IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 3, NO.
3, SEPTEMBER 2012
Supplementary Load Frequency Control by
Use of a Number of Both Electric Vehicles and
Heat Pump Water Heaters
Taisuke Masuta, Student Member, IEEE, and Akihiko Yokoyama, Member, IEEE
Abstract—A large integration of renewable energy sources such
as wind power generation and photovoltaic generation causes some
problems in power systems, e.g., distribution voltage rise and fre-
quency fluctuation. Battery energy storage system (BESS) is one of
the effective solutions to these problems. Due to a high cost of the
BESS, an application of controllable loads such as electric vehicle
(EV) and heat pump water heater (HPWH) to the power system
control is considered in this paper for reduction of the required
capacity of the BESS. This paper proposes a new supplementary
load frequency control (LFC) method by use of a number of both
the EVs and the HPWHs as controllable loads. The effectiveness of
the proposed LFC method is shown by numerical simulations con-
ducted on the power system model with a large integration of wind
power generation and photovoltaic generation.
Index Terms—Electric vehicle (EV), heat pump water heater
(HPWH), load frequency control (LFC), photovoltaic generation,
power system, smart grid, vehicle-to-grid (V2G), wind power
generation.
I. INTRODUCTION
I N RECENT years, from the viewpoints of global warming
countermeasures and energy security, it has been expected
to install a large amount of generation from renewable energy
sources such as wind power generation and photovoltaic gener-
ation into the power systems in Japan. In addition, this trend
has been strengthened by the nuclear problem caused by the
2011 Tohoku earthquake. It is necessary for Japan to estab-
lish a smart grid as a power system with a large integration of
renewable energy sources. However, it causes some problems
in power systems, e.g., frequency fluctuation and distribution
voltage rise, and the battery energy storage system (BESS) is
one of the effective solutions to these problems. Due to the high
cost of the BESS, applications of customers’ appliances to the
power system control in replacement of a part of BESS have
gained much attention [1]. One of the representative examples
of such applications is vehicle-to-grid (V2G), which is a con-
cept of the charging and discharging control between a number
of electric vehicles (EVs) and the power system [2]–[4]. [2] ap-
plied V2G to load frequency control (LFC) and evaluated the
Manuscript received July 30, 2011; revised December 07, 2011; accepted
March 31, 2012. Date of publication May 24, 2012; date of current version Au-
gust 20, 2012. Paper no. TSG-00289-2011.
T. Masuta is with the Department of Electrical Engineering and Information
Systems, University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan (e-mail: masuta@syl.t.u-
tokyo.ac.jp).
A. Yokoyama is with the Department of Advanced Energy, University of
Tokyo, Chiba 272-8581, Japan (e-mail: yokoyama@syl.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TSG.2012.2194746
1949-3053/$31.00 © 2012 IEEE
1253
system frequency fluctuation based on dynamic power system
simulation. [3] proposed an automatic generation control (AGC)
method with EVs and analyzed the dynamic power system be-
havior due to a given disturbance. [4] presented a method for
tracking a control signal (LFC signal) by not only EVs but also
other controllable loads. Unlike [2] or [3], the system frequency
was not analyzed in [4]. The mobility behavior of EVs was well
considered in [4] while it was not in [2] or [3]. Although the
frequency regulation with EVs or other controllable loads were
examined in [2]–[4], they did not focus on how to dispatch the
LFC signal for the whole power system.
Our research group has developed power system control
methods by use of plenty of customers’ appliances such as EV
and heat pump water heaters (HPWH), as well as dispatching
methods of the LFC signal [5]–[9]. These new appliances have
energy storages such as battery or hot water tank. They are
conceived as controllable loads because the power consumption
can be changed during battery charging and discharging or
water heating as long as the charging or heating is completed
when the customer would like to use them. In the previous
researches [5]–[7], supplementary LFC methods by use of
either the EVs or the HPWHs were respectively proposed.
This paper proposes a new coordinated LFC method by use
of a number of both the EVs and the HPWHs. In this method,
the LFC signal is dispatched to the conventional power plants,
the BESS, the EVs, and the HPWHs according to the response
speed and the controllable capacity. The effectiveness of the
proposed LFC method is shown by numerical simulations con-
ducted on the power system model with a large integration of
wind power generation and photovoltaic generation. Moreover,
the impact of the proposed method on reduction of the required
inverter capacity of BESS is evaluated.
II. SIMULATION MODEL
The frequency analysis model used in the simulation is shown
