journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials 40 (2014) 23 –32

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Research Paper

Investigation of the time-dependent wear behavior

of veneering ceramic in porcelain fused to metal
crowns during chewing simulations

Jiawen Guoa, Beimin Tiana, Ran Weib, Weiguo Wanga, Hongyun Zhangc,
Xiaohong Wua, Lin Heb,nn, Shaofeng Zhanga,n
a
State Key Laboratory of Military Stomatology, Department of Prosthodontics, School of Stomatology,
Fourth Military Medical University, Changle Xi Road 145, Xi’an 710032, China
b
State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China
c
State Key Laboratory of Military Stomatology, Department of Oral Anatomy and Physiology, School of Stomatology,
Fourth Military Medical University, Changle Xi Road 145, Xi’an 710032, China

art i cle i nfo ab st rac t

Article history:
Received 14 April 2014
Received in revised form
28 July 2014
Accepted 10 August 2014
Available online 19 August 2014
The excessive abrasion of occlusal surfaces in ceramic crowns limits the service life of
restorations and their clinical results. However, little is known about the time-dependent wear
behavior of ceramic restorations during the chewing process. The aim of this in vitro study
was to investigate the dynamic evolution of the wear behavior of veneering porcelain in PFM
crowns as wear progressed, as tested in a chewing simulator. Twenty anatomical metal–
ceramic crowns were prepared using Ceramco III as the veneering porcelain. Stainless steel

Keywords: balls served as antagonists. The specimens were dynamically loaded in a chewing simulator

Wear with 350 N up to 2.4
106 loading cycles, with additional thermal cycling between 5 and 55 1C.

Porcelain During the testing, several checkpoints were applied to measure the substance loss of the

Metal ceramic crowns crowns’ occlusal surfaces and to evaluate the microstructure of the worn areas. After 2.4
106

Dynamic process cycles, the entire wear process of the veneering porcelain in the PFM crowns revealed three

