polymer chain.
It is the structure of these side chains that influences the properties of
PLASTICS
Plastic is material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-
synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and so can be molded into solid
objects.
Plasticity is the general property of all materials which can deform irreversibly
without breaking but, in the class of moldable polymers, this occurs to such a degree
that their actual name derives from this ability.
Plastics are typically organic polymers of high molecular mass, but they often
contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived
from petrochemicals, but many are made from renewable materials such as
polylactic acid from corn or cellulosics from cotton linters.
The world's first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite, invented in New York in 1907
by Leo Baekeland who coined the term 'plastics'. Many chemists have contributed to
the materials science of plastics, including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger who
has been called "the father of polymer chemistry" and Herman Mark, known as "the
father of polymer physics".
Ethymology
The word plastic derives from the Greek word (plastikos) meaning "capable of
being shaped or molded" and, in turn, from (plastos) meaning "molded".
The plasticity, or malleability, of the material during manufacture allows it to
be cast, pressed, or extruded into a variety of shapes, such as: films, fibers, plates,
tubes, bottles, boxes, amongst many others.
Structure
Most plastics contain organic polymers. The vast majority of
these polymers are formed from chains of carbon atoms, 'pure' or with the addition
of: oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. The chains comprise many repeat units, formed
from monomers. Each polymer chain will have several thousand repeating units.
The backbone is the part of the chain that is on the "main path", linking
together a large number of repeat units.
To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups "hang"
from this backbone. In reality, however, the "pendant units" are usually "hung" as part
of the monomers, before the monomers themselves are linked together to form the
the polymer.
The molecular structure of the repeating unit can be fine-tuned to influence
specific properties in the polymer.
History
The development of plastics has evolved from the use of natural plastic
materials (e.g., chewing gum, shellac) to the use of chemically modified, natural
materials (e.g., natural rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen, galalite) and finally to
completely synthetic molecules (e.g., bakelite, epoxy, polyvinyl chloride). Early
plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, which
are organic polymers. In 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls,
bands, and figurines.[3] Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in
the Middle Ages. Materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by
treating milk-proteins (casein) with lye.
In the 1800s, as industrial chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution,
many materials were reported. The development of plastics also accelerated
with Charles Goodyear's discovery of vulcanization to thermoset materials derived
from natural rubber.
Parkesine (nitrocellulose) is considered the first man-made plastic. The plastic
material was patented by Alexander Parkes, In Birmingham, UK in 1856. It was
unveiled at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London. Parkesine won a bronze
medal at the 1862 World's fair in London. Parkesine was made from cellulose (the
major component of plant cell walls) treated with nitric acid as a solvent. The output
of the process (commonly known as cellulose nitrate or pyroxilin) could be dissolved
in alcohol and hardened into a transparent and elastic material that could be
molded when heated. By incorporating pigments into the product, it could be made
to resemble ivory.
In 1897, the Hanover, Germany mass printing press owner Wilhelm Krische was
commissioned to develop an alternative to blackboards. The resultant horn-like
plastic made from the milk protein casein was developed in cooperation with the
Austrian chemist (Friedrich) Adolph Spitteler (1846–1940). The final result was
unsuitable for the original purpose. In 1893, French chemist Auguste Trillat discovered
the means to insolubilize casein by immersion in formaldehyde, producing material
marketed as galalith.
In the early 1900s, Bakelite, the first fully synthetic thermoset, was reported by
Belgian chemist Leo Baekeland by using phenol and formaldehyde.
 After World War I, improvements in chemical technology led to an explosion I. Physical and chemical structures.
in new forms of plastics, with mass production beginning in the 1940s and 1950s II. Preparation methods.
(around World War II) Among the earliest examples in the wave of new polymers III. Physical properties.
were polystyrene (PS), first produced by BASF in the 1930s,and polyvinyl IV. Applications.
chloride (PVC), first created in 1872 but commercially produced in the late 1920s. In
1923, Durite Plastics Inc. was the first manufacturer of phenol-furfural resins. In Classification According To Physical And Chemical Structures
1933, polyethylene was discovered by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) researchers 1. On the basis of functionality or degree of polymerization:
Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett. The functionality of a monomer or its degree of polymerization
In 1954, polypropylene was discovered by Giulio Natta and began to be determines the final polymer that will be formed due to the combination of
manufactured in 1957 the monomers. The number of reactive bonds or groups that are available for
In 1954, expanded polystyrene (used for building insulation, packaging, and coupling will determine whether the monomer will be mono-, bi-, tri-, or
cups) was invented by Dow Chemical. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)'s discovery is polyfunctional.
credited to employees of the Calico Printers' Association in the UK in 1941; it was 2. On the basis of chemical reactions:
licensed to DuPont for the USA and ICI otherwise, and as one of the few plastics Depending upon the basis on which monomers undergo chemical
appropriate as a replacement for glass in many circumstances, resulting in reactions to form polymers, polymers can be further subdivided.
widespread use for bottles in Europe.
Classification According to Preparation Methods:
POLYMER TECHNOLOGY Preparation methods for polymers may be roughly divided into two categories –
A. Condensation Polymerization Methods:
These methods are usually employed for low molecular weight
Definitions and Nomenclature
functional group reactions, where the stoichiometric proportions of the
Polymer:
reactions are fixed for the desired final products. During processing, solvent
Polymers are large chain molecules having a high molecular weight in the
addition may or may not be important. These reactants are usually mixed in a
range of 103 to 107.
batch reactor with controlled temperature and addition of catalysts. Vacuum
Monomer:
processing or Azeotropic Distillation may be employed to remove
A monomer is the single unit or the molecule which is repeated in the
condensation products such as H2O to obtain a higher degree of
polymer chain.
polymerization.