in Fig. 1. This model consists of an equivalent generator model
[7], control system model, load fluctuation, output of renewable
energy sources, output of nuclear power plants, BESS model,
thermal power plant model [8], [9], EV model, and HPWH
model. The equivalent generator model has an inertia constant
equal to the sum of the inertia constants of all the gener-
ators. It is updated according to the total capacity of the con-
nected generators [7]. The load-damping constant is updated
according to the total load demand. The BESS model is shown
in Fig. 2. It is designed considering the inverter capacity and the
1254
Fig. 1. Frequency analysis model.
Fig. 2. BESS model.
battery capacity. The control and communication delay is ap-
proximated by the first-order model with one-second time delay
denoted by in Fig. 2. The charge/discharge efficiency of the
battery considering battery and inverter loss is determined to
be 81%. Because of the charging loss in the inverter and the
battery, the SOC of the BESS will decrease with time if it re-
ceives charging LFC signals and discharging ones at the same
frequency and the same magnitude.
A. Control System of EV and HPWH
Fig. 3 shows the control system configuration of EV and
HPWH assumed in this paper, which consists of a central load
dispatching center and a number of local control centers. The
control area of each local control center is the same size as that
of each distribution substation. A number of EVs and HPWHs
are under the control of the local control centers. A two-way
communication network is assumed. The information exchange
between the central load dispatching center and the EVs or the
HPWHs via the local control centers is described in the fol-
lowing subsections. The LFC dispatching method is presented
in Section III.
In this paper, the information-communication equipment for
LFC signals between a central load dispatching center and EVs
or HPWHs is assumed to have the same capability as the current
equipment between the central load dispatching center and the
thermal power plants. The hierarchical control system shown in
Fig. 3 can reduce a burden on communication by the aggrega-
tion of information in each layer. Such control is expected to
be realized with the widespread installation of high-speed lines
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 3, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 2012
Fig. 3. Control system configuration of EV and HPWH.
such as fiber to the home (FTTH) in the future. However, it is
important to evaluate the cost of the communication equipment
and to test it in terms of communication delay or communication
loss for the practical application of the proposed control method
in this paper.
It is necessary to give the incentives to the EV and HPWH
owners for the LFC. However, the objective in this paper is to
verify how to control well the controllable loads for the LFC
in advance of the consideration on the cost incentives of the
participants.
B. Lumped EV Model
In Japan, the average driving distance of a car is short and al-
most all the cars are parked. For example, the driving distances
of as much as 50% of cars per day are less than 30 [km] [10].
This situation is expected to be the same in the future with a
large penetration of EVs. Almost all the EVs are parked and
plugged into the grid. Once an EV is plugged in, the state of
charge (SOC) of its battery will become full within few hours
because the previous driving distance is not so long. For ex-
ample, if the driving distance of an EV per day is 30 [km]
(driving period: 1 [h]), it takes 2 [h] to charge with 3 [kW]
charger (distance per energy consumption: 5 [km/kWh]). That
is to say, the SOC changes during only 3 [h] per day and it stays
with full charge during 21 [h]. Therefore, it is assumed in this
paper that only the EVs which have already finished charging
up to 85% of SOC, as will hereinafter be described in detail, are
controlled. The type of EVs for LFC considered in this paper is
a passenger car. The EVs are charged up to 85% of SOC and
controlled in the range of of SOC. The lower limit
of 80% is determined by considering that the EV users would
like the SOC to be high at some level for the next trip. The upper
limit of 90% is determined by considering that the lifetime of the
battery becomes decrease by charging/discharging with nearly
100% of SOC. It is also assumed that the users themselves can
decide whether or not to participate in the LFC on daily base.
The EVs which the users require to be charged up to 100% of
SOC are not controlled.
In this paper, it is assumed that the inverter capacity of each
EV is 3 [kW]. Although the battery of an EV has the capability
to discharge more than 50 [kW] for rapid start or rapid accelera-
tion, the charging/discharging power is within for the
LFC in this paper. Moreover, the depth of discharge is small be-
cause charge/discharge in the LFC changes the SOC with small
amount. Therefore, the proposed control method does not give
MASUTA AND YOKOYAMA: SUPPLEMENTARY LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL 1255