Chewing simulator wear stages (running-in, steady and severe wear stages). The occlusal surfaces showed traces
of intensive wear on the worn areas during the running-in wear stage, and they exhibited the
propagation of cracks in the subsurface during steady wear stage. When the severe wear stage
was reached, the cracks penetrated the ceramic layer, causing the separation of porcelain
pieces. It also exhibited a good correlation among the microstructure, the wear loss and the
wear rate of worn ceramic restorations. The results suggest that under the conditions of
simulated masticatory movement, the wear performance of the veneering porcelain in PFM
crowns indicates the apparent similarity of the tribological characteristics of the traditional
mechanical system. Additionally, the evaluation of the wear behavior of ceramic restorations
should be based on these three wear stages.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ86 29 82665165/þ86 29 84776468.
nn
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: helin@mail.xjtu.edu.cn (L. He), sfzhang1963.fmmu@gmail.com (S. Zhang).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2014.08.006
1751-6161/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
24 journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials 40 (2014) 23 –32
1. Introduction
With their excellent aesthetics and acceptable physical proper-
ties, crowns and bridges with a ceramic–metal structure or a full
ceramic structure have been widely used in prosthodontic
treatment (Conrad et al., 2007; Zarone et al., 2011). Ceramic
restorations that replace missing teeth, which aim to rehabili-
tate the mastication and aesthetic results of natural teeth,
undergo repeated load cycles during functional conditions
(Esquivel-Upshaw et al., 2012). However, due to antagonistic
occlusal contacts, some ceramic particles are bound to be lost
gradually from the contact area of the crown’s surface. This
phenomenon is known as wear (Heintze et al., 2008). In the oral
environment, wear behavior can adversely affect the structural
stability and mechanical properties of the ceramic layer,
which constitutes the load-bearing portion of the restoration
(Rosentritt et al., 2011). Any causes of wear, including chewing
or clenching, can induce surface and subsurface defects (Kim
et al., 2008; Suputtamongkol et al., 2010). By the action of stress,
the nucleation and propagation of cracks can originate from
these flaws (Albakry et al., 2003), and these cracks can penetrate
the porcelain, eventually resulting in the clinical failure of the
restoration (Aboushelib et al., 2009).
When choosing ceramic crowns for restorations, the wear
behavior should be considered among the most important
factor because it is an irreversible and unavoidable process
(Mehta et al., 2012). An appropriate wear resistance or a mild
wear regime is able to guarantee the long-term stability of the
ceramic restorations, when they are subjected to repetitive
masticatory force in the mouth. In contrast, the severe wear
of ceramic restoration (rapid material loss at contacting
surface of ceramic) is regarded as a significant cause, which
lead to the failure eventually (Ren and Zhang, 2014). There-
fore, the wear properties of ceramic restorations have a great
influence on therapeutic outcomes. Furthermore, oral wear is
a complex process that is influenced by many internal and
external factors, including the different kinds of restorative
materials, surface treatments, parafunctional habits, neuro-
muscular forces and the properties of saliva (Elmaria et al.,
2006; Johansson et al., 1993; Kim et al., 2001; Mayworm et al.,
2008). However, most of the early studies have evaluated the
wear behavior of dental ceramics according to the traditional
fixed pattern, comparing different test groups after the same
number of predefined wear cycles (Albashaireh et al., 2010;
Hahnel et al., 2011; Mormann et al., 2013; Preis et al., 2011,
2012). In this manner, the wear performance of dental
ceramics can only be partially revealed. Using a pin-on-
block design, Preis et al. (2011) compared the two-body wear
resistance of the zirconia substructure and veneering porce-
lain. After 1.2
105 wear cycles, zirconia showed higher wear
resistance than porcelain, while among various glass cera-
mics, the wear loss of fluorapatite and nano-fluorapatite
glass ceramics was significantly greater than that of leucite-
reinforced and lithium disilicate glass ceramics (Albashaireh
et al., 2010). For the same kind of material, different surface
treatments also play important roles in wear performance
(Preis et al., 2012). After the same duration of wear testing,
glazed ceramic specimens exhibit much more loss than those
after polishing. It seems that most researchers are accustomed
to estimating oral wear at a fixed point. In particular, research-
ers have almost entirely neglected that the wear behavior of
ceramics over the entire wear process is not invariable (Wang
and Hsu, 1996).
The original method that directly compared the wear loss
of different specimens at a fixed perspective do not fit to the
description in the tribology theory. Normally, based on the
tribology theory, the entire wear process of materials should
be divided into a running-in wear stage, steady wear stage
and severe wear stage (Wen and Huang, 2012). A block of
material that experiences mechanical interaction between
two relatively moving surfaces would undergo these wear
stages in sequence before it wore out or failed. During the
running-in stage, the wear loss of the material increases
rapidly, and the wear rate of the wear components is higher
at the beginning. As the wear process continues, the wear
rate gradually decreases from the running-in to the steady
wear stage, during which the wear loss grows slightly and
slowly. The wear rate then begins to increase from the steady
wear to the severe wear stage, which also contributes to the
dramatic growth of wear loss.
According to different wear rates and wear statuses, the
wear behavior of a material reaches the corresponding wear
stage. The wear properties of materials, represented by a
wear curve – demonstrating that wear behavior continuously
changes with the increase in service time – are usually
considered the typical tribological characteristics of time-
dependent wear behavior. And the wear rate, the microstruc-
ture of the wear facet and the structure stability of wear
component are also not constant. Undoubtedly, investiga-
tions of the wear behaviors of materials, based on the change
rule in the wear curve, will provide more rational and
comprehensive results. Many studies have discussed the
wear behavior of dental ceramics from different perspectives;
however, only limited studies have been available regarding
the entire wear process of the veneering porcelain of restora-
tions. And, during the chewing process, whether the wear
behavior of ceramic crown has the similar property of time-
dependent has not been reported yet.
Clinical testing is the ideal method for estimating the
complex wear performance of ceramic restorations. How-
ever, these in vivo studies have often been time consuming
and costly. Even great variation among subjects is unavoid-
able (Hickel et al., 2007). In contrast, laboratory tests of wear
behavior with chewing simulators, which allow for the
achievement of comparable results with different materials
under standardized conditions, seem to constitute effective
methods for the pre-clinical evaluation of dental ceramics
(DeLong and Douglas, 1983). Specifically, cyclic mechanical
loading and thermal cycling, generated by a chewing simu-
lator, represent the ideal in vitro design for studies to
reproduce physiological function (Rosentritt et al., 2006).
Therefore, in this study, glass-ceramics were fused to a base
alloy, forming anatomical porcelain-fused-to-metal (PFM)
crowns. All of these specimens were mounted in a chewing
simulator to undergo wear cycle testing. The aim of this
in vitro study was to investigate the dynamic evolutionary
process of the wear behavior of veneering porcelain in PFM
crowns under conditions that mimicked the masticatory
movement and moisture conditions of the oral cavity. The
 journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials 40 (2014) 23 –32 25

