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Applied Geophysics Second Edition W. M. Telford McGill University L. P. Geldart Former Canadian International Development Agency Program Director for Brazil R. E. Sheriff University of Houston ase | Ni iv: ogee Cambridge University Press Cambridge New York Port Chester Melbourne Sydney RE fac THAT cZ Published by the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge ‘The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 RP 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011, USA 10 Stamford Road, Oableigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia {© Cambridge University Press 1990 First published 1990 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ‘Telford, W. M. (William Murray), 1917— "Applied geophysics /W. M. Telford, L. P. Geldart, R. E. Sheriff. — 2nd ed. poem Includes bibliographies and index. ISBN 04521-32693. — ISBN 0-521.23938-3 pdt 1. Prospecting — Geophysical methods, 1. Geldart, L. P. 1, Shesiff, Robert E. Il. Tile. TNU9.T44_ 1990 622'15-del9 88-38761 cP British Library Cataloguing in Publication Date Telford, W. M. (William Murray) ‘Applied geophysics. — 2nd ed. 1. Mineral deposits. Prospecting. Applications of ‘geophysics [Title I, Geldart, L. P, II Sheriff, R. E. (Robert Edward), 1922- ais ISBN 0-521-32693-1_ hardback ISBN 0.521-33938.3 paperback ‘Transferred to digital printing 2004 Contents Preface to the Second Edi in /xv Excerpts from Preface to the FirstEdi- tion / xvii Mathematical Conventions / xix 1, Introduction /1 Reference / 5 2. Gravity Methods /6 21. Introduction / 6 General /6 History of Gravity Exploration /6 22. Principles of Gravity / 7 2.2.1. Newton’s Law of Gravitation /7 22.2. Acceleration of Gravity /7 2.2.3. — Gravitational Potential /7 2. Potential-Field Equations /9 2. Derivatives of the Potential /9 23. Gravity of the Earth/ 10 23.4, Figure of the Earth /10 232. Gravity Reduction / 11 23.3. Densities of Rocks and Minerals / 15 2.3.4. — Density Estimates from Field Results / 18 2.4, Gravity Instruments / 19 241, General / 19 242. Absolute Measurement of Gravity /20 Relative Measurement of Gravity /20 25. Field Operations / 23 Land Surveys /23 Drift Correction / 24 Marine Surveys / 24 Airborne Gravity /26 pyyn BRNP 26. Gravity Data Processing / 26 2.6.1. Noise, Regionals, and Residuals / 26 2.62. Graphical Residualizing /27 2.6.3, Surface-Fitting Residualizing Methods /27 264. — Empirical Gridding Methods / 27 2.6.5. Second Vertical Derivative Methods /32 2.6.6. Wavelength Filtering /32 26.7, Field Continuation /32 27. Gravity Interpretation / 34 2.7.1. General /34 2.7.2, Gravity Effect of a Sphere /35 2.7.3, Gravity Effect of a Horizontal Rod /36 2.7.4. — Gravity Effect of a Vertical Cylinder / 37 275. Gravity Effect of a Thin Dipping Sheet /39 2.7.6. — Gravity Effect of Horizontal Sheets, Slabs, Dikes, and Faults /40 2.7.1. Applying Simple Models to Actual Anomalies / 44 2.7.8. Gravity Effects of Complex Shapes / 44 2.7.9. The Direct and Inverse Problems of Interpretation / 46 2.7.10. Excess Mass /47 27.11. Overburden Effects / 48 2.7.12. Maximum-Depth Rules / 48 28. Field Examples / 48 29. Problems / 52 References / 60 3. Magnetic Methods / 62 3.1. Introduction / 62 General / 62 History of Magnetic Methods / 62 3.2, Principles and Elementary Theory / 63 3.2.1. Classical versus Electromagnetic Concepts / 63 322, BH Relations: The Hysteresis, Loop / 64 32.3. Magnetostatic Potential for a Dipole Field / 65 ‘The General Magnetic Anomaly / 66 Poisson’s Relation / 67 324. 325. 