Fig. 4. State transition of EV.

the bad impact on the lifetime of the battery so much [11], [12].
However, it is necessary to verify the lifetime by the proposed
control method in practical use.
Fig. 4 shows the state transition of the EV participating in the
Fig. 5. Lumped EV model.
LFC. Three states (driving state, charging state, and controllable
state) and three transitions (plug-out, plug-in, and control-in) are
assumed in this paper. An EV enters the driving state after it is
compensate for long term fluctuation such as load leveling but
plugged out for the trip (plug-out). It enters the charging state
to repeat charging and discharging frequently in LFC. The con-
to charge its battery after it is plugged in after the trip (plug-in).
trol and communication delay is approximated by the first-order
It enters the controllable state when the SOC is charged up to
model with one-second time delay denoted by in Fig. 5.
85% (control-in). The EVs participating in the LFC repeats to
The total inverter capacity of the controllable EVs
change the three states in a day. Each EV has different time at
is calculated by (1). is the average inverter capacity of
plug-out, plug-in, and control-in. As far as EV users are satisfied
the EVs and is the number of the controllable EVs
with 80% of SOCs of their EVs, the mobility behavior of them
calculated by (2). The EVs can be charged or discharged within
is compatible with the proposed control method, because they
as long as the SOCs are in the range of .
are controlled in the range of after charging up to 85%.
Fig. 5 shows the lumped EV model which stands for the dy-
(1)
namic behavior of all the controllable EVs in the considered
power system. This model is designed under the assumption
that the SOCs of all the controllable EVs in the power system (2)
are synchronized by the SOC synchronization control proposed
in [5], [6]. The local control centers collect the information on where is the initial number of the controllable EVs,
the SOC and the state (shown in Fig. 4) of each EV and grasp shows how often the EVs are controlled in, and
the number of the controllable EVs. In the SOC synchroniza- shows how often the EVs are plugged out.
tion control method, the charging and discharging priorities of This model also calculates the total stored energy of the con-
the EVs are determined according to their SOCs. The charging trollable EVs, which is denoted by in Fig. 5 and is
signal is dispatched to the EVs in the ascending order of the given by (3).
SOC, whereas the discharging signal is dispatched in the de-
scending order. By repeating dispatching in this manner, the
SOCs of all the controllable EVs in the local control center are (3)
synchronized. The central load dispatching center receive the in-
formation on the synchronized SOC in each local control center is the initial stored energy of the controllable EVs
and dispatches the LFC signal to the local control center in the and is given by (4).
same manner. As a result, the SOCs of all the controllable EVs
in the power system are synchronized and the EVs can be de- (4)
signed as one large BESS model as shown in Fig. 5. The effec-
tiveness of the SOC synchronization control is shown in [5], [6]. where is the average battery capacity of the EVs.
In this paper, the central load dispatching center can grasp the is the integral of the total charging/discharging
average SOC and the total controllable capacity of the EVs in power of the EVs and is given by (5).
the power system every half hour.
The input of this model is the LFC signal for all the con- (5)
trollable EVs in the considered power system and the output
is the total charging/discharging power of the EVs. The is the total increased energy due to the con-
charge/discharge efficiency of the battery considering battery trol-in of the EVs and is given by (6).
and inverter loss is 94%. It has a small impact on the simula-
tion results in this paper because the EVs are assumed not to (6)
1256 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 3, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 2012

is the total decreased energy due to the plug-out heating period of the HPWHs by (10) and sends it to the
of the EVs and is given by (7). central load dispatching center.