hypothesis of this study was that the entire wear process of (nickel–chromium, Co 60%, Cr 24%, Heraeus Kulzer Dental,
veneering porcelain would consist of three wear stages. Shanghai, China) were conventionally fabricated and cast,
respectively, according to the manufacturer’s directions (lost
wax technique) (Fig. 1b). All 20 castings were placed in an
ultrasonic cleaner and were inspected under 10x magnifica-
2. Materials and methods tion (Olympus BH2; Olympus Corp, Tokyo, Japan) for surface
irregularities. After the removal of all of the positive internal
2.1. Preparation of PFM crown specimens
irregularities with a round bur (Dura-Green Stones TC4
HP0042, Shofu, Tokyo, Japan), these frameworks were
An artificial mandibular first molar positioned in a mannequin
veneered with porcelain (hand-layered technique) (Ceramco
was prepared for a complete crown. The preparation consisted
III; Dentsply, Burlington, NJ, USA) by the same experienced
of 2.0 mm of occlusal reduction, 1.5 mm of axial reduction and a
technician, following the manufacturer’s guidelines. An
1.0 mm shoulder finish line with rounded internal angles that
impression of the desired anatomy of a waxed mandibular
extended 360 degrees around the tooth, following the outlined
first molar was used to guide the porcelain veneering
cementoenamel junction. The axial walls had an approximate
contour. The approximate porcelain thickness was 1.0 mm
taper of 6 degrees. Then, the prepared molar received an
on the axial walls and 1.5 mm on the occlusal surface
impression with polyvinylsiloxane material (Express, 3M ESPE,
(Fig. 1c). All of the crowns were tried in, and no internal
St. Paul, MN, USA), which was filled with layers of resin-based
adjustments were necessary for an appropriate fit. The
composite (Z100, 3M ESPE, St Paul, MN, USA) and was cured
crowns were glazed and cemented on the respective com-
according to the manufacturer’s recommendations and multi-
posite resin replicas, using a resin cement (PANAVIA F,
plied, resulting in 20 identically prepared tooth replicas (Fig. 1a).
Kuraray Medical Inc, Tokyo, Japan) according to the manu-
These replicas were incubated in water for a minimum of 30
facturer’s instructions. The crowns were fully seated with
days to assure water hydration and to eliminate any dimen-
finger pressure. The crown/die assembly was placed under a
sional alterations after crown cementation (Huang et al., 2008).
50 N static load. After 60 s, excess cement was removed. Ten
Following incubation, the replicas were embedded in epoxy
minutes later, the PFM crown specimens were rinsed thor-
resin that was poured into PVC tubes 25 mm-diameter, with
oughly with an air–water spray. Finally, any residual excess
their long axis aligned with the tube’s long axis. The finish line
cement was removed, and all of the crowns were stored in
preparations were located 2 mm above the resin surface. An
37 1C distilled water for at least 24 h for future use (Fig. 1d).
impression of each replica was obtained using polyether
material (Impregum F, 3M ESPE, St. Paul, MN, USA), and working
dies of each replica impression were made of class IV dental 2.2. Wear testing in the chewing simulator
stone (Die-Stone, Heraeus Kulzer Dental, Shanghai, China).
Based on these stone dies, standard design frameworks To simulate the wear that occurs in occlusal contact, each
with an even thickness of 0.5 mm and 20 metal cores specimen was mechanically tested with a custom-designed