Thermosetting Polymer:
B. Addition Polymerization Methods:
They are polymers which, when heated, decompose, and hence, cannot be
These methods are carried out with controlled thermal and catalyst
reshaped.
conditions. They may be further classified as –
Thermoplastic Polymer:
i. Bulk Polymerization:
They can be melted repeatedly and casted into various shapes and
This mode of polymerization may be employed to obtain the
structures. They are soluble in solvents, but do not have appreciable thermal
purest form of polymer, and the greatest yield of polymer per unit
resistance properties. Vinyls, cellulose derivatives, polythene and polypropylene fall
volume may be obtained using this method. This method involves only
into the category of thermoplastic polymers.
the monomer molecule, an initiator and a chain transfer agent (if
necessary). In a large scale batch form, the process is to be run slowly
Polymer Classification
or incontinuous mode with large heat transfer area. Casting of objects
Polymers are generally classified on the basis of –
of various shapes may be accomplished using the Batch Bulk
 Polymerization. Using continuous bulk polymerization processes,
polystyrene and other thermoplastic compounds may be moulded.
ii. Solution Polymerization:
An inert solvent is added to the reacting components in the
reaction vessel in this process. The solvent enhances the heat
capacity, thereby reducing the viscosity and facilitating heat transfer.
Some of the solvent may be refluxed to remove heat from the reaction
vessel. But, much of the reactor space is taken up by the solvent.
iii. Suspension Polymerization:
Inorder to control the enormous amount of heat release in Bulk
Polymerization, Suspension Polymerization method was developed.
The reaction mass is dispersed as minute droplets of size 0.01 – 1 mm in
diameter in a continuous aqueous phase.
iv. Emulsion Polymerization:
This is the most widely used method of polymerization. This
process overcomes the difficulty of heat control and low degree of
polymerization. The organic reaction mass is emulsified with soap in a
continuous aqueous phase. The dispersed particles are smaller in size
than in Suspension Polymerization ( ≤ 0.1 µm) .
v. Homogeneous Polymerization:
In case of homogeneous bulk polymerization, the feed is a gas,
liquid or solid monomer. No initiators or additives are used. For
homogeneous Solution polymerization, the monomer is completely
dissolved in a solvent.
vi. Heterogeneous Polymerization:
In heterogeneous Emulsion polymerization, the monomer
molecules are emulsified in aqueous media in the form of micelles. For
heterogeneous Suspension polymerization, the monomer is suspended
in a n aqueous or other type of media as large droplets.
Classification According to Physical Properties:
Polymers can also be classified according to physical properties as-
A. Thermoplastic:
The polymers in this category are composed of monomers which are
linear or have moderate branching. They can be melted repeatedly and
casted into various shapes and structures. They are soluble in solvents, but do
not have appreciable thermal resistance properties. Vinyl’s, cellulose
derivatives, polythene and polypropylene fall into the category of
thermoplastic polymers.
B. Thermosetting:
There are some polymers which, when heated, decompose, and
hence, cannot be reshaped. Such polymers have a complex 3-D network
(cross-linked or branched) and are called Thermosetting Polymers. They are
generally insoluble in solvents and have good heat resistance quality.
Thermosetting polymers include phenol-formaldehyde, urea-aldehyde,
silicones and allyls.
C. Elastomers:
These are resistant solids which have considerable flexibility. They are
composed of polymers with glass transition temperature below room
temperature. One major difference between elastomers and plastics is that
the elastomer is in a liquid state, while plastics are in the glassy state. Examples
of elastomers are Butadiene, Butadiene co – polymers and their derivatives,
poly condensation products, silicones and thiokols.
D. Fibers:
These are solids which can form thread – like structures and have high
tensile strength. Examples of fibers are Polyamides, Polyesters, Polyurethanes,
Protein derivatives.
Classification According to Applications
On the basis of applications, polymers can be further classified as-
A. Adhesives:
Some polymers can be used for bonding. They are usually of the resin
type and require some water resistance. Some common adhesives are
Cellulose adhesives; which consist of cellulose derivatives dissolved in a
solvent. Eg.Duco cement. Vinyls; these are rubber base type water-emulsified
latex adhesives. Apart from these, some cheap natural products such as
starch, dextrins, proteins and natural rubber may also be used for adhesive
formulations.
B. Coatings and films:
A large bulk of the polymers produced are used for manufacturing
coatings and films. Free films of polyethylene and cellulosic types, protective
and decorative coatings are the products of the polymer industry. Coatings
can be manufactured by solvent evaporation followed by polymerization.
Emulsion and casting or extrusion of free films by mechanical methods can
also produce coatings and films.
 C. Fibers: acronym PET is generally used in relation to packaging. Polyester makes up about
These are formed by extrusion or spinning of linear monomer molecules 18% of world polymer production and is the fourth-most-produced polymer;
into thin sections of diameter in the range of 10 – 50 microns. Fibers have polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are first, second
excellent tensile strength, creep and resilience. Fibers are extensively used in and third, respectively.
the textile industry. Cotton, wool etc. are the examples of some natural fibers. PET consists of polymerized units of the monomer ethylene terephthalate, with
repeating (C10H8O4)n units. PET is commonly recycled, and has the number "1" as its
TYPES OF PLASTIC recycling symbol. PET-based containers sometimes absorb odors and flavors from
foods and drinks that are stored inside of them. Because PET is an excellent water and
moisture barrier material, plastic bottles made from PET are widely used for soft drinks.
In many types of plastics, how many can we recycle? What are they made
For certain specialty bottles, such as those designated for beer containment, PET
of? Why do we need different kinds?
sandwiches an additional polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) layer to further reduce its oxygen
Plastic is an essential component of numerous consumer products, including
permeability. PET plastic is used to make many common household items like
water bottles and product containers. However, not every kind of plastic is the same.
beverage bottles, medicine jars, peanut butter jars, combs, bean bags, and rope.
In 1988, the Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI) established a classification system to
Recycled PETE is used to make tote bags, carpet, fiberfill material in winter clothing,
help consumers and recyclers properly recycle and dispose of each different type
and more.
based on its chemical makeup. Today, manufacturers follow a coding system and
In 2016, it was estimated that 56 million tons of PET are produced each year. While
place a number, or SPI code, on each plastic product, usually molded into the
most thermoplastics can, in principle, be recycled, PET bottle recycling is more
bottom. Although you should always verify the plastic classification number of each
practical than many other plastic applications because of the high value of the resin
product you use, especially if you plan on recycling it, this guide provides a basic
and the almost exclusive use of PET for widely used water and carbonated soft drink
outline of the different plastic types associated with each code number.
bottling.