(7)
(10)
where is the number of the plug-out EVs per unit
time, which is the time-differentiation of . where is the number of the HPWHs controlled in the
The average SOC of the controllable EVs is calculated by the local control center.
following equation: The central load dispatching center calculates the average
value in each group by (11) and sends it back to the
local control centers in each group.
(8)

C. Lumped HPWH Model (11)

An HPWH is a high-efficiency and energy-saving appliance,
which has a tank to store hot water of the amount used in a day.
The number of HPWHs in Japan is about 2 million in 2008 and it
is expected to be 10 million in 2020 [13]. In general, an HPWH
operates to heat water as much as the requested or estimated
amount for the next day use during nighttime at low electricity
price. It is assumed in this paper that the power consumption
of the HPWHs can be controlled without decrease in efficiency
in the range of of the rated power consumption ac-
cording to the input control signal (LFC signal), that it is un-
controllable until the power consumption becomes stable (0.25
[h] after start), and that the operating period of the HPWHs also
can be controlled [7], [8].
In the following part of the paper, the superscript denotes
the HPWH in the local control center. The HPWHs are
controlled in each local control center. Each local control center
grasps the information on the number of its HPWHs with several
kinds of rated power consumption and tank capacity. The cen-
tral load dispatching center grasps the total installed number and
the total rated power consumption of the HPWHs in each local
control center. The local control center collects the informa-
tion on the requested amount of hot water of each
HPWH in advance of the control. Based on that information, it
calculates the expected heating period of each HPWH
by (9). The power consumption of an HPWH in this calculation
is considered as 90% of the rated power consumption
because the power consumption of each HPWH is controlled in
the range of of the rated power consumption. It is
assumed that the coefficient of performance (COP) can be esti-
mated based on weather forecast as the average value, which is
described as in (9), in each local control center.
In this paper, the estimated error of the COP is not considered
and is 4.0 in each local control center.
(9)
All the HPWHs in the considered power system were con-
trolled in the same period in the previous research [7], whereas
the HPWHs are divided into several groups and controlled in
each group in the different period in this paper. Each local con-
trol center calculates the average value of the expected
where superscript denotes the group, is the number
of the local control centers in the group, superscript de-
notes the local control center in the group, and
is the number of the HPWHs in the local control center
.
The local control center calculates the standard deviation
of the expected heating period of its HPWHs with
as the average value by (12) and sends it again to the central load
dispatching center.
(12)
The central load dispatching center calculates the standard
deviation of the expected heating period in each group
by (13).
(13)
According to the statistical information , the
central load dispatching center estimates the change of the total
power consumption of the HPWHs, determines the start-up time
and the control period, and dispatches the start command and
the control signal (LFC signal) to the local control centers. Each
local control center starts up its HPWHs at random in 0.5 [h] so
as to avoid a great impact of the simultaneous start of a number
of HPWHs on the power system. It sends the received LFC
signal to its HPWHs equally. In this two-way communication,
the upstream information communication to the central load dis-
patching center does not have to be in real-time.
Fig. 6 shows the lumped HPWH model which stands for the
dynamic behavior of the HPWHs in one group. Table I shows
the parameters of the model. Its input is the LFC signal for the
HPWHs in one group and its output is the total power consump-
tion of them. The change of the total power consumption on the
MASUTA AND YOKOYAMA: SUPPLEMENTARY LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL 1257