Fig. 1 – Pictures of specimen: (a) tooth replica; (b) metal core of crown; (c) PFM anatomical single crown; (d) assembled PFM
crown specimen.
26 journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials 40 (2014) 23 –32
chewing simulator. A schematic diagram of the testing
machine used in this research appears in Fig. 2. In principle,
the load was produced by the compressed spring (7), which
was confined in a cylindrical container (8). Each container
was mounted on a separate vertical bar (6), and each test
chamber (4) had a vertical bar and a cylindrical container. The
chewing simulator contained 12 test chambers. Every 6
vertical bars were linked by a transverse bar (5), driven by a
step motor (1). All 12 test chambers were divided into two
columns (2) arranged parallel to each other on a flat plane (3).
The rotation of the transverse bar induced axial movement of
the vertical bar and its cylindrical container. When the
indenter (9), which had a rigid connection with the lower
surface of the cylindrical container, came into contact with
the specimen (11), the spring became pressed and the desired
loading force was released. In this manner, the apparatus
provided reciprocating movement and cyclic loading of the
testing sample. Some similarity to the masticatory pattern
had been achieved. In addition, the simulator included a
thermocycling system, using magnetic valves in conjunction
with a heating and cooling system controlled by computer
programs. Through a metal pipe (10), hot or cool water was
sprayed on the specimen at regular intervals.
For wear loading, metal sphere indenters were used as
antagonists to substitute for cusps of teeth. These metallic
balls with a diameter of 10 mm were made of stainless steel
(ASTM 403), and had a Vickers hardness value of about 350
HV after a quenching and tempering treatment. The hardness
is close to that of natural enamel. The full crown specimens
were set up in brass sample holders (12) immediately beneath
the indenters. With the antagonist declined, it first contacted
the lingual inclined surface of the disto-buccal cusp 1 mm
from its cuspal tip and then passively slid into the central
fossa, accompanied by approximately 1 mm of lateral move-
ment. When it reached the final cusp-fossa relationship,
three occlusal point contacts (distobuccal, mesiolingual and
distolingual) were created. Both the beginning and the final
contact positions between the antagonists and crowns were
assessed with black articulating paper (thickness of 20 μm)
and were adjusted if necessary. Then, the specimens were
fastened by pouring PMMA resin (GC Unifast Trad, GC-
Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) into brass holders. In the current
Fig. 2 – Schematic drawing of the chewing simulator: (1) step
motor; (2) two columns of the test chamber; (3) flat plane;
(4) test chamber; (5) transverse bar; (6) vertical bar;
(7) compression spring; (8) cylindrical container; (9) indenter;
(10) metal pipe; (11) specimen; (12) sample holder.
wear test, the loading force was 350 N, which was in an
appropriate load range measured during mastication and
swallowing (Kelly, 1999). According to the literature, the wear
produced by 240,000–250,000 masticatory cycles in a chewing
simulator corresponded to the wear measured after 1 year of
clinical service (Sakaguchi et al., 1986). Therefore, to simulate
10 years of clinical service, a total of 2.4
106 loading cycles
were performed. During wear simulation, the specimens
were subjected to thermal cycles in distilled water at alter-
nating temperatures of 5 and 55 1C, with a duration of 2 min
for each cycle.
2.3. Wear measurements and date analysis
To observe the dynamic evolution process of the wear
behavior of veneering porcelain in PFM crowns, seven check-
points were employed over 2.4
106 cycles. After 1.25
105,
2.5
105, 5
105, 1
106, 1.5
106, 2
106 and 2.4
106 loading
cycles each, impressions of the specimens’ occlusal surfaces
(n ¼12) were obtained using a polyvinylsiloxane impression
material. Replicas were made with epoxy resin, and the
substance loss of the replicas’ surfaces was measured with
a non-contact 3D white light profilometer (PS50, Nanovea,
Irvine, CA, USA) and its dedicated software (Nanovea 3D
Software, Nanovea, Irvine, CA, USA).
The profilometer consisted of a three-dimensional digiti-
zer and a PC with a color monitor. The digitizer had a motor-
driven XY measurement table and a vertically adjustable
optical sensor with an auto-focus system. The sensor had a
measurement range of 12 mm in the vertical direction. It also
had vertical resolution of 200 nm and lateral resolution of
500 nm. When the wear test reached a checkpoint, each
replica of twelve crown specimens was embedded in PMMA
resin with its occlusal surfaces facing vertically upward,
using the same split mold (stainless steel, hollow cylinder
shaped: 20 mm inner diameter
14.5 mm height). Three
reference marks were made on the top surface of the resin
stub around the replicate crown, by pressing a wax tool tip
against the uncured resin. After curing, the entire resin
replica was removed from the mold and placed under the
optical sensor. The scanned area was 7 mm
7 mm and
contained the entire replicate crown and three reference
marks. All of the scans were obtained at a 30 Hz frequency
using 50 μm step sizes in both the x and y directions. In the
resultant digitized images, three reference marks, which
acted as reference points, could determine a plane, making
all of the specimens comparable. In the present study, the
surface area of the wear facets was chosen as the parameter
representing the substance loss of the veneering porcelain.
Defining the wear area on each crown, the surface area of the
wear facets was calculated using the dedicated software. As
the wear test proceeded, the ceramic loss at all seven
checkpoints was evaluated in sequence. After collecting all
of the separate data at different checkpoints, a fitted wear
curve was generated, which reflected the dynamic evolution
process of the wear behavior of the crown’s occlusal surface.
The wear rate was calculated from the derivative of the wear
loss data relative to time, using numerical differentiation.
 journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials 40 (2014) 23 –32 27