General Types of Plastic
PET Packaging Recycling Process
1. Thermoplastic
PET bottles and thermoforms can be recycled by reclaimers to create washed
Thermoplastic defines as capable of softening or fusing when heated and of
recycled PET flake or PET pellets, known as rPET, that are used in a variety of
hardening again when cooled.
applications including: textiles, carpet fiber, strapping, sheet extrusion and new PET
2. Thermosetting
bottles. PET is valued for its good physical properties, safety for use with food and
Capable of becoming permanently rigid when heated or cured.
beverages, clarity and lack of color. The process steps used to recycle PET have been
developed to maintain these important performance attributes.
Common Types of Plastic
Discussion of PET recycling can be broken down into four separate process
1. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE)
segments:
Polyethylene terephthalate is the most
1. Create granulated flake
common thermoplastic polymer resin of the
2. Create washed flake
polyester family and is used in fibers for clothing,
3. Create melt filtered pellets
containers for liquids and foods, thermoforming
4. Create solid stated product
for manufacturing, and in combination with glass
fiber for engineering resins.
Process variations may be employed at different reclaimer locations.
The majority of the world's PET production is for synthetic fibers (in excess of 60%),
with bottle production accounting for about 30% of global demand. In the context
Process Segment 1: Create Granulated Flake
of textile applications, PET is referred to by its common name, polyester, whereas the
 Post-consumer PET wastes are being collected of local governments and
waste collection separately from other household waste. Bales of PET packaging are
broken open, sorted and granulated to create PET flake that facilitates separation of
PET from labels, closure materials, and other contents in the bale. Recall that bales of
PET will contain PET packaging, along with closures, labels, pump or spray dispensers,
and attachments such as handles or heat seal foils. There will be residual contents
from food and beverage containers in the packaging. There will also be non-PET
materials in the bale that were not removed at the MRF; examples include paper and
cardboard, plastic films, or metal cans.
PET reclaimers might employ bales of PET bottles only, thermoforms only, or
bales that contain a mixture of bottles and thermoforms.
Process Segment 2: Create Washed Flake
In this process segment, flake is washed and then materials that float in water
are removed in the “float sink tank.” The elutriation process involves an air stream
employed to remove materials such as fines and label residue from dry PET flake.
Screening removes any PET flake that is too big or too small to be desirable. It is
common today to use a final auto-color sorter to evaluate the color of the dry flake
and remove any off-colored material resulting from label residue or contamination.
Washed flake can be the feedstock used in many postconsumer applications for
recycled PET, or rPET. A few examples of products produced from washed flake
include: PET sheet, fiber, or strapping.
Process Segment 3: Create Melt Filtered Pellets
Some rPET applications are better served by supply of PET pellets that have
higher bulk density and better conveying and feeding properties than PET flake. Melt
filtered pellets are commonly created through the following steps:
 Drying PET flake in a desiccant drier at about 150o C for about 4 hours
 Extruding the flake at 270o to 300o C
 Passing the melt through a metal screen filter to remove physical contamination
 Pelletizing the PET
Process Segment 4: Create Solid Stated Product
An important property of PET is referred to as “IV” intrinsic viscosity. IV is a
measure of the molecular weight of PET. Many PET buyers specify a specific value of
IV for their application. Since melt processing will reduce the IV of PET, it is desirable
to have a process that can raise IV to meet end user requirements.
Solid stating increases the IV of PET. There are cases where melt filtered pellets
are solid stated to boost IV. There are other cases where washed flake can be solid
stated prior to use. PET flake or pellets are subjected to high temperature, about 210
deg. C, under either vacuum or dry nitrogen for several hours. During this exposure,
water is removed from the PET, and what chemists call a “polyester condensation
reaction” allows a build in molecular weight and IV. Further, the US FDA has strict
requirements for rPET that is used in food and beverage applications. Solid stating is
the most common method used to remove any contaminants that are of concern
with food and beverage applications and allow compliance with FDA requirements.
Global statistics
 Worldwide, approximately 7.5 million tons of PET were collected in 2011. This
gave 5.9 million tons of flake. In 2009 3.4 million tons were used to produce fibre,
500,000 tons to produce bottles, 500,000 tons to produce APET sheet for
thermoforming, 200,000 tons to produce strapping tape and 100,000 tons for
miscellaneous applications.
In 2008 the amount of post-consumer PET bottles collected for recycling and
sold in the United States was approx. 1.45 billion pounds.
In 2012, 81% of the PET bottles sold in Switzerland were recycled.
Increasing energy prices may increase the volume of recycling PET bottles. In
Europe, the EU Waste Framework Directive mandates that by 2020 there should be
50% recycling or reuse of plastics from household streams.
In the United States the recycling rate for PET packaging was 31.2% in 2013,
according to a report from The National Association for PET Container Resources
(NAPCOR) and The Association of Postconsumer Plastic Recyclers (APR). A total of
1,798 million pounds was collected and 475 million pounds of recycled PET used out
of a total of 5,764 million pounds of PET bottles.
2. High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
The SPI code of 2 identifies plastic made with
high-density polyethylene, or HDPE. It is a
polyethylene thermoplastic made from petroleum.
It is sometimes called "alkathene" or "polythene"
when used for pipes. With a high strength-to-density
ratio, HDPE is used in the production of plastic
bottles, corrosion-resistant piping, geomembranes, and plastic lumber. High-Density
Polyethylene products are very safe and are not known to transmit any chemicals
into foods or drinks. HDPE products are commonly recycled. Items made from this
plastic include containers for milk, motor oil, shampoos and conditioners, soap bottles,
detergents, and bleaches. It is never safe to reuse an HDPE bottle as a food or drink
container if it didn’t originally contain food or drink. Its chemical resistance properties
make it a good choice as container for household chemicals and detergents.
In 2007, the global HDPE market reached a volume of more than 30 million
tons. According to the EPA, 12% of plastic bags and film were recycled in 2007. Of
course, we are looking to move toward a society of reusable bags versus using the
plastic grocery store variety.
Applications
HDPE is resistant to many different solvents and has a wide variety of
applications:
 Bottle caps
 Chemical-resistant piping
 Coax cable inner insulator
 Food storage containers
 Fuel tanks for vehicles
 Corrosion protection for steel pipelines
 Electrical and plumbing boxes
 Folding chairs and tables
 Piping for Water
 Piping for Sewer
 Plastic bags
 Plastic bottles suitable both for recycling (such as milk jugs) or re-use
HDPE is preferred by the pyrotechnics trade for mortars over steel or PVC
tubes, being more durable and safer. HDPE tends to rip or tear in a malfunction
instead of shattering and becoming shrapnel like the other materials.
