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ISHAI
systems. Naturally, all these materials should be 1957; Wiseman and Zeitlen 1961; Uzan, Ishai and
resistant to both traffic and environmental loads. In Livneh 1976). At a depth of about 0.7a (a = radius of
advanced design methods, the design criteria are contact area), and for a Poisson's ratio of 0.5, the
limiting deformations of the asphalt and the subgrade; maximum shear stress at the axis of symmetry, T m„. is
in conventional methods, stability of the top layers is
ensured through material quality and minimum thick- 0.75 (a/z) 2 .p
(2)
ness requirements for the sub-base, the base, and the max
i(a/z)2 + 1P/2
asphalt mix. The criterion of limiting strain in the
asphalt is thus 'covered' indirectly by these methods; where z = depth (mm), and p = pressure (MPa),
by contrast, only the subgrade strain criterion is uniformly distributed over a circle with radius a (mm).
represented quantitatively in the determination of
pavement thickness. It should be noted that accord- For z > 2a (as in most pavement thicknesses),
ing to the Shell design curves (Dormon and Metcalf eqn (2) approximates to
1965) the determining criterion for pavements with
large asphalt thicknesses (e.g. an all-asphalt system, 0.75 (a/z) 2 . p
max
(3)
or one with an asphaltic basecourse) is the com- (a/z) 2 + 1
pressive strain in the subgrade, while in pavements
with small asphalt thicknesses it is the tensile strain Equating eqns (1) and (3) gives
in the asphalt.
U —U
max z r z
' max (9)
E2 ' I/ 3E 6E 6
2
where
Y max maximum shear strain,
(T z , (F r vertical and radial stresses
00
(MPa) respectively, and
Fig. 1 — Scheme of two-layer structure E. = vertical strain.
50 I [I I 1 1 1 rill I i 1 I n1
CANNOu, PAATCHIPISON. a .CRY
• •
OP.:WAN 4 AACTCALP
0 w‘rczA,
WES CRITERIA
:
COWARDS 4 AQ.AER/MG
ArAr TIE
Fig. 3 - Vertical compressive strain at top of subgrade v. number of load cycles, according to
literature sources
OA
O5
02
00
OC 000 10 000 100 000
-0 14666
E = 3.034 x 10-3 N (13)
z
D0
NO 1000 10 000 Some authors (e.g. Palmer and Barker - see
SOURER OF LOAD CYCLES
Poulos and Davis (1974); Vaswani (1977) ), propose
Fig. 5b -Residual strain v. number of load cycles the following expression for the equivalent modulus,
(Edris and Lytton 1976) Eeq , of a multilayer structure.
TABLE I
Number of Coverages on Subgrade v. Parameter D for Different
Subgrade CBR Values
(Contact Pressure Range 0.7 to 2.1 MPa)
CBR 2 5 10
0
0.140 1.1 x106 1.3 x 106 2.4 x 106
0.281 1.2 x 104 1 15 x 104 1.2 x 104
0.563 450 350 200
1.125 —40 ti 25
where E,, 1, , and d, are respectively the elastic layers, and hence the equivalent modulus also, which
modulus, Poisson's ratio, and thickness of the i th is especially important when converting from granu-
layer, and n is a constant (= 3 according to Palmer lar materials to asphalt. Determination of the design
and Barker; = 1 according to Vaswani)*. modulus is related to the quality of the mix, as well as
to the diurnal and monthly temperature patterns over
The implications of the choice of n = 3 for a
the year. In the equivalent modulus allowance must
modular ratio of up to 20 between adjacent layers are
also be made for the diurnal distribution of the traffic
analysed in Fig 7, which shows the calculated points
load. (In certain circumstances, night-time traffic may
of Eeq /E, for three-layer structures, and the relation-
be disregarded if it is small.)