2.4. Morphological observations of the wear surfaces and
subsurfaces
To reveal the different statuses of the microstructure over the
entire wear test, four observation points were selected, which
represented the period before the test and the early, middle and
later wear periods respectively. After 0, 2.5
105, 1
106 and
2.4
106 loading cycles each, two samples were gold sputtered
(MC 1000, Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation, Tokyo, Japan),
followed by morphological observation of the worn surface using
a scanning electron microscope (SEM) (S-4800, Hitachi High-
Technologies Corporation, Tokyo, Japan). Then, these samples
were embedded in PMMA resin and were cross-sectioned along
the central area of the wear surface, parallel to the sagittal plane
of the crown. After being serially polished with increasingly finer
grit silicon carbide paper and diamond paste, the subsurface of
the worn area was also gold sputtered and was inspected by
means of the SEM.
2.5. Statistical analysis
All of the wear rate data were analyzed using repeated
measures ANOVA to determine whether the differences
between the mean wear rate values of veneering porcelain
observed at each checkpoint were statistically significant
(α¼0.05). A repeated measures design was used because
repeated measurements of the same sample were obtained
at different time intervals. Tukey’s post-hoc test was used for
multiple pair-wise comparisons of the means. By comparing
the mean wear rate of each pair of neighboring checkpoints,
three wear stages were distinguished.
3. Results
All of the crowns survived 2.4
106 cycles, and none of them
exhibited any signs of defects after dynamic loading. Only
typical worn surfaces were observed on the veneering porce-
lain of the PFM crowns. The mean wear loss and wear rates of
Table 1 – Summary of wear loss and wear rate after
various chewing cycles (n ¼12).
Cycles Mean wear loss Mean wear rate and
(1
104 and standard standard deviations of
times) deviations of tested porcelain(in mm2/
tested 1
104 cycles)
porcelain
(in mm2)
the crowns after different chewing cycles are summarized in
Table 1. Setting the chewing cycles as the x-axis, a wear curve
is presented below (Fig. 3), showing the tendency of three
distinct wear stages over the whole test. Overall, the bound-
ary between the running-in wear stage and the steady wear
stage was situated at approximately 1
106 cycles because
the mean wear rate at 1
106 cycles (0.02770.017 mm2/1
104
cycles) was significantly lower than that at 5
105 cycles
(0.08770.034 mm2/1
104 cycles) (po0.05), while no signifi-
cant difference in wear rate was observed between 1
106
and 1.5
106 cycles. Thus, under the conditions of the current
study, the running-in wear stage of the veneering porcelain
ranged from about 0 to 1
106 cycles. During this period, the
mean surface area of the wear facets increased continuously,
while the wear rate decreased from 0.19370.038 mm2/1
104
cycles to 0.02770.017 mm2/1
104 cycles. Furthermore, the
boundary between the steady wear stage and the severe wear
stage was situated at approximately 1.5
106 cycles, because
the wear rate between 1
106 and 1.5
106 cycles was always
sustained at a relatively stable low value, while the wear rate
at 2.0
106 cycles (0.05870.017 mm2/1
104 cycles) obviously
increased, compared with that at 1.5
106 cycles (0.0067
0.003 mm2/1
104 cycles) (po0.05). Therefore from about
1
106 to 1.5
106 cycles, the porcelain of the PFM crowns
underwent a steady wear stage such that the mean surface
area of the wear facets increased slowly and slightly. After
approximately 1.5
106 cycles, the severe wear stage was
reached during which both the mean surface area of the wear
facets and the mean wear rate showed upward trends.
Although the reduction in the wear rate between 2.5
105
and 5
105 cycles did not showed a significant difference
(p40.05), the mean wear rate at 1
106 cycles resumed showing
an obvious decrease, compared with that at 5
105 cycles
(po0.05). Additionally, the period between 0 to 1
106 cycles
demonstrated an overall downward trend. Therefore, the wear
process between 2.5
105 and 5
105 cycles belonged to the
running-in wear stage and could not be considered a boundary
that distinguished different wear stages.
Based on the wear curve determined above, morphological
observations at 0, 2.5
105, 1
106 and 2.4
106 cycles demon-
strated the veneering porcelain of PFM crowns situated before
the test period and during running-in, steady and severe wear

0 0 Tukey
test
12.5 2.4170.47 0.19370.038 A
25 3.7270.57 0.10570.045 B
50 5.8970.65 0.08770.034 B
100 7.2370.84 0.02770.017 CD
150 7.5370.85 0.00670.003 D
200 10.4371.54 0.05870.017 BC
240 12.8571.26 0.06170.017 BC