plants (LFC generators) but also to the BESS, the EVs, and
the HPWHs according the response speed and the controllable
capacity. The block diagram of the proposed LFC is depicted
in Fig. 7. Calculation cycle of AR is approximated by the
first-order model with ten-second time delay denoted by .
is the controllable capacity (LFC capacity) of the
LFC generators, is the inverter capacity of the BESS, and
and are respectively the lower and upper
limit of the controllable capacity of the EVs. A PI controller is
Fig. 6. Lumped HPWH model. assumed in Fig. 7 because it is used for generating the total LFC
signal in the current utility control system. There is a possibility
TABLE I that the frequency control becomes more effective with a new
PARAMETERS OF LUMPED HPWH MODEL
controller instead of the PI controller, however, the objective
in this paper is to suppress the frequency fluctuation not by
design of a new controller for generating the LFC signal but by
utilization of new LFC resources such as EVs and HPWHs.
First, the LFC signal is dispatched to the HPWHs, the re-
sponse speed of which is the slowest of the four. Next, the
components of the LFC signal, which cannot be covered by
start-up is approximated by the first order model with the start
the HPWHs because of their slow response and limited control-
time delay and a ramp function which is to be 90% of
lable capacity, are inputted to the LFC generators as LFC 1 (ex-
the total rated power consumption of the HPWHs at 0.5 [h] after
tracted by the high-pass filter with the time constant )
the start. The change of the total power consumption after the
and LFC 2 signals respectively. Then, the components which
HPWHs begin to stop heating is approximated by the normal
cannot be covered by the LFC generators because of their re-
distribution function based on the average value and
sponse speed and the LFC capacity are inputted to the EVs as
the standard deviation of the estimated heating period of
EV 1 (extracted by the high-pass filter with the time constant
the HPWHs in the group calculated by (11) and (13).
) and EV 2 signals respectively. The high-pass
The total controllable capacity of the HPWHs in the group
filter with the time constant is used for sup-
is calculated by (14).
pressing the SOC fluctuation caused by the long-term fluctua-
tion of the LFC signal. Finally, the components which cannot
be covered by the EVs are inputted to the BESS. A part of the
if
BESS can be replaced by both the EVs and the HPWHs.

if B. SOC Regulation Control of EVs

if
(14) The high-pass filter with in Fig. 7 cannot completely
cut the long-term fluctuation of the LFC signal, and there is a
where is the total rated power consumption of the possibility that the SOCs of the controllable EVs are out of the
operating HPWHs shown in Fig. 6. range of . Therefore, the central load dispatching center
The time is when the first one of the HPWHs starts, add a bias to the LFC signal for the EVs based on the informa-
is when the power consumption of the first starting tion on the average SOC of the controllable EVs which is up-
HPWH becomes stable, and is when the power dated every half hour. Fig. 8 shows the block diagram of the
consumption of the last starting HPWH, which starts at SOC regulation control. The input is the deviation
, becomes stable. As long as all the HPWHs are operating, of the average SOC from 85%, and the output is the
does not change after because the charging/discharging bias (the discharging power is considered
HPWHs do not start any more. It is assumed that no HPWHs as the positive value) to the LFC signal for the EVs.
stop operating from to and is generated within 10% of the total inverter capacity of the
that is kept constant during that period. controllable EVs. The calculation delay is approximated by the
changes in proportion to after first-order model with ten-second time delay denoted by . The
because all the operating HPWHs are controllable. upper limit and the lower limit of control-
lable capacity of the EVs are calculated by (15). The central load
III. LFC BY USE OF BOTH EVS AND HPWHS dispatching center generates the LFC signal in the range from
and sends the total of the LFC signal and
A. LFC Dispatching Method to the EVs via the local control centers. If the average
SOC is under 80% or over 90%, or is respec-
The coordinated LFC method by use of a number of both the tively considered as zero.
EVs and the HPWHs is described in this section. This control
is a centralized control where the area requirement (AR) as
(15)
the LFC signal is sent not only to the conventional power
1258 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 3, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 2012

Fig. 7. Block diagram of proposed LFC.

Fig. 8. Block diagram of SOC regulation control.

IV. SIMULATION CONDITION

Fig. 9. 8-machine system model.