Milk jugs and other hollow goods manufactured through blow molding are the
most important application area for HDPE, accounting for one-third of worldwide
production, or more than 8 million tons. There is some evidence that this form of
recycling is less energy intensive than conventional recycling, which can involve a
large embodied energy for transportation
Above all, China, where beverage bottles made from HDPE were first
imported in 2005, is a growing market for rigid HDPE packaging, as a result of its
improving standard of living. In India and other highly populated, emerging nations,
infrastructure expansion includes the deployment of pipes and cable insulation made
from HDPE. The material has benefited from discussions about possible health and
environmental problems caused by PVC and Polycarbonate associated Bisphenol A,
as well as its advantages over glass, metal, and cardboard.
3. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Polyvinyl chloride is the world's third-most widely
produced synthetic plastic polymer, after
polyethylene and polypropylene. Plastic labeled
with an SPI code of 3 is made with it.
PVC comes in two basic forms: rigid (sometimes
abbreviated as RPVC) and flexible. The rigid form of
PVC is used in construction for pipe and in profile applications such as doors and
windows. It is also used for bottles, other non-food packaging, and cards (such as
bank or membership cards). It can be made softer and more flexible by the addition
of plasticizers, the most widely used being phthalates. In this form, it is also used in
plumbing, electrical cable insulation, imitation leather, signage, phonograph records,
inflatable products, and many applications where it replaces rubber. PVC is not often
recycled and can be harmful if ingested. This kind of plastic should not come in
contact with food items. Recycled PVC is used to make flooring, mobile home skirting,
and other industrial-grade items.
Pure polyvinyl chloride is a white, brittle solid. It is insoluble in alcohol but slightly
soluble in tetrahydrofuran.
PVC has a chemical formula of (C2H3Cl)n. The polymers are linear and are strong.
About 57% of the mass of PVC is chlorine. The presence of chloride groups gives the
polymer very different properties from the structurally related material polyethylene.
Applications
PVC's relatively low cost, biological and chemical resistance, and workability
have resulted in it being used for a wide variety of applications.
 Pipes- roughly half of the world's polyvinyl chloride resin manufactured
annually is used for producing pipes for municipal and industrial applications
 Electric cables- PVC is commonly used as the insulation on electrical cables
- PVC used for this purpose needs to be plasticized.
 Unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (uPVC) for construction- an extensively used
in the building industry as a low-maintenance material, particularly in Ireland,
the United Kingdom, in the United States and Canada. If no plasticizers are
added, it is known as uPVC. In the USA and Canada it is known as vinyl, or vinyl
siding. The material comes in a range of colors and finishes, including a photo-
effect wood finish, and is used as a substitute for painted wood, mostly for
window frames and sills when installing double glazing in new buildings, or to
replace older single-glazed windows.
 Signs- PVC is formed in flat sheets in a variety of thicknesses and colors. As flat
sheets, PVC is often expanded to create voids in the interior of the material,
providing additional thickness without additional weight and minimal extra
cost. Sheets are cut using saw and rotary cutting equipment. Plasticized PVC
is also used to produce thin, colored, or clear, adhesive-backed films referred
to simply as vinyl. These films are typically cut on a computer-controlled plotter
(see Vinyl cutter) or printed in a wide-format printer. These sheets and films are
used to produce a wide variety of commercial signage products, including
car body stripes and stickers.
 Clothing and furniture- PVC has become widely used in clothing, to either
create a leather-like material or at times simply for the effect of PVC. PVC
clothing is common in Goth, Punk, clothing fetish and alternative fashions.
PVC is less expensive than rubber, leather, and latex which it is therefore used
to simulate. PVC fabric is water-resistant, so it is used in coats, skiing
equipment, shoes, jackets, aprons, and bags
 Healthcare- the two main application areas for single-use medically
approved PVC compounds are flexible containers and tubing: containers
used for blood and blood components, for urine collection or for ostomy
products and tubing used for blood taking and blood giving sets, catheters,
heart-lung bypass sets, hemodialysis sets etc. In Europe the consumption of
PVC for medical devices is approximately 85.000 tons every year. Almost one
third of plastic based medical devices are made from PVC. The reasons for
using flexible PVC in these applications for over 50 years are numerous and
based on cost effectiveness linked to transparency, light weight, softness, tear
strength, kink resistance, suitability for sterilization and biocompatibility.
4. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
Plastic marked with an SPI code of 4 is made
with low-density polyethylene, or LDPE. It is a
thermoplastic made from the monomer ethylene. It
was the first grade of polyethylene, produced in
1933 by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) using a
high pressure process via free radical
polymerization. Its manufacture employs the same method today. Despite
competition from more modern polymers, LDPE continues to be an important plastic
grade. In 2013 the worldwide LDPE market reached a volume of about US$33 billion.
LDPE is not commonly recycled, but it is recyclable in certain areas. It tends to be both
durable and flexible. It also is not known to release harmful chemicals into objects in
contact with it, making it a safe choice for food storage. Plastic cling wrap, sandwich
bags, squeezable bottles, and plastic grocery bags all are made from LDPE. Recycled
LDPE is used to make garbage cans, lumber, furniture, and many other products seen
in and around the house.
Applications
Plastic cling wrap, sandwich bags, squeezable bottles, and plastic grocery bags
all are made from LDPE. Recycled LDPE is used to make garbage cans, lumber,
furniture, and many other products seen in and around the house.
 LDPE is widely used for manufacturing various containers, dispensing bottles, wash
bottles, tubing, plastic bags for computer components, and various molded
laboratory equipment. Its most common use is in plastic bags. Other products made
from it include:
 Trays and general purpose containers
 Corrosion-resistant work surfaces- juice and milk cartons are made
of liquid packaging board, a laminate of paperboard and LDPE (as the
waterproof inner and outer layer), and often with of a layer of aluminum
foil (thus becoming aseptic packaging).