The means are not statistically different at P¼ 0.05 in groups with

the same letter (Tukey test).
Fig. 3 – The wear curve of dental porcelain over the entire
wear process.
28 journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials 40 (2014) 23 –32

Fig. 4 – SEM images of the morphology of the wear facets of veneering porcelain on PFM crowns at different stages: (a) before
the test; (b) dotted circle on (a) at greater magnification; (c) running-in wear stage; (d) dotted circle on (c) at greater
magnification; (e) steady wear stage; (f) dotted circle on (e) at greater magnification; (g) severe wear stage; (h) dotted circle on
(g) at greater magnification.

stages, respectively. Regarding these morphological observa-
tions of the wear surface, SEM images of the non-dynamic
loading specimens showed intact and smooth surfaces (Fig. 4a
and b), while during the running-in wear stage, roughening of
the ceramic surfaces was observed over the occlusal contact
area. The mass of small wear traces was densely distributed
over these roughening surfaces (Fig. 4c and d). During the
steady wear stage, these wear traces grew larger and coalesced
with each other, forming several cracks (Fig. 4e), while some
relatively smooth surfaces emerged among the roughening
surfaces (Fig. 4f). When the severe wear stage was reached,
the size of cracks increased, while the area of relatively smooth
surfaces decreased (Fig. 4g and h).
Regarding morphological observations of the subsurface of
the worn area, SEM images of the non-dynamic loading
specimens showed an intact inner structure of porcelain
and a continuously smooth occlusal surface (Fig. 5a and b).
During the running-in wear stage, SEM fractographic anal-
ysis revealed an uneven occlusal surface with many tiny
defects (Fig. 5c and d), while the inner structure of porcelain
remained intact. During the steady wear stage, the initiation of
cracks occurred at the shallow subsurface of the porcelain,
closing onto the occlusal surface (Fig. 5e and f). The path of
propagation of the cracks was oblique. When the severe wear
stage was reached, the bulk of the porcelain was fractured,
leaving hollow defects on the occlusal surface (Fig. 5g and h).
4. Discussion
In this study, the time-dependent wear behavior of veneering
porcelain in PFM crowns was investigated in a custom-designed
chewing simulator. The research hypothesis that the wear
process of the veneering porcelain would consist of three
 journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials 40 (2014) 23 –32 29

Fig. 5 – The sectional SEM morphology of worn veneering porcelain on PFM crowns at different stages: (a) before the test;
(b) dotted circle on (a) at greater magnification; (c) running-in wear stage; (d) dotted circle on (c) at greater magnification; (e)
steady wear stage; (f) dotted circle on (e) at greater magnification; (g) severe wear stage; (h) dotted circle on (g) at greater
magnification.