A. Power System Model

The 8-machine system model described in Fig. 9 is used as a TABLE II

SYSTEM DATA
power system model for the system frequency analysis in this
study. The system data is summarized in Table II. This model
is a part of IEEJ 30-machine system model [14]. In this paper,
this system is assumed to be isolated and controlled based on
flat frequency control (FFC). The output of the nuclear power
plants is constant at 3350 [MW] whereas that of the thermal
power plants changes according to the load demand [7].
The load fluctuation and the total output of the renewable
energy sources are shown in Fig. 10. The simulation period is
24 hours. The long-term fluctuation of the load is obtained from
the daily load curve of holiday in Japan for reference whereas
the short-term fluctuation is calculated by a random function.
The total output of renewable energy sources of wind power
generation and photovoltaic generation is obtained based on the
meteorological observation data [15] of wind velocity and solar
radiation in April and May. The total load fluctuation in Fig. 10
does not include the charge/discharge power of the EVs for LFC
but includes their power consumption to be charged up to 85% Fig. 10. Total load fluctuation and total output of renewable energy sources.
of the SOCs. Although only one pattern of the output fluctuation
of renewable energy sources shown in Fig. 10 is considered as TABLE III
SIMULATION CONDITION ON FREQUENCY ANALYSIS
the data for the simulation in this paper, the different output
fluctuation causes the different frequency fluctuation. However,
this simulation is conducted to verify the effectiveness of the
proposed LFC method, and in this paper it is more important to
evaluate the impact of the difference in the control method on
the LFC than that of the difference in the output fluctuation.
Table III shows the simulation condition on the frequency
analysis. It is assumed that 30 000 EVs (0.5% of the total cars)
and 420 000 HPWHs (10% of the total customers) can be con-
trolled in the considered area. There are 400 local control centers
in the power system. The average numbers of the EVs and the
HPWHs controlled in one local control center are 75 and 1050
respectively.
MASUTA AND YOKOYAMA: SUPPLEMENTARY LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL 1259

TABLE IV
EV DATA

Fig. 12. Estimated power fluctuation.

TABLE V
HPWH DATA

Fig. 11. Number of EVs.

B. Condition on EV

Table IV shows the data on the EVs installed in the consid-

TABLE VI
ered area. Fig. 11 shows the change of the number of the EVs DATA FOR PARAMETERS OF LUMPED HPWH MODEL IN EACH GROUP
normalized by the total installed number of the EVs (30 000),
which is obtained from the road traffic census [10] for refer-
ence. and are larger than 100%
because they denote the accumulated number. It shows that the
number of control-in times and plug-out times is more than the
total number of the EVs for LFC considered in this paper due to
the EVs which have more than two trips.

C. Condition on HPWHs

The heating period of an HPWH is limited because it does not

heat larger amount of the hot water than used in a day. Therefore,
it is important to operate and control the HPWHs during the pe-
riod that the frequency fluctuation is difficult to suppress. In this
paper, it is assumed that the central load dispatching center can
estimate the total load fluctuation and the total output of the re-
newable energy sources as shown in Fig. 12 before the control of
the HPWHs. The total load fluctuation is estimated half-hourly,
the output of the wind power generation is as constant at the av-
erage value, and the output of the photovoltaic generation is as
the standard deviation function. The thick black line in Fig. 12
shows the estimated net power fluctuation which is obtained by
subtracting the estimated total output of the renewable energy
sources from the estimated total load fluctuation.
The regulating capacity of the thermal power plants changes
according to the magnitude of the net power fluctuation. In this
simulation, the central load dispatching center determines to
control the HPWHs at around 11 [h] because the frequency
fluctuation is estimated to be large during both the period with
the small regulating capacity and that with the large output of
the photovoltaic generation as shown in Fig. 12. To extend the
control period, the HPWHs are divided into four groups. Each
group consists of 100 local control centers. In order to avoid the
Fig. 13. Control of HPWHs in each group.
shortage of hot water in the morning, each HPWH is not being
controlled but operating at nighttime ( to 6 [h]) to heat 25%
of the requested amount of hot water of the day. The HPWHs
participate in the LFC in heating the rest 75%.
Table V shows the data on the HPWHs installed in the
considered area. Table VI shows the total power consumption
, the average value and the standard de-
viation of the estimated heating period of the HPWHs
in each group. These values are used as the parameters of the
lumped model in Fig. 6 and four lumped models are used in
the simulation. The statistical values of the heating period are
obtained from the hot water demand in the Tokyo metropolitan
area [16] for reference. Fig. 13 shows the image of the control
of the HPWHs in each group. In each group, the HPWHs are
controlled during the period that almost all the HPWHs are
operating and controllable capacity is large [7].
1260 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 3, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 2012

