can look like this:

The software of a modern form-measuring machine normally offers the opportunity of measuring
the toleranced cylinder in a number of measuring sections, which are stored. These measuring
sections can then be tied together to form a cylinder to be used as datum for evaluations. Since
the centre position of individual measuring sections can be determined using the same cylinder as
datum, it is possible to evaluate the straightness deviation of the cylinder.

41
Recommendations when evaluating straightness on a centreline
Method 1: Evaluation of coaxiality/concentricity with toleranced feature as its own datum
feature.

It is often easy to let a computer program calculate coaxiality of a centreline using itself as
datum. When a cylinder has been formed, coaxiality or, alternatively, concentricity is calculated
for the measuring sections that together form the cylinder. This evaluation is normally
sufficiently accurate, but there may be cases when the value obtained is too large.
When calculating coaxiality and concentricity, the measuring value is given as double the
distance between the centre of a single measuring section and the calculated datum centreline. In
some cases, a centreline can have an asymmetrical form deviation resulting in one of the sections
being more eccentric than the others. In software where the datum cylinder is formed by the
measuring points, or where the datum line is formed by the centre points using the LSC method
of evaluation, too large values are then obtained when calculating coaxiality or concentricity.

Section 1
Section 2
Section 3 Section 11

In the example above, a cylinder has been measured with 11 measuring sections. If a datum line
is formed using the LSC method, it will lie close to centre points 1 –10, whereas section 11 will
deviate severely from the datum line.
Since coaxiality is calculated as double the eccentricity, twice the dimension e, section 11 will
bring about a measuring value significantly larger than the actual straightness deviation, see
figure 20.

42
 Distance e

Centre line for

cylinder

Datum calculated as
Least Square
Figure 20

Instead, the actual straightness deviation is diameter d in figure 21.

Diameter d

Figure 21

43
Method 2: Evaluation of eccentricity for single sections with a datum line formed by two
extreme points.

If, after the different centre sections have been measured, an image of the cylinder is produced
and two of the sections are selected as datum, it is usually possible to obtain a datum resulting in
the eccentricity of the poorest of the remaining sections being the equal to the straightness
deviation.

In this example, we can choose to form a datum of the sections 1 and 11, and evaluate the
eccentricity of the remaining sections. Note that the eccentricity value is not doubled here, but the
condition for the method is that two sections giving an accurate datum can be found. If the
selection of sections for the datum is difficult to make on the basis of the graphical presentation
of the instrument, it is often more reliable to allow the computer to form a datum of all sections
and then evaluate concentricity as described in method 1.

Excentricity for section with worst deviation –

straightness

Centre line for cylinder

Datum determined by
sections 1 and 11

Figure 22

44
Method 3: Manual plotting in polar diagram

When a number of sections have been measured and the datum has been formed as a cylinder of
all sections, the position of the centre of the individual sections can usually be obtained. If a
coaxiality/concentricity evaluation results in one of the sections displaying a value clearly poorer
than the others, these positions can be plotted in a diagram. Such plotting is, however, time-
consuming.

The position of the sections is often presented as eccentricity from the datum line in combination
with an angle or as X and Y-coordinates. In the diagram, all centre positions are marked with an
x. When the centre positions are plotted, a circumscribed circle can be drawn in the diagram
around all centre markings and, with the given grade of enlargement, the diameter of this can be
calculated. As a result, the straightness deviation is obtained. See picture 6.

In the diagram in figure 23, the centre positions for the 11 sections are marked with an x. Section
11 deviates significantly. A circumscribed circle around all centre points has been drawn and the
size of this, with respect to selected grade of enlargement, is measured in the diagram and
constitutes the straightness deviation.

45
Conclusion
A correct assessment of the straightness deviation on the centreline is often lacking in the
software of an instrument. By measuring a number of sections and using a cylinder formed from
these as datum for the centre position of the same sections, straightness can be evaluated. In most
cases, the program calculation of coaxiality/concentricity can be used as approximation of the
straightness deviation, but if the form deviations are asymmetric, it may be necessary to either
find a datum of two sections so that the poorest section, measured from this line, gives an
eccentricity agreeing with the straightness deviation. If it is difficult to find two such sections,
manual plotting in the diagram and manual determination based on the diagram may be required
for a determination of straightness deviation.

46
7.2 Evaluation of roundness for a circle segment
When looking to avoid local variations in radius, for instance on a bearing race for needle rollers,
the requirement can be set for a part of the circle as a supplement or alternative to measuring the
roundness of the entire feature.
In the example below, it has been specified, as a supplement to roundness 0,008 for the entire
outline, that the roundness deviation on a 30° sector may not exceed 0,002 mm. The requirement
means that the largest permissible ovality is 0,008, while the waviness within 30° may not exceed
0,002.

Since a roundness requirement is a requirement on the maximum permissible radius variation, it

is important that the centre from which the variations in radius are to be measured is clearly
defined. For the requirement along the entire outline, the standard means that the centre shall be
determined as the point from which the difference in radius is as small as possible, the MZ
method. For the partial requirement 0,002 / 30°, there may be several interpretations:

Interpretation A:
All segments of the circle have the same centre, which equals the centre of the entire outline.
In the figure above, all circle sectors have the same centre, and the sectors are arbitrarily selected
and shall also overlap each other.
Such an interpretation is applied in Germany, but is not yet included in ISO 1101.

Circle segment requirement,

fixed centre

47
Interpretation B:
All circle segments have the centre best suited for the segment in question.

Each segment is then fitted into a theoretical sector with an optional centre. The interpretation is
based on the presumption that roundness can be regarded as a particular case of straightness,
where the straight line has been bent into a circle.

Circle segment requirement,

variable centre

Conclusion
Both interpretations may be correct, but they are not entirely comparable.

For interpretation A there are several measuring instruments to choose from, and it is relatively
easy to evaluate the requirement from a polar diagram.

Evaluation in accordance with interpretation B can be done using some form-measuring

instruments. Using a coordinate-measuring machine, the requirement can be evaluated as a
requirement on profile form. Also some profile-measuring machines can evaluate the requirement
in accordance with interpretation B.

Recommendations for roundness on parts of a circle

Requirement specification and measuring in accordance with international norms should be an
objective to strive for. There are no unambiguous evaluation rules for partial roundness. We
recommend that interpretation A with fixed radius centre shall apply unless otherwise stated,
since this interpretation is the best renowned method internationally. Interpretation B, with a
floating centre, can easily be expressed using profile form for partial circle.

Make clear with the orderer/designer what intentions lie behind the requirement.

48