distinct wear stages was confirmed. According to the wear
curve, the tendency of the three wear stages could be identified.
From about the beginning to 1
106 cycles, the porcelain of the
PFM crowns underwent a running-in wear stage; from about
1
106 to 1.5
106 cycles, the samples were sustained in a
steady wear stage; and after approximately 1.5
106 cycles, they
reached a severe wear stage. Although the wear loss of the PFM
crowns’ occlusal surfaces showed an obvious increasing trend
during the running-in and severe wear stages, it increased only
slightly during the steady wear stage. The wear rate first
decreased from the running-in to the steady wear stage and
then increased from the steady to the severe wear stage. These
changing features in wear behavior were similar to the typical
tribological characteristics of wear components, which usually
showed the changing trend of the three wear stages during the
entire wear process (Wen and Huang, 2012).
Among different wear assays, the simulation of masticatory
movement by chewing simulators has been widely used and has
been perceived as a valid model for in vitro testing, to provide
a clinically relevant loading pattern and test environment
(Heintze, 2006; Mehl et al., 2007; Mormann et al., 2013; Preis
et al., 2012). When the blunt indenter contacted with the occlusal
surface of the ceramic crown, several different types of stress
zones generated in the bi-layer structures. Apart from the
inevitable phenomenon of oral wear, these stress fields were
also responsible for the generation of cone cracking, plastic
deformation and radial cracking respectively (Lawn et al., 2004).
And these failure (cracking) modes were closely related to the
clinical failed ceramic restorations (Zhang et al., 2013). In addi-
tion, there were two main reasons for choosing the veneering
porcelain of PFM crowns as the representatives: metal–ceramic
crowns remain widely used clinically (Reitemeier et al., 2006;
Walton, 1999), and compared with lithium disilicate ceramic and
zirconia ceramic, veneering porcelain, which is a feldspathic
ceramic, usually has moderate wear resistance (Kim et al., 2012;
Preis et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2012), which would render the
30 journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials 40 (2014) 23 –32
entire test more efficient. All of the specimens were made into
anatomical full PFM crowns, aiming to bridge the gap between
laboratory tests and clinical cases. Sornsuwan et al. (2011)
indicated that occlusal surface geometry should also be consid-
ered with regard to the generation of stress during occlusal
contact. Therefore, the choice of a standard anatomical crown
not only standardized the experimental conditions, but it also
provided a clinically relevant stress state. Permanent thermal
cycling with water kept the specimens wet during the entire test
and caused additional aging of the ceramics. A wet environment
should enhance subcritical crack growth due to structural
changes in the ceramic (Taskonak et al., 2008).
Throughout the entire wear process, the changing
trends in the wear curve and the SEM images suggested
that there existed a significant correlation among the wear
loss, the wear rate and the microstructure of the full crown
specimens. At the beginning of the wear testing, high
contact stress was generated as a result of point contacts
between the antagonist and the occlusal surface of the PFM
crown. Under such stress conditions, the veneering porce-
lain, which consisted of a brittle glass ceramic with little or
no plastic deformation, was subject to brittle breakage
(Gonzaga et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2013). Ravikiran and
Lim (1999) also indicated that a greater load was more likely
to cause ceramic particle fracture and easy separation from
the base material. Therefore, during the running-in wear
stage, the mass of superficial porcelain of the PFM crown in
the contact zone, with a smaller contact area and under
higher contact stress, experienced obvious wear damage
and material loss. Correspondingly, the wear curve showed
rapid growth during this period. SEM images of the wear
facets during the running-in wear stage, revealing rough
surfaces with grooves, defects and chipping (Fig. 4c and d),
suggested active wear behavior at the occlusal surface.
While from the cross-sectional view, brittle breakage and
chipping were confined to the superficial ceramic layer,
with the deeper ceramic structure of the subsurface
remaining intact. As wear progressed, the contact area
increased gradually, which in turn reduced the contact
stress (Bailey et al., 1981). Consequently, the wear rate
persistently decreased from the running-in wear stage to
the steady wear stage. When it decreased to less than a
certain threshold, a balance might be achieved among the
stress condition, the wear behavior and the microstructure
of the PFM crown. Such a period was called the steady wear
stage, during which the surface area of the wear facets
increased slowly and the wear rate maintained at a rela-
tively low value. Under these circumstances, the stress
intensity factor caused by the lower stress condition did
not reach a critical level (Baran et al., 2001; Cesar et al.,
2008). Therefore, delaminating and chipping of the super-
ficial ceramic layer of the crown presented slow and stable
growth, rather than dramatic fracturing, which predomi-
nated during the running-in wear stage. During the steady
wear stage, decreasing the density of wear tracks and
having smooth surfaces (Fig. 4e and f) were observed in
the contact zone, indicating lower wear activity on the
crown’s surface. However, from the cross-sectional view,
the generated cracks were located in the shallow subsur-
face of the porcelain and closed onto the occlusal surface
(Fig. 5f), due to the dynamic loading (Kim et al., 2008; White
et al., 1997). Compared with the intact inner structure of
porcelain in the non-dynamically loaded specimens, the
presence of cracks indicated that the mechanical properties
of the veneering porcelain began to degenerate (Chen et al.,
1999; Kelly, 1999). With the propagation of cracks and the
penetration of the ceramic layer, the balance that was