 Packaging for computer hardware, such as hard disk drives, screen cards,
and optical disc drives
5. Polypropylene (PP)
Consumers will find the SPI code of 5 on plastic items made with polypropylene,
or PP. It is a thermoplastic polymer used in a wide
variety of applications. It has a chemical formula of
(C3H6)n. PP is rugged and unusually resistant to many
chemical solvents, bases and acids. PP can be
recycled but is not accepted for recycling as
commonly as PETE or HDPE. This type of plastic is
strong and can usually withstand higher
temperatures.
Polypropylene has a relatively slippery "low energy surface" that means that many
common glues will not form adequate joints. Joining of polypropylene is often done
using welding processes.
In 2013, the global market for polypropylene was about 55 million tonnes.
Polypropylene is the world's second-most widely produced synthetic plastic, after
polyethylene.
The manufacturing of Polypropylene is through melting process. Melting process
of polypropylene can be achieved via extrusion and molding. Common extrusion
methods include production of melt-blown and spun-bond fibers to form long rolls for
future conversion into a wide range of useful products, such as face masks, filters,
diapers and wipes.
The most common shaping technique is injection molding, which is used for parts
such as cups, cutlery, vials, caps, containers, housewares, and automotive parts such
as batteries. The related techniques of blow molding and injection-stretch blow
molding are also used, which involve both extrusion and molding.
The large number of end-use applications for polypropylene are often possible
because of the ability to tailor grades with specific molecular properties and additives
during its manufacture. For example, antistatic additives can be added to help
polypropylene surfaces resist dust and dirt. Many physical finishing techniques can
also be used on polypropylene, such as machining. Surface treatments can be
applied to polypropylene parts in order to promote adhesion of printing ink and
paints.
Application
Plastic bottle caps often are made from PP as well. Among many other products,
it is used to make packaging and labeling, textiles (e.g., ropes, thermal underwear
and carpets), stationery, plastic diapers, Tupperware, margarine containers, yogurt
boxes, syrup bottles, prescription bottles, plastic parts and reusable containers of
various types, laboratory equipment, loudspeakers, automotive components,
and polymer banknotes, and some stadium cups. Recycled PP is used to make ice
scrapers, rakes, battery cables, and similar items that need to be durable.
6. Polystyrene (PS)
Plastic marked with an SPI code of 6 is made with
polystyrene, also known as PS and most commonly
known as Styrofoam. It is a synthetic aromatic polymer
made from the monomer styrene. As a thermoplastic
polymer, polystyrene is in a solid (glassy) state at room
temperature but flows if heated above about 100 °C, its glass transition temperature.
It has a chemical formula of (C8H8)n. It becomes rigid again when cooled. This
temperature behavior is exploited for extrusion (as in Styrofoam) and also for molding
and vacuum forming, since it can be cast into molds with fine detail. Polystyrene can
be solid or foamed. General-purpose polystyrene is clear, hard, and rather brittle. It is
an inexpensive resin per unit weight. It is a rather poor barrier to oxygen and water
vapor and has a relatively low melting point. Polystyrene is one of the most widely
used plastics, the scale of its production being several million tonnes per year.
Polystyrene can be naturally transparent, but can be colored with colorants.
Polystyrene is very slow to biodegrade and is therefore a focus of controversy
among environmentalists. It is increasingly abundant as a form of litter in the outdoor
environment, particularly along shores and waterways, especially in its foam form,
and also in increasing quantities in the Pacific Ocean.
Application
Disposable coffee cups, plastic food boxes, plastic cutlery, packing foam, and
packing peanuts are made from PS. Recycled PS is used to make many different kinds
of products, including insulation, license plate frames, and custom rulers.
 Sheet or molded polystyrene
Polystyrene (PS) is used for producing disposable plastic cutlery and dinnerware,
CD "jewel" cases, smoke detector housings, license plate frames, plastic model
assembly kits, and many other objects where a rigid, economical plastic is desired.
Production methods include thermoforming (vacuum forming) and injection molding.
 Foams
Polystyrene foams are good thermal insulators and are therefore often used as
building insulation materials, such as in insulating concrete forms and structural
insulated panel building systems. Grey polystyrene foam, incorporating graphite has
superior insulation properties. They are also used for non-weight-bearing architectural
structures (such as ornamental pillars). PS foams also exhibit good damping
properties, therefore it is used widely in packaging. The trademark Styrofoam by Dow
Chemical Company is informally used (mainly US & Canada) for all foamed
polystyrene products, although strictly it should only be used for 'extruded closed-cell'
polystyrene foams made by Dow Chemicals.
 Expanded polystyrene (EPS)
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is a rigid and tough, closed-cell foam. It is usually
white and made of pre-expanded polystyrene beads. EPS is used for many
applications e.g. trays, plates, bowls and fish boxes. Other uses include molded sheets
for building insulation and packing material ("peanuts") for cushioning fragile items
inside boxes. Sheets are commonly packaged as rigid panels (size 4 by 8 or 2 by 8
feet in the United States), which are also known as "bead-board".
Due to its technical properties such as low weight, rigidity, and formability, EPS
can be used in a wide range of different applications. Its market value is likely to rise
to more than US$15 billion by 2020.
 Extruded polystyrene foam
Extruded polystyrene foam (XPS) consists of closed cells, offers improved surface
roughness and higher stiffness and reduced thermal conductivity. Extruded
polystyrene material is also used in crafts and model building,
particular architectural models. Because of the extrusion manufacturing process, XPS
does not require facers to maintain its thermal or physical property performance. Thus,
it makes a more uniform substitute for corrugated cardboard.
Water absorption of polystyrene foams
Although it is a closed-cell foam, both expanded and extruded polystyrene are
not entirely waterproof or vapor proof. In expanded polystyrene there are interstitial
gaps between the expanded closed-cell pellets that form an open network of
channels between the bonded pellets, and this network of gaps can become filled
with liquid water. If the water freezes into ice, it expands and can cause polystyrene
pellets to break off from the foam. Extruded polystyrene is also permeable by water
molecules and cannot be considered a vapor barrier.
Waterlogging commonly occurs over a long period of time in polystyrene foams
that are constantly exposed to high humidity or are continuously immersed in water,
such as in hot tub covers, in floating docks, as supplemental flotation under boat
seats, and for below-grade exterior building insulation constantly exposed to
groundwater. Typically an exterior vapor barrier such as impermeable plastic
sheeting or a sprayed-on coating is necessary to prevent saturation.