TABLE VII
EVALUATION INDICES OF FREQUENCY FLUCTUATION

V. SIMULATION RESULTS
Fig. 14. Frequency fluctuation.
A. Effectiveness of Proposed LFC Method
The simulation results of the frequency analysis are described
in this subsection. Table VII summarizes the maximum devia-
tion and the RMS value of the frequency deviation in the whole
simulation period (24 h) in the three cases, Case 1: the EVs and
the HPWHs are not part of LFC, Case 2: the EVs are part of
LFC and the HPWHs are not, and Case 3: the EVs and HPWHs
are part of LFC. The RMS value of the frequency deviation cal-
culated by (16) is used as an index to show the performance
of the frequency control. In the cases without the control of
the HPWHs (Case 1 and Case 2), all the HPWHs are operating Fig. 15. Average SOC of EVs.
during nighttime ( to 6 [h]). Table VII shows that the fre-
quency control becomes more effective by the control of not
only the EVs but also the HPWHs.

(16)

where is the number of samples and is the frequency

deviation.
Figs. 14–16 respectively show the frequency fluctuation, the
change of the average SOC of the EVs, and the change of the Fig. 16. SOC of BESS.
SOC of the BESS in Case 1 and Case 3. Fig. 15 presents that the
EVs are controlled in the range of of the SOC due to the
high-pass filter and the SOC regulation control. Fig. 16 presents
that the SOC of the BESS fluctuates within 20% from 50%.
As is described in Section II, the SOC of the BESS decreases
with time. It can be seen that the SOC decreases with a larger
amount in the LFC without the EVs or the HPWHs than that
with them. It is because the BESS have the larger magnitude
and higher frequency of LFC signals in the LFC without them.
It indicates that the LFC with EVs and HPWHs decreases the
utilization ratio of the BESS and that it can reduce the capacity
Fig. 17. Total power consumption of HPWHs in each group.
of the BESS. Fig. 17 shows the total power consumption of the
HPWHs in each group in Case 3. The four groups of the HPWHs
are switched to be controlled in sequence. 3 because all the HPWHs are operating and the grid-connected
Next, the effectiveness of the proposed LFC method is evalu- capacity of the thermal power plants increases in Case 2.
ated through the time zones. Fig. 18 shows the RMS value of the Figs. 19 and 20 show the change of the total regulating ca-
frequency deviation in every three hours. The control of the EVs pacity (total LFC capacity) in the three cases and the breakdown
contributes to suppress the frequency fluctuation throughout the of the total regulating capacity in Case 3 respectively. These fig-
day. The time zone with the largest frequency fluctuation is be- ures present that the EVs increase the total regulating capacity
tween 9 [h] and 12 [h], and the control of the HPWHs con- throughout the 24 hours whereas the HPWHs increase the total
tributes during this period because they are operating and being regulating capacity between 9 [h] and 13 [h].
controlled during the period as shown in Fig. 17. The frequency The results show that the contribution of the EVs on the LFC
fluctuation between 0 [h] and 3 [h] in Case 2 is smaller than that is larger than that of the HPWHs; however, it depends on the as-
in Case 3. It is because the regulating capacity of the thermal sumed number and the assumed controllable capacity of these
power plants at nighttime in Case 2 is larger than that in Case appliances. EVs have mobility behavior and the controllable
MASUTA AND YOKOYAMA: SUPPLEMENTARY LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL
Fig. 18. RMS value of frequency deviation in every three hours.
Fig. 19. Total regulating capacity.
Fig. 20. Breakdown of total regulating capacity (Case 3).
number of them may not be sufficient even if they become wide-
spread. In such situation, it is necessary to apply not only EVs
but also other appliances to the LFC. Therefore, it is important