ship between E z and E, /E, for two-layer structures
(solid lines). Comparing the results for the two ratios,
it is seen that the choice is reasonable. The approach in determining the equivalent
modulus of the asphaltic layer is along the lines
adopted by the Asphalt Institute (Witczak 1972). The
temperature pattern is a geographical variable, and
INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL the local relationship between the mean monthly tem-
peratures of air and pavement (MMAT and MMPT
CONDITIONS -THE EQUIVALENT respectively) differs from that assumed by the In-
MODULUS OF THE ASPHALTIC stitute; Figs 8 and 9 are based on observations con-
LAYERS ducted by the Israel Meteorological Service (Manes
1969) on an all-asphalt structure 140 mm thick. Tem-
perature distribution findings (Burns and Ahlvin 1972;
Environmental conditions are especially reflected in
Federal Aviation Agency 1974) lead to the realistic
moisture changes in the subgrade soil and in the gra-
assumption that at depths exceeding 300 mm, the
nular materials, and temperature changes in the
standard deviation of the monthly pattern tends
asphaltic layers. The moisture factor is allowed for in
towards zero, i.e. the temperature of the asphalt is
determining the design CBR or the elastic modulus,
diurnally and annually constant and equals the annual
but not in the critical strain criterion (see Section on•
average of the MMPT — while between the surface
CBR eqn — U.S. Corps of Engineers). The tem-
level and a depth of 300 mm, it varies linearly. The
perature factor affects the modulus of the asphaltic
temperature frequencies so obtained for a given
In reality, the range of variation is wider, but when we are only depth approximate reasonably to those in Figs 8 and
concerned with e z , its infuence is relatively slight. 9
1.0
h E ecr Veg=0.40
h/a .0.5
E 2 ,v2 =0.45
0.1
z E2
0.01
1 1 1 111 11
0.001
1.0 10 100 1000
E,/E 2
h3
3
dz
(18)
0 0.2
0 a
c 4 a
0 I 1 ;
15 20 25 30 35 00 05 50
1°C I
2
Fig. 10 — Variation of ET /E 3,, oc ratio with temperature for
asphalt concrete
0
10 20 30 40 For h > h, (in this case for h > 300 mm), the in-
Values of MMPT(°C) tegration yields (see Fig. 11)
ET where Tu, T,, h,, h2 are as per Fig. 11 (in °C and mm),
= 10 0.035(30— T)
(15) and Eeq, is the equivalent modulus for the whole layer
E30
at frequency X.
To
For example, a sub-base 600 mm thick can be
subdivided into three 200 mm layers or four 150 mm
layers. A soil of CBR = 4 and E = 56 MPa, gives for
the first subdivision 111.2, 174.1 and 224.8 MPa, for
T the second 103.5, 157.9, 156.7 and 274.3 MPa, the
h1 For h<h 1 equivalent moduli (eqn 14) being 165.6 and 171.2
T o -T1 MPa respectively. This demonstrates the insensitivity
T= (111 - z)+T 1 of the subdivision procedure.
T,
h2 PRINCIPLES OF THICKNESS
T1
DESIGN
T =Annual Average MMPT
The number of load coverages for a given structure is
governed by the principle of cumulative damage,
Fig. 11 — Vertical temperature profile (assumed)
namely
For h < h, (in this case for h < 300 mm), eqn (19) X . N e /N = 1 (23)
j
can also be used, but with h2 = 0, h, = h , and T, = Th
(see Fig. 11). This case is typical of most conven- where:
tional structures.
N, total number of coverages for the
The equivalent temperature for a uniform dis- pavement;
tribution over the whole section is given by xi frequency of occurrence of a
given temperature distribution I ;
log (Eeci /E3o )
and
Teci = 30 — (20)
0.035 NT , number of coverages to failure
under these conditions.
For the case of all-asphalt structures, the modu-
lar ratio EegJE, should be corrected for the imper- Accordingly
fect roughness of the interface (Uzan, Livneh and
Eshed 1976; Bonnot, Autret and de Boissoudy 1 977) 1
Ne — (24)
which makes for larger strains in the subgrade. The
proposed reduction factor for Eeq,/Es is 0.5 (Wise- xj/NTi
(c) The modular ratios of the granular layers (with SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
respect to the subgrade) are calculated accord-
ing to eqns (21) and (22).
The two-layer elastic model was used to clarify the
(d) For a given temperature distribution (corres- implications of the USCE formula for the CBR, based
ponding to a frequency xi), the following is on the preservation of the maximum shear stress in
determined. the subgrade. Through the property relationships of
the materials, it was found that the formula implies
(i) The equivalent modular ratios of the total also a constant compressive strain in the subgrade.
structure using eqns (14) and (19). In the The ci iterion for the allowable strain, evaluated by
case of an all-asphaltic structure, these this means as function of the number of load cycles, is
ratios should be corrected for the imperfect conservative compared with the scanty laboratory
roughness of the interface. results available in this context.