Environmental Issues
Since polystyrene is lightweight and easy to form into plastic materials, it also
breaks easily, making it more harmful to the environment. Beaches all over the world
are littered with pieces of polystyrene, endangering the health of marine animals.
Production
Polystyrene foams are produced using blowing agents that form bubbles and
expand the foam. In expanded polystyrene, these are usually hydrocarbons such
as pentane, which may pose a flammability hazard in manufacturing or storage of
newly manufactured material, but have relatively mild environmental impact.
Extruded polystyrene is usually made with hydrofluorocarbons (HFC-134a), which
have global warming potentials of approximately 1000–1300 times that of carbon
dioxide.
Non-biodegradable
Discarded polystyrene does not biodegrade for hundreds of years and is
resistant to photolysis.[38]
in
Litter
Animals do not recognize polystyrene foam as an artificial material and may
even mistake it for food. Polystyrene foam blows in the wind and floats on water, due
to its specific gravity. It can have serious effects on the health of birds or marine
animals that swallow significant quantities.
Reducing
Restricting the use of foamed polystyrene takeout food packaging is a priority
of many solid waste environmental organizations. Efforts have been made to find
alternatives to polystyrene, especially foam in restaurant settings. The original impetus
was to eliminate chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), which was a former component of
foam.
Recycling
In general, polystyrene is not accepted in curbside collection recycling
programs, and is not separated and recycled where it is accepted. In Germany,
polystyrene is collected, as a consequence of the packaging law requires
manufacturers to take responsibility for recycling or disposing of any packaging
material they sell.
Most polystyrene products are currently not recycled due to the lack of
incentive to invest in the compactors and logistical systems required. Due to the low
density of polystyrene foam, it is not economical to collect. However, if the waste
material goes through an initial compaction process, the material changes density
from typically 30 kg/m3 to 330 kg/m3 and becomes a recyclable commodity of high
value for producers of recycled plastic pellets. Expanded polystyrene scrap can be
easily added to products such as EPS insulation sheets and other EPS materials for
construction applications; many manufacturers cannot obtain sufficient scrap
because of collection issues. When it is not used to make more EPS, foam scrap can
be turned into products such as clothes hangers, park benches, flower pots, toys,
rulers, stapler bodies, seedling containers, picture frames, and architectural molding
from recycled PS. Currently, around 100 tonnes of EPS are recycled every month in
the UK
Fire hazards
Like other organic compounds, polystyrene is flammable.
7. Miscellaneous Types of Plastic
The SPI code of 7 is used to designate miscellaneous
types of plastic that are not defined by the other six codes.
Polycarbonate and polylactide are included in this
category. Polycarbonate (PC) is an extremely common
plastic in this category and is often associated with this
category.
Polycarbonates (PC) are a group of thermoplastic polymers
containing carbonate groups in their chemical structures. Polycarbonates used in
engineering are strong, tough materials, and some grades are optically transparent.
They are easily worked, molded, and thermoformed. Because of these properties,
polycarbonates find many applications. Polycarbonates do not have a unique resin
identification code (RIC) and are identified as "Other", 7 on the RIC list. Products made
from polycarbonate can contain the precursor monomer bisphenol A (BPA).
Polycarbonate is a durable material. Although it has high impact-resistance,
it has low scratch-resistance. Therefore, a hard coating is applied to
polycarbonate eyewear lenses and polycarbonate exterior automotive
components. The characteristics of polycarbonate compare to those of polymethyl
methacrylate (PMMA, acrylic), but polycarbonate is stronger and will hold up longer
to extreme temperature. Polycarbonate is highly transparent to visible light, with
better light transmission than many kinds of glass.
Applications
 Electronic components
Polycarbonate is mainly used for electronic applications that capitalize on its
collective safety features. Being a good electrical insulator and having heat-resistant
and flame-retardant properties, it is used in various products associated with
electrical and telecommunications hardware. It can also serve as a dielectric in high-
stability capacitors. However, commercial manufacture of polycarbonate
capacitors mostly stopped after sole manufacturer Bayer AG stopped making
capacitor-grade polycarbonate film at the end of year 2000.
 Construction materials
The second largest consumer of polycarbonates is the construction industry, e.g.
for domelights, flat or curved glazing, and sound walls, which all use extruded flat solid
or multiwall sheet, or corrugated sheet.
 Data storage
A major application of polycarbonate is the production of Compact Discs, DVDs,
and Blu-ray Discs. These discs are produced by injection molding polycarbonate into
a mold cavity that has on one side a metal stamper containing a negative image of
the disc data, while the other mold side is a mirrored surface.
 Automotive, aircraft, railway, and security components
In the automotive industry, injection-molded polycarbonate can produce very
smooth surfaces that make it well-suited for sputter deposition or evaporation
deposition of aluminum without the need for a base-coat. Decorative bezels and
optical reflectors are commonly made of polycarbonate. Due to its low weight and
high impact resistance, polycarbonate is the dominant material for making
automotive headlamp lenses. However, automotive headlamps require outer surface
coatings because of its low scratch resistance and susceptibility to ultraviolet
degradation (yellowing). The use of polycarbonate in automotive applications is
limited to low stress applications. Stress from fasteners, plastic welding and molding
render polycarbonate susceptible to stress corrosion cracking when it comes in
contact with certain accelerants such as salt water and plastisol. It can be laminated
to make bullet-proof "glass", although "bullet-resistant" is more accurate for the thinner
windows, such as are used in bullet-resistant windows in automobiles. The thicker
barriers of transparent plastic used in teller's windows and barriers in banks are also
polycarbonate.
 Niche applications
Polycarbonate, being a versatile material with attractive processing and physical
properties, has attracted myriad smaller applications. The use of injection molded
drinking bottles, glasses and food containers is common, but the use of BPA in the
manufacture of polycarbonate has stirred serious controversy (see Potential hazards
in food contact applications), leading to development and use of "BPA-free" plastics
in various formulations.