created during the steady wear stage collapsed. Blocks of
ceramic material separated from the occlusal surface,
leaving only pit-like defects (Fig. 5h), which increased the
area of surface wear. Such a performance implied that the
wear behavior of the crown reached the severe wear stage.
Even the contact stress consistently decreased, so the
subsurface ceramic structure, which was already fragile,
might fracture easily under lower stress conditions (Attia
et al., 2006; Kelly, 1999; Zhang et al., 2013).
Ceramco III, which is generally used for the veneering of
metal substructures with the hand-layered technique, is a
type of low-fusing feldspathic-based glass-ceramic (Cesar
et al., 2008). With its fine-grained leucite (K2O  Al2O3  4SiO2)
crystalline phase (Cattell et al., 2001; Ong et al., 2000), the
mechanical properties of dental porcelain can be promoted to
some extent due to the toughening mechanisms of crack
deflection and crack-tip shielding action (Cesar et al., 2005;
Morena et al., 1986). However, the inherent brittleness of the
ceramic remains unchanged because it continues to exhibit
low tensile strength and low ductility and toughness values
(Quinn et al., 2003). Both brittle fracturing and fatigue wear
are known to be responsible for the wear behavior of
ceramic materials (D’Incau et al., 2012; Mair et al., 1996;
Suputtamongkol et al., 2010). According to Mair et al. (1996),
the compression and tension zones were generated in porce-
lain when an antagonist contacted and slid over porcelain.
With limited capacity for plastic deformation, microcracks
can nucleate and propagate as a result of repeated stress (Yu
et al., 2006). Eventually, these cracks might connect with one
another, resulting in the separation and delamination of
material pieces. For the veneering porcelain of the PFM crown
investigated in this study, the wear behavior during the
running-in wear stage was dominated by brittle fractures of
the superficial ceramic, which resulted in a large number of
wear traces, while with the ongoing wear process, the wear
behavior was converted to fatigue wear during the severe
wear stage. When the propagation of cracks reached the
occlusal surface, fairly large fragments of material detached.
As for the steady wear stage, it was a transitional period
before the cracks reached the critical condition.
Our investigation of the three featured wear stages of PFM
crowns should be a starting point for exploring their underlying
wear mechanisms, adding a new dimension to the under-
standing of the complex wear behavior of the oral cavity and
providing a novel method for estimating the wear resistance of
all kinds of ceramic restorations. The previous evaluation
methods, which mainly focused on the amount of wear loss
but ignored the existence of three wear stages, might not be
ideal for analyzing the wear behavior of ceramic restorations.
For example, after the same number of wear cycles, the wear
loss of two different kinds of ceramic crowns are at the same
level, but the wear statuses are in different wear stages, and the
situation is too arbitrary to decide whether the two kinds of
 journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials 40 (2014) 23 –32
crowns have the same wear resistance. Moreover, when under
the same test conditions, if the one crown with low wear loss
reaches the severe wear stage, while another experiences
relatively high wear loss but is still in the steady wear stage,
it’s also irrational to conclude that the wear performance of the
former is superior. In addition, the duration of each wear stage
should also be a primary determinant regarding the evaluation
of wear performance.
Rather than reaching a certain condition instantaneously,
the change in wear behavior between the different stages was
likely to be experienced as a gradual transition because the
wear rate and the microstructure of the PFM crown main-
tained constantly evolving processes. Therefore, in the cur-
rent study, the boundaries of the three wear stages, which
were determined by the wear curve and by statistical analy-
sis, were simply approximate demarcations of wear behavior,
mainly aiming to reveal the existence of different wear stages
during the crown’s mastication. In addition, according to
several surveys, the maximum bite force of the population
ranges from 446 N to 1221 N (Bonakdarchian et al., 2009;
Ferrario et al., 2004; Regalo et al., 2008), and when chewing
different kinds of food, the crushing forces are also variable
(55.6 to 529.5 N) (Schindler et al., 1998). Although the ceramic
prostheses were not always under maximum bite forces in
clinical conditions, it was necessary to consider the possibi-
lity that the ceramic restorations would work under different
complex and rigorous conditions for long duration. Moreover,
when opposing different antagonists, the porcelain exhibited
corresponding wear resistance (Kadokawa et al., 2006),
because the wear components were always paired. Therefore,
the influence of different stress levels on the changing trend
in wear behavior, as well as the way how veneering porcelain
performs in combination with enamel, deserves to be inves-
tigated in further studies.
5. Conclusion
Under the simulation of masticatory movement, the time-
dependent wear behavior of the veneering porcelain of PFM
crowns exhibited three typical wear stages (running-in wear
stage, steady wear stage and severe wear stage), similar to
the tribological characteristics presented in mechanical sys-
tems. Both the wear loss and the wear rate were not linearly
dependent. The wear rate decreased firstly and increased
subsequently, maintaining the lowest wear rate during the
steady wear stage. Meanwhile, no matter the worn surface or
the subsurface, the microstructure of ceramic crown degen-
erated gradually during the entire wear process.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Prof. Zhao Xinyi and Mr. Gong Xu from the
Department of Dental Materials of the Fourth Military Medical
University for their technological support. This study was
financially supported by the Natural Science Foundation of
China (no. 81371176).
31
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