(ii) The subgrade strain factors, with the aid of A method is also proposed for converting a
Fig. 7. multilayer structure into a two-layer one, with a view
to simplifying the analysis and adapting it for every
(iii) The number of coverages for the structure, day practice. The method yields reasonable results
with the aid of eqn (13). for the maximum shear stress and vertical strain in the
subgrade. The effect of environmental conditions
(e) For the total temperature conditions, and for the (especially the temperature pattern) on the pavement
given structure, the equivalent number of is also discussed.
coverages is determined using eqn (24). A numerical example of an all-asphalt structure
yielded reasonable results in the light of an evalua-
(f) For each of the different consecutive structures,
tion study four years after the construction of a 500
the total number of coverages is calculated by mm pavement.
the same procedure (steps (b) to (e) ). The
difference between consecutive structures can It can be said that the proposed method is a
be in the thickness of the sub-base, or in the total bridge between the empirical CBR formula and the
pavement thickness for conventional and all- 'rational' approach to pavement design; it should be
asphaltic structures respectively. improved through adoption of more specific property
relationships, generalisation of interface conditions
(g) By interpolation, the design structure is chosen in the conversion procedure, and verification of the
for the desired total number of coverages. results by follow-up in the field.
APPENDIX
NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
DESIGN AND INPUT DATA
TABLE II
MEAN MONTHLY AIR TEMPERATURE PATTERN
Month Jan. Feb Mar. Apr May June July Aug Sep. Oct Nov Dec
MMAT 14.8 14.7 16.1 20.5 23.6 26.4 27.8 27.7 25.9 23.5 16.2 17.4
(°C)
DESIGN PROBLEM
(a) the total number of coverages for the pavement (Ale ), and
TABLE III
CALCULATION OF TEMPERATURE AT THE PAVEMENT SURFACE
(b) Taking the value of MMPT as the average temperature for each month, and
assuming normal distribution with standard deviations (r T, the monthly fre-
quencies for the temperature ranges are calculated and given in Table Ill
(c) Since most of the traffic occurs during daytime, it is important to find the
equivalent frequencies which will reflect only the daytime traffic distribution.
It is suggested that the temperature distribution be weighted in such a way
that the lower (night) temperature with a probability of 0.4 to 0.5 would not
be reflected. Usually, temperatures of (MMPT = 0.2 ,T T ) occur during night-
time, and their distribution of occurrence is 0.4 to 0.5. The calculated
equivalent frequencies for daytime temperatures are given in Table IV The
annual average frequencies are also given in this Table.
(d) The values of To, , T, and A at the pavement surface, and at a depth of 300 mm
in the asphaltic layer are summarised in Table V (see also Fig. 11).
(e) With the aid of Fig. 11 , the values of Th, are calculated for the conventional
structure. They are given in Table VI , together with the values of To, , taken
from Table V
TABLE IV
EQUIVALENT DAYTIME TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION AT THE PAVEMENT SURFACE
TABLE V
VALUES OF - FREQUENCY OF TEMPERATURE T,
Temp T, (°C)
22. 5 30 40 50 60
Depth (mm) (20-25) (25-35) (35-45) (45-55) >55
0 0.10 0.25 0.34 0.23 0.08
300' 1.00
TABLE VI
SUMMARY OF RESULTS FOR CONVENTIONAL STRUCTURES
Frequency 010 0 25 0.34 023 008
(f) With the sub-base subdivided into three 200 mm layers, eqns (21) and (22)
yield moduli of 111.1, 174.1 and 224.8 MPa respectively; the modular ratios
of granular layers for the subgrade in question are 1.985, 3.11 and 4.015
respectively. For the 150 mm basecourse, the modulus is 409.5 MPa and the
modular ratio is 7.31. For the asphaltic layer at 30°C, the modular ratio is
35.08.
(9) For each temperature distribution Ti , the temperature data and modular
ratios yield the equivalent modular ratio of the structure (Eeqi /E,), using
eqns (14) and (19), and consequently, also the subgrade strain factor (E3 E zi
/p) as per Fig. 7, and the number of coverages (NI ) as per eqn (13). Results
are also given in Table VI. For illustration, a calculation of Eeq /E, for a tem-
perature frequency of 0.10 (first column in Table VI), is as follows.
3 3
E.
d.