 Laboratory safety goggles
Polycarbonate is commonly used in eye protection, as well as in other projectile-
resistant viewing and lighting applications that would normally indicate the use
of glass, but require much higher impact-resistance. Polycarbonate lenses also
protect the eye from UV light. Many kinds of lenses are manufactured from
polycarbonate, including automotive headlamp lenses, lighting
lenses, sunglass/eyeglass lenses, swimming goggles and SCUBA masks, and safety
glasses/goggles/visors including visors in sporting helmets/masks and police riot
gear(helmet visors, riot shields, etc.). Windscreens in small motorized vehicles are
commonly made of polycarbonate, such as for motorcycles, ATVs, golf carts, and
small planes and helicopters.
Typical products of sheet/film production include applications in advertisement
(signs, displays, poster protection). But also applications as automotive safety glazing
(ECE R 43).
The light weight of polycarbonate as opposed to glass has led to development of
electronic display screens that replace glass with polycarbonate, for use in mobile
and portable devices. Such displays include newer e-ink and some LCD screens,
though CRT, plasma screen and other LCD technologies generally still require glass
for its higher melting temperature and its ability to be etched in finer detail.
As more and more governments are restricting the use of glass in pubs and clubs
due to the increased incidence of glassings, polycarbonate glasses are becoming
popular for serving alcohol because of their strength, durability, and glass-like feel.
Other miscellaneous items include durable, lightweight luggage, MP3/digital
audio player cases, ocarinas, computer cases, fountain pens, riot shields, instrument
panels, tealight candle containers and blender jars. Many toys and hobby items are
made from polycarbonate parts, like fins, gyro mounts, and flybar locks in radio-
controlled helicopters, and transparent LEGO (ABS is used for opaque pieces).
Standard Polycarbonate resins are not suitable for long term exposure to UV
radiation. To overcome this the primary resin can have UV Stabilisers added. These
grades are sold as UV Stabilized Polycarbonate to Injection Moulding and Extrusion
companies. Other applications including Polycarbonate sheet may have the anti-UV
layer added as a special coating or a coextrusion for enhanced weathering
resistance.
Polycarbonate is also used as a printing substrate for nameplate and other forms
of industrial grade under printed products. The polycarbonate provides a barrier to
wear, the elements, and fading.
Toxicity
The problem with PC is bisphenol A (BPA), the synthetic backbone which
readily breaks down and leaches from PC. For example, BPA leaching is a significant
concern with PC epoxy-lined cans used for foods, especially oil-based and/or acidic
foods, which will increase leaching. There is lots more information in our BPA section,
but in a nutshell... BPA is often described as a hormone or endocrine disuptor,
because it mimics human hormones, in particular the estrogen hormones, which are
involved in normal cellular function, reproduction, development and behaviour.
Peer-reviewed scientific studies have linked BPA to numerous health problems
including chromosome damage in female ovaries, decreased sperm production in
males, early onset of puberty, various behavioural changes, altered immune function,
sex reversal in frogs, impaired brain and neurological functions, cardiovascular system
damage, adult-onset (Type II) diabetes, obesity, resistance to chemotherapy,
increased risk of breast cancer, prostate cancer, infertility, and metabolic disorders -
- research into the impacts of BPA on human health is extensive and ongoing
(PC1, PC2, PC3, PC4).
Recycling Rate
Very low (PC). Not all municipalities include polycarbonate as readily
acceptable for their recycling programs. Recycled PC may be used to make plastic
lumber.
Alternatives
Buy in glass and reuse those bottles/jars - mason jars are incredibly versatile.
Use a glass or stainless steel reusable water bottle. Use a stainless steel water dispenser
for large quantities of water or other liquids. If you must use the large blue PC bottles,
transfer the water to another container as soon as you bring it home.
Suggestion for PC
Avoid leaches bisphenol A (BPA), which is a known endocrine disruptor with
numerous adverse health effects, including increased risk of cancers.
PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS
Properties of Plastics as a Construction Material
Each plastic material has its own peculiar properties to suit its particular uses.
The success of plastic as an engineering material will depends up on the selection of
variety of plastic. The following are the general properties of plastic.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Strength
Practically we can say that plastic is a strong material but ideal section of
plastic which is useful for structural component is not designed yet. Generally by
reinforcing fibrous material into plastic improves its strength. If the strength to weight
ratio of plastic is same as metals, then also we cannot give preference to plastics
because of various reasons like, heavy cost, creep failure may occur, poor stiffness
and sensitive against temperature.
Ductility of Plastics
Ductile nature of plastic is very low. When tensile stress are acting on plastic
member they may fail without any prior indication.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Appearance of Plastics
In the market there are so many types of models of plastics are available such
as transparent, colored etc. suitable pigments are added in the process of
manufacturing of plastic material to get these different properties. So, these will give
good appearance to the structure and makes it attractive.
Dimensional Stability
Thermo-plastic types of plastics can be easily reshaped and reused. But in the
case of thermo-setting type plastics, it is not possible to reshape or remold the
material.
Fire Resistance
The resistance to temperature or fire for varieties of plastics considerably varies
depending upon the structure. Plastics made of cellulose acetate are burnt slowly.
PVC made plastics do not catch fire easily. Plastics made of phenol formaldehyde
and urea formaldehyde are fire proof materials.
Weight of Plastics
The Plastics have low specific gravity generally ranges from 1.3 to 1.4. So they
are light in weight and easily transportable to any place in a large quantity.
Melting Point
Generally plastics have very low melting point. Some plastics may melt at just
50oC. So, they cannot be used in the positions of high temperature. Thermo setting
type of plastics are having high melting point than thermo plastic type plastics.
However, thermo setting types are cannot used for recycling. To improve the heat
resistance of the plastics, glass fiber reinforcement is provided in its structure.
Humidity
The plastics made up of cellulosic materials are affected by the presence of
moisture. The plastics made of poly vinyl chloride (PVC pipes) offers great resistance
against moisture.
Weather Resistance
Most of the plastics except some limited varieties are capable of resistance
against weathering. But, major problem is plastics when the plastics are exposed to
sunlight, they are seriously affected by ultra violet rays and gets brittle. To prevent this,
plastics are incorporated by fillers and pigments which helps to absorb or reflect the
UV rays to surface.
Durability of Plastics
Plastics with sufficient surface hardness are having good durability.