33. Magnetism of the Earth / 67 33.1. Nature of the Geomagnetic Field /67 The Main Field /68 The External Magnetic Field /72 Local Magnetic Anomalies /72 Magnetism of Rocks and Minerals /72 Remanent Magnetism /73 Magnetic Susceptibilities of Rocks and Minerals /73, 3.38. Magnetic Susceptibility Measurements /73 3.4, Field Instruments for Magnetic ‘Measurements / 75 General /75 Flux-gate Magnetometer / 75 Proton-Precession Magnetometer /77 Optically Pumped Magnetometer /78 Contents 345, Gradiometers / 80 3.4.6. Instrument Recording / 80 3.4.7. Calibration of Magnetometers /80 3.5, Field Operations / 80 35.1. General /80 35.2. Airborne Magnetic Surveys /81 3.5.3. Shipborne Magnetic Surveys / 83 35.4. Ground Magnetic Surveys /&3 3.5.5. Gradiometer Surveys / 84 3.6. Magnetic Effects of Simple Shapes / 84 3.6.1. General /84 3.6.2. The Isolated Pole (Monopole) / 85 3.6.3. The Dipole /87 3.64, Two-Dimensional Features / 88 3.65. Dipping Dike (Prism) /92 3.66. Dipping Sheet /97 3.6.7. Horizontal Sheet (Plate) / 100 3.6.8. Semiinfinite Horizontal Sheet: Fault Approximation / 100 3.6.9. Contact between Beds of Different Susceptibilities / 103 3.6.10, Demagnetization / 104 3.7. Processing and Interpretation / 106 3.7.1. General / 106 3.7.2. Crude Interpretation and Structural Aspects / 106 3.7.3. Data Processing Operations: The Fourier Transform / 107 3.7.4. Derivatives / 107 3.7.5. Continuation / 107 3.7.6. Spectral Analysis / 108 3.7.7. Reduction to the Pole / 109 3.7.8. Use of Master Curves for Dikes of Great Depth Extent / 109 3.7.9. Matched Filtering / 112 3.7.10. Werner Deconvolution / 112 3.7.11. Depth Estimates / 113 3.8. Field Examples / 114 3.8.1. Ground Surveys / 114 3.8.2. Airborne Surveys / 117 3.9. Problems / 124 References / 134 Contents 4, Seismic Methods / 136 4.1. Introduction / 136 4.1.1, Importance of Seismic Work / 136 4.1.2. History of Seismic Exploration / 137 41,3, Outline of the Seismic Reflection Method / 139 4.2. Seismic Theory / 140 Theory of Elasticity / 140 Wave Equation and Its Solutions / 143 Body Waves: P and S Waves / 147 Surface Waves / 149 Energy of Waves / 149 Wave Motion / 151 Partitioning of Energy at an Interface / 155 Seismic Velocity / 158 428. 43. Geometry of Seismic Wavepaths / 162 43.1. Reflection Paths in a Constant Velocity Layer / 162 Velocity Gradient and Raypath Curvature / 167 Geometry of Refraction Paths / 169 44. Characteristics of Seismic Events / 175 44,1, Distinguishing Features of Events / 175 Reflections and Refractions / 175 Diffractions / 176 Multiples / 178 Surface Waves / 182 Effects of Reflector Curvature / 182 Types of Seismic Noise / 184 Attenuation of Noise / 185 45. Reflection Field Methods and Equipment / 186 43.2. 433. 44.2. 45.1, Field Methods for Land Surveys / 186 452, — Field Layouts / 187 45.3. Field Equipment for Land Surveys / 192 4.5.4. 45.5. Marine Equipment and Methods / 202 Measurement of Velocity / 207 4.6. Refraction Field Methods and 46.1. 4.6.2. 46.3. 4.6.4, 465. 4.6.6. Equipment / 209 E ‘Comparison of Refraction and Reflection Methods / 209 In-Line Refraction / 209 Broadside Refraction and Fan Shooting / 210 Engineering Surveys on Land /211 Marine Refraction Work /212 Refraction Data Reduction /212 4.7. Data Processing / 214 471, 4722. 4.1.3. 414. 475. 4.76. 477. 47.8. 479. 4.7.10. 4711. 4112, 47.13. 47.14, Data Reduction / 214 Introduction to Digital Processing: Fourier ‘Transforms / 216 Convolution / 217 Correlation / 222 Phase Considerations / 226 Frequency Filtering /226 Velocity Analysis / 229 Common-Midpoint Stacking / 229 Apparent-Velocity (Apparent- Dip) Filtering /229 The p-r Transform / 230 Relative-Amplitude Processing / 230 Migration or Imaging / 230 Measures of Coherence /232 Other Types of Processing / 233 48, Basic Geological Concepts in 48.1. 48.2. Petroleum Exploration / 233 Basic Concepts / 233 Objectives of Interpretation / 235 49, Refraction Interpretation / 235 49.1. 49.2. 49.3. 