to develop an LFC method which combines EVs and other sta-
tionary controllable appliances such as HPWHs.
B. Impact on Reduction of BESS Inverter Capacity
In order to quantitatively evaluate the impact of the proposed
LFC method on the reduction of the capacity of the BESS, the
performance of the LFC without the EVs or the HPWHs is ex-
amined by numerical simulations in which the capacity of BESS
is considered as parameter. Fig. 21 shows the relationship be-
tween the RMS value of the frequency deviation during the pe-
riod with large frequency fluctuation ( to 15 [h]) and the
inverter capacity of the BESS. The dotted line in Fig. 21 repre-
sents the RMS value of the frequency deviation under the LFC
with both the EVs and the HPWHs, which is presented as Case
3 in the previous subsection. This line has nothing to do with
the inverter capacity of the BESS (x-axis). For the same perfor-
mance as Case 3 in the previous subsection, it can be seen that
it is necessary to install the BESS of the capacity at the intersec-
tion of the solid line and the dotted line in Fig. 21 without the
EVs or the HPWHs, and the required inverter capacity is 175
1261
Fig. 21. Relationship between RMS value of frequency deviation and inverter
capacity of BESS.
[MW]. The additional required capacity is 125 [MW] because
the inverter capacity of the BESS in Case 3 is 50 [MW]. The re-
sult concludes that the required BESS capacity to suppress the
frequency fluctuation can be reduced by a number of both the
EVs and the HPWHs. In addition, the impact of the EVs and the
HPWHs on the reduction of the inverter capacity of the BESS
can be quantitatively evaluated as described in this subsection.
The proposed LFC method can be said to be effective if the
cost of the control of both EVs and HPWHs is cheaper than
that of the BESS installation which can be reduced by it. It is
necessary to evaluate the reduction in not only inverter capacity
but also battery capacity of BESS and the construction cost of
the control system and the communication network to control
both EVs and HPWHs.
VI. CONCLUSION
This paper has proposed a new LFC method for the con-
ventional power plants, the BESS, the EVs, and the HPWHs.
Control and modeling methods of a number of the EVs and the
HPWHs have also been proposed. It has been shown by the nu-
merical simulations that the proposed LFC method is effective
to suppress the frequency fluctuation in the power system with a
large integration of renewable energy sources. The contribution
of both the EVs and the HPWHs to the frequency control has
been shown quantitatively. Moreover, the effectiveness of the
reduction of the inverter capacity by the proposed LFC method
has been evaluated. In the future work, it is important to develop
a power system control method by use of controllable loads for
the demand and supply matching in considering the fuel cost of
power system operation. Moreover, we will develop an evalua-
tion method of ancillary service cost of controllable loads.
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Taisuke Masuta (S’11) received the B.S., M.S., and
Ph.D. in electrical engineering, University of Tokyo,
Tokyo, Japan, in 2004, 2006, and 2012 respectively.
He has been a Researcher at the National Institute
of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology in
Japan since 2012. His interests include power system
control using customer equipment such as electric ve-
hicle (EV) and heat pump water heater (HPWH).
Dr. Masuta is a member of IEEJ.
Akihiko Yokoyama (S’79–M’84) received the B.S.,
M.S., and Dr.Eng. degrees from the University
of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan, in 1979, 1981 and 1984,
respectively.
He has been with the Department of Electrical
Engineering, University of Tokyo, since 1984 and
currently a Professor in charge of power system
engineering.
Dr. Yokoyama is a member of IEEJ and CIGRE.