Sometimes, plastics may affected by termites and rodents especially in the case of
thermo-plastic types, however it is not a serious problem because of no nutrition
values in plastic.
Finishing
Any type of finishing treatment van be given to the plastics. Mass production
of plastic particles with uniformity of surface finish is done by having technical control
during manufacturing.
Fixing
Fixing of plastic materials is so easy. We can bolt, drill or glued to fix plastic
material position.
Maintenance
Maintaining of plastics are so simple. Because they do not need any surface
finishing coats or paints etc.
Recycling of Plastics
Disposal of plastics in the environment causes severe pollution. But it is not a
serious problem because of its recycling property. We can use plastic waste disposal
conveniently to produce drainage pipes, fencing, hand rails, carpets, benches etc.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Chemical Resistance of Plastics
Plastics offer great resistance against chemicals and solvents. Chemical
composition of plastics during manufacturing will decide the degree of chemical
resistance. Most of the plastics available in the market offer great corrosion resistance.
So, corrosive metals are replaced by plastic in the case of water carrying pipes, etc.
OTHERS
Electric Insulation
Plastics are good electric insulators. So they are used as linings for electric
cables and for electronics tools.
Optical Property
There are so many types of plastics. Some plastics are transparent which
allows light in its original direction and some are translucent nothing but semi-
transparent which allows light but changes light rays direction.
Sound Absorption
By the saturation of phenolic resins, we can produce acoustic boards. These
acoustic boards are sound absorbents and provide sound insulation. Generally, for
theatres, seminar halls this type of acoustic ceilings are used.
Thermal Property
The thermal conductivity of plastics is very low and is similar to wood. So,
foamed and expanded plastics are used as thermal insulators.
USE OF PLASTICS IN DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF THE CONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRY
Flooring
Plastic materials like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene are used to
make flooring less prone to wear and tear. It also decreases the sound pollution level
and can be cleaned easily.
Roofing
To protect the outer surface of the roof from damage, two layers of different
plastic materials are required. The upper part is made of colored thermoplastic olefin
or vinyl while the lower part consists of polyurethane foam which consumes less
energy and keeps the interior of a house cooler.
Insulation
Polyurethane spray is frequently used for insulation when constructing green
or low energy buildings. Rigid polyurethane foam is known for its high thermal
resistance which promotes temperature consistency. Polyurethane foam is also
popular because it is lightweight, chemical resistant, and flame retardant. Due to its
closed cell nature, polyurethane insulation performs as an air barrier, resulting in
significant energy savings.
Wall
A structural insulated panel (SIP) is a sandwich of expanded polystyrene
amidst two slim layers of oriented strand board. This type of pre-fab, composite wall
board can be transferred to the work place easily for a particular task and provide
good support to columns and other associated essentials during renovation.
Pipes
Commonly made up of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), CPVC, acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS) or polyethylene, plastic pipes are flexible and very light in
weight, making them easy to install. All of these plastic materials are also highly
chemical and water resistant, making them suitable for many extreme environments.
Windows
Polycarbonate is used to manufacture building windows. This plastic material
is strong, clear and very light in weight. Polycarbonate windows are considered more
burglar-proof than regular glass windows. Two plastics materials, vinyl and fiberglass,
are used commonly in the production of window frames. Fiberglass is extremely
strong while vinyl is quite durable and also inexpensive.
Doors
Some construction projects use doors made from a stiff polyurethane foam
core with a fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) coating. The sandwich structure of these
doors makes them incredibly strong.
Roofing
Reflective light colored roofing membranes made of vinyl or thermoplastic
olefin (TPO) blends are key energy saving applications especially for commercial
buildings in southern climes. Studies have shown that the surface temperature of a
light covered roof compared to a darker one could be as much as much lower.
Insulation
Whether it is spray polyurethane foam (SPF) in the attic or rigid foam polyiso
board on the roof, polyurethane based systems offer durability, energy savings and
moisture control. When used for retrofit situations, they also help reduce the amount
of building waste sent to landfills.
 In walls, behind walls and under floors, the use of polystyrene foams can
provide significant energy efficiency. For example, rigid extruded polystyrene (XPS) is
a builder favorite because it can be installed easily and effectively. Structural
insulated panels (SIPs) made with expanded polystyrene (EPS) can help homeowners
save hundreds of dollars annually on heating and cooling bills. Savings vary by
material and products.
Plastic House Wrap
The advent of plastic house wrap technology has reduced the infiltration of
outside air into the average home by 10-50%, helping to drastically reduce the energy
required to heat or cool the home. These plastic films have helped reduce
greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. by as much as 120 to 600 million tons of CO 2 since
1980 (assuming that all homes built since 1980 have some form of plastic barrier).

Wall Coverings
Vinyl based wall coverings are commonly used for durable, easy-to-clean
hospitality and health care facilities. Vinyl requires only half as much energy to
manufacture as the same amount of paper wall coverings.

Windows
Plastics rival traditional materials for window glazing. For example,
polycarbonate—a material also used in eyeglasses—is used as panes. These clear,
lightweight, shatter-resistant plastic products have low thermal conductivity, which
can help to reduce heating and cooling costs.
Vinyl window frames are inherently energy efficient and save the U.S. nearly 2
trillion thermal units of energy per year, helping reduce the greenhouse gas emissions
associated with energy generation—all the while cutting maintenance time,
materials and costs.

Piping
Plastic pipe and fittings are easy to install, durable and will not rust or corrode
over time. Several types of plastics are used for piping depending on the properties
and performance required. Whether they are polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), or acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) they each offer excellent
fusion integrity when joined properly helping to eliminate potential leak points where
water could be wasted.
In home building, flexible blue and red cross-linked polyethylene piping (PEX)
is becoming builders’ favorite for hot and cold water delivery all managed and
hooked into a central and effective manifold system. This is due to its flexibility,
lightness, and ease of installation—allowing multiple feed lines throughout a house,
which allows hot water to arrive more quickly to a sink or shower. This can significantly
save water.

Decks, Fences and Railings

“Lumber” planks and rails made from recycled plastics or plastic-wood
composites are carefully engineered to same dimensions so warpage and knots are
virtually eliminated. They can outlast traditional materials, often require less
maintenance, and are resistant to peeling, cracking, splintering or fading.