49.4, 4.9.5. Interpretation of Refraction Records / 235 Refraction Interpretation Methods / 237 Delay-Time Methods / 237 Wavefront Methods / 240 Engineering Applications / 242 4.10. Reflection Interpretation / 243 410.1. 410.2. Interpretation Techniques / 243 Modeling: Synthetic Seismograms / 245 Evidences of Faulting / 248 Fold and Flow Structures / 250 Reefs /257 Unconformities and Seismic Facies Patterns / 262 4.10.7, Use of Velocity Information / 262 4.10.8, Hydrocarbon Indicators / 262 4.11. Specialized Methods / 264 411.1. Profiling /264 4112. Three-Dimensional Methods / 267 4.13, Use of Channel Waves /270 4.11.4, Vertical Seismic Profiling /270 4.11.5. Shear Waves in _ Exploration / 271 4.11.6, Variation of Amplitude with Offset /271 4.11.7. Cross-Hole Methods /271 412, Problems / 273 References / 280 5. Electrical Properties of Rocks and Minerals / 283 5.1. Classification of Electrical Methods / 283 5.2. Electrical Properties of Rocks and Minerals / 283 Electrical Potentials / 283 Electrical Conductivities / 284 Magnetic Permeability / 287 Polarization Potentials / 287 521. 5.2.2. 5.2.3, 524, 5.3, Measurement of Electrical Properties ‘of Rocks and Minerals / 268 5.3.1. Laboratory Measurement of Resistivity / 288 5.32. Measurement of Dielectric Constant / 288 Contents 5.4. Typical Values of Electrical Constants ‘of Rocks and Minerals / 289 5.4.1. Resistivities of Rocks and Minerals / 289 5.4.2, Dielectric Constants of Rocks and Minerals /291 5.43, Magnetic Permeability of Minerals / 292 References / 292 6. Methods Employing Natural Electrical Sources / 293 6.1. Self-Potential Method / 293 6.1.1, Origin of Potentials / 293 6.12, Self-Potential Field Equipment /296 6.1.3. Field Procedure / 296 6.1.4, Interpretation of Self-Potential Data /297 6.2. Telluric and Magnetotelluric Methods / 302 6.2.1, Origin and Characteristics of Magnetotelluric Fields and Telluric Currents / 302 6.2.2, Elementary Electromagnetic Theory / 306 6.2.3, Attenuation of EM Fields /307 6.2.4. Boundary Conditions /309 6.2.5. Magnetotelluric Fields /309 6.2.6. Field Equipment and Operations / 311 6.2.1. Interpretation of Telluric Data /314 62.8. Interpretation of Magnetotelluric Data / 317 63, Field Examples / 327 63.1. Self-Potential /327 6.3.2. Tellurics and Magnetotellurics / 327 64. Problems / 335 References / 342 Contents 7. Electromagnetic Methods / 343 7.6. EM Field Procedures / 383 7.1, Introduction and Historical 7.7. Interpretation / 383 Background / 343 Introduction /383 7.2, Electromagnetic Theory / 343 cuir ra 7.2.1. Vector and Scalar 7.1.3. Ground Systems; FDEM over Potentials /343 Dipping Sheet / 385 72.2. Description of EM Fields; 7.1.4. Ground Systems; TDEM over _ Biot-Savart Law /344 Dipping Sheet / 409 72.3, Field in the Frequency 7.1.5. The Sphere Model in FD and Domain /345 TD Ground Systems / 436 7.2.4, Combination of FD Fields / 350 7.7.6 — Layered Structure: EM Depth 7.2.5. Mutual Inductance / 353 Sounding / 441. 7.26, Fields in the Time Domain / 355 7.1.1, Interpretation of Airborne EM : Data /450 7.3. EM Equipment / 361 cae Turair / 454 7.3.1. General /361 179. 7.3.2. Power Sources / 361 7710. 7.33, Transmitter Loops / 362 771. 1.3.4, Receiver Coils / 362 7712. 135. Re Amplifiers / 362 13.6. Indicators /363 73.7. Compensating Networks / 363 7.4. EM Field Systems for Ground Surveys / 364 7.41. General /364 7.42. — Frequency-Domain Systems; Dip-Angle Measurements / 364 7.4.3. FD Systems for Phase- ‘Component 821. Measurements / 370 7.44. Time-Domain EM Ground 8.22. Systems /372 : Measurement of H /376 823. Assessment of EM Ground Methods /377 8.2.4, 7.5. Airborne EM Systems / 377 425, General /377 Quadrature Method /377 Airborne VLF / 454 Phase-Component AEM / 456 Resistivity Mapping / 460 Input AEM / 464 7.8. Field Examples / 477 7.9. Problems / 504 References / 519 8. Resistivity Methods / 522 81, Introduction / 522 82. Elementary Theory / 522 Potentials in Homogeneous Media / 522 Single Current Electrode at Depth /523 Single Current Electrode at Surface / 523 Two Current Electrodes at Surface / 524 Current Distribution / 525 83. Effect of Inhomogeneous Turair System / 377 Ground / $27 Airborne VLF /378 83.1, Introduction / 527 Phase-Component 8.3.2. Distortion of Current Flow at a Measurements / 378 Plane Interface / 527 756. Transient (Input) Method / 379 8.3.3. Distortion of Potential at a Plane 78.1. Cryogenic EM System /383 Interface / 527 758 Assessment of 8.3.4. Surface Potential due to Airborne EM /383 Horizontal Beds / 529 83.5. Potential Due to Buried Sphere / 530 83.6. Effect of Anisotropic Ground / 531 8.3.7. Effect of Topography / 532 84, Equipment for Resistivity Field Work / 532 8.4.1, Power Sources / 532 842. — Meters /534 843. Electrodes and Wire / 535 85. Electrode Layouts and Field Procedure / $35 85.1. General /535 85.2. Apparent Resistivity /535 85.3. Electrode Arrays (Spreads) / 535 85.4, Resistivity Field Procedures / 538 86, Interpretation / 539 86.1. Introduction /539 8.6.2. Resistivity Modeling /539 8.6.3. Vertical Sounding; Two Horizontal Beds / 539 8.6.4. Vertical Sounding; Multiple Horizontal Beds / 544 8.6.5. Lateral Mapping; Vertical Contact / 554 8.6.6. The Vertical Dike / 559 86.7. Mapping Three-Dimensional ‘Anomalies / 561 8.68, Measuring Overburden Depth and Resistivity / 562 87. Field Examples / 565 88. Problems / 570 References / 577 9, Induced Polarization /578 91. Introduction / 578 9.2. Sources of the Induced Polarization Effects / 578 General /578 Membrane Polarization / 579 Electrode Polarization /579 Equivalent Electrical Circuits / 581 Contents 9.3. Induced Polarization ‘Measurements / 581 93.1. General /581 9.3.2. Time-Domain Measurements / 581 9.3.3. Frequency-Domain Measurements / 582 9.34. Relative Phase Shift and Phase ‘Components / 582 9.3.5. Magnetic Induced Polarization (MIP) Measurements / 583 9 Relation between Time- and Frequency-Domain IP Measurements / 583 93.7. IP Response Examples / 583 9.4. IP Field Operations / 584 9. General / 584 9.42. — Field Equipment / 584 9.43. Field Procedures / 588 9.4.4, Noise Sources / $89 95. Interpretation / 591 9.5.1. Plotting Methods /591 9.5.2. General Interpretation / 595 9.5.3, Theoretical and Model Work / 596 96, Field Examples / 602 9.7. Problems / 604 References / 609 40. Radioactivity Method /611 10.1. Introduction / 611 10.2. Principles of Radioactivity / 611 10.2.1. Constituents of the Nucleus /611 10.2.2. Nuclear Disintegrations / 612 10.2.3. Radioactive Decay Processes / 614 10.24, Radioactive Equilibrium / 617 10.2.5. Units /618 10.2.6. Radioactivity of Rocks and Minerals / 619 10.2.7, Age Determination Using Radioisotopes / 619 10.3. Instruments / 620 103.1, Introduction / 620 10.3.2. Geiger-Miller Counter / 620 Contents Scintillation Meter / 621 Gamma-Ray Spectrometer / 622 Miscellaneous Instruments / 627 Calibration of Instruments / 628 104. Field Operations / 628 105. Interpretation / 629 106. Field Examples / 634 107. Problems / 637 References / 644 11. Geophysical Well Logging / 645 11.1. Introduction / 645 11.1.1. — Uses of Well Logging / 645 11.1.2. History of Well Logging / 645 11.1.3, General Aspects of Well Logging / 646 11.1.4. Rock Property Measurements / 647 11.2, Resistivity Methods / 648 11.2.1, Introduction to Resistivity Logging / 648 11.22. Normal Resistivity Logging / 649 11.2.3. Lateral Arrangement / 650 11.2.4, Microlog / 650 11.2.5, Focused-Current Logs / 651 11.26, Induction Log / 652 11.2.7. Resistivity Logging in Mineral Search / 654 11.3. Self-Potential (SP) Logging / 654 11.3.1. Sources of SP / 654 11.3.2. Instrumentation / 655 11.3.3. Uses of SP Curves in Oil-Well Logging / 656 11.3.4. Uses of SP Curves in Mineral Logging / 688 11.35. Geological Interpretation of SP / 658 11.4, The Dipmeter/ 659 11.5. Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Method / 663 11.6. Induced Polarization Logging / 665 11.7. Elastic: Wave (Acoustic) Methods / 665 11.7.1. _ Elastic Waves in Boreholes / 665 11.7.2. Sonic Log / 667 11.7.3, Amplitude and Full-Waveform Logs / 670 11.7.4, Borehole Televiewer / 672 11.8. Nuclear Methods / 673 11.8.1. Nuclear Processes / 673 11.8.2, Gamma-Ray Logging / 675 11.83, Density Log / 676 11.8.4, Neutron Logging / 677 11.9. Gravity, Magnetic, and Thermal Methods / 681 11.9.1, Gravity and Magnetic Field Logging / 681 11.9.2. Susceptibility Log / 681 11.9.3. Nuclear Magnetic-Resonance Log / 682 11.9.4. Thermal Logging / 683 11.10. Well-Log Interpretation / 683 11.10.1. General / 683 11.1.2, Combining Measurements from Several Logs / 683 11.11. Field Examples / 664 11.111. Analysis of an Oil Sand /684 11.1.2, Analysis of Carbonate Section / 684 Coal Identification / 684 Evaporites / 685 Sulfur / 687 Slate and Chert / 687 Mineral Exploration / 687 Borehole Methods in the USSR / 689 11.12. Problems / 690 11.113, 111.4, 11.115. 11.116. 11,11.7. 11.118. References / 698 12. Integrated Geophysical Problems /700 12.1. Introduction / 700 12.2, Examples and Problems / 701 Appendix A. Mathematical Background /727 Al. Determinants / 727 A2. Matrices / 728 A. Vector Analysis / 729 Basic Theory /729 Vector Products /730 The Vector Operator V /731 Vector Theorems /731 AA. Curvilinear Coordinates / 733 AS. Taylor's Series; Maclaurin’s Series / 735 A6. Binomial Expansion / 736 AZ. Complex Numbers / 736 AB Method of Least Squares / 737 AQ. Fourier Series and Transforms / 738 AQ1. Fourier Series /738 92. Fourier Integral; Fourier Transforms / 738 A93, Digital Functions; 2 Transforms /740 A10. Convolution / 740 All. Correlation / 741 A.1L.1. _Cross-Correlation /741 A.11.2. Autocorrelation /741 Contents A12._ Laplace Transforms / 741 A121. Basic Theory /741 A122. Calculation of Laplace Transforms /742 A123, Transforms of the Error Function and its Derivatives / 742 A.13._ Linear Systems / 743 References / 744 Appendix B. Location Determination / 745 8.1. Direction Determination / 745 B.2. Distance Measurement / 745 8.3. Elevation Measurement / 745 8.4. Angle Measurement / 746 B.5. Doppler Measurement of Velocity / 746 B.6. Radionavigation / 746 B.7. Acoustic and Inertial Positioning / 748 B.8. Satellite Positioning / 749 Reference / 750 Index /751 Dr. David A. Keys, the fourth author of the first edition, died in 1978, He ‘was one of the authors of Applied Geophysics in the Search for Minerals by Eve and Keys, first published in 1929, which made it one of the earliest texts in applied geophysics. It served several generations of geophysicists in the course of four editions. In the mid-1960s, Dr. Keys suggested to the senior author that they collaborate in preparing a fifth edition; this was the starting point for what turned out to be an entirely new book with the shorter title Applied Geophysics. Dr. Keys is remembered with great affection and esteem by his coauthors, two of whom (WMT, LPG) knew him well at McGill University and later as Vice-President (Scientific), National Research Council of Canada, Chalk River. We express our gratitude to the companies, individuals, and other publishers who contributed information and illustrations. In particular, we wish to extend our sincere thanks to Alex Becker, Jerry Roth, and Bill Gore for their invaluable help in the preparation of Chapters, 5 to 10, 3, and 11, respectively. We owe special gratitude to John E. Riddell who provided many examples of mineral exploration drawn from his 35 years of experience in this area. = . Telford Geldart » Sheriff June 1990 W. L R. ms

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