Ee E
q S
E )3
z d/
where i denotes the layer number and
3 3 ( 0.035 0.035
E. E30 [ 3 hi (30 - (30 - T o ))
3 3
-10
ES E
s 0.035 log 10 •
]
Hence
( 0.035 0.035
37.225 x hi (30 7-1 1 (30 - To)) 3/
10 3 - 10 3 V E30 /E
s
E eq T1 - To
E h1 + h2 + h3 + h4 + h5
s
3
h2 V E2 /E + h3 V E 3 /E + h4 3-\,/ E4 /Es +
s s h5 V E s /E s
h i + h2 + h 3 + h4 + h s
Substituting gives
E eq
25 (15.70 + 11.64 + 12.72 + 11.68 + 10.05)
= 6.0
Es 25 (34)
This value, in conjunction with z/a = 5.64, yields E E5 /p = 0.0175 and NT,
= 34 200.
(h) The equivalent number of coverages (Ne ) for the given conventional struc-
ture under the given temperature conditions is calculated using eqn (24) as
follows.
It is worth mentioning that this value differs from the design number for the
same structure according to the USCE method (where the temperature dis-
tribution does not figure); the latter equals 20 000, which Table /V shows to
correspond to the equivalent temperature of 30°C. In fact, some of the ex-
periments which resulted in the USCE formula were carried out at this tem-
perature (Burns and Womack 1962). As for the numerical example, the
equivalent temperature for it is 40°C.
550
500
no correction for
interface friction
450
400
Number of coverages, N
TABLE VII
SUMMARY OF RESULTS FOR ALL-ASPHALT STRUCTURE, UNCORRECTED FOR
INTERFACE CONDITIONS
Frequency 0.10 0.25 0.34 0.23 0.08 Ne
22.5 30 40 50 60
(°C)
T, (°C) 30 30 30 30 30
TABLE VIII
To (°C) 22.5 30 40 50 60
T, (°C) 30 30 30 30 30
An all-asphalt pavement 500 mm thick has been built on a clay subgrade. The
pavement has been evaluated four years after its construction. Results of the
evaluation showed moduli of the subgrade and of the structures in accor-
dance with those calculated at 28°C (Wiseman et al. 1977).
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field pavements. Proc. ASCE Transp. Eng. J. 100 (TE3), pp. 625-41.
BARKER, W.R. and BRABSTON, W.N. (1975). Development of a structural design procedure
for flexible airport pavements. U.S. Army Eng. Waterways Experiment Station, Final
Rep., Rep. No. FAA-RD-199, p. 261.
and CHOU, Y.T. (1977). A general system for the structural design of flexible pave-
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BONNOT, J., AUTRET, P., and DE BOISSOUDY, A. (1977). Design of asphalt overlays for
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pp. 557-88.
BURNS, C.D. and AHLVIN, R.G. (1972). Behaviour of full-depth bituminous pavement under
heavy aircraft loadings. Assoc Asphalt Pave. Technol. Vol. 41, pp. 597-625.
BURNS, C.D. and WOMACK, L.M. (1962). Pavement mix design study for very heavy gear
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DORMON, G.M. and METCALF, C.T. (1965). Design curves for flexible pavements based on
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FAA (1974). Non destructive testing, Bull. No. FAA-74-1.
LIVNEH, M., ISHAI, I. and UZAN, J. (1976). Selected topics in pavement design. Bruner Inst.
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Jacob Uzan is a graduate of the Tech- Ilan lshai is a graduate of the Tech-
nion-Israel Institute of Technology. nion-lsrael Institute of Technology.
Haifa. with B Sc and D Sc degrees in Haifa. with B Sc and M Sc degrees in
Technical Sciences in Civil Engineer- Civil Engineering. awarded in 1962
ing. awarded in 1968 and 1973 Dr and 1969 His Ph D degree in Civil
Uzan is currently Senior Lecturer of Engineering was awarded in 1972 by
Civil Engineering at the Technion. the University of Michigan. Ann Arbor
teaching graduate and undergraduate Dr lshai was a Research Associate in
courses in pavement design. He is in- Civil Engineering at the University of
volved in research on design and Illinois. Urbana, in 1973. He is cur-
J. UZAN. evaluation of pavements. material I. ISHAI rently a Senior Lecturer of Civil
B.Sc.. D.Sc. characterisation. field investigation B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D Engineering at the Technion, teaching
and expansive soils Dr Uzan also par- graduate and undergraduate courses
ticipated as consultant to several in transportation engineering. Dr lshai
projects related to pavement and is involved in research on pavement
railroad design and e ✓aluation material characterisation, pavement
design and evaluation, and airport
design. He is also a consultant to
several governmental and private
agencies in projects and research
work in transportation engineering