KKKL2173

Analogue Electronics

Chp. 9:
BJT and JFET Frequency Response

Rosmina Jaafar
 Basic concept
• Amplifiers have relatively constant gain over a certain range,
or band, of frequencies. This band of frequencies is called the
Bandwidth of the amplifier.
• midband gain – Midband gain values of an amplifier is the
gain of the circuit when it is operated within its bandwidth.
• frequency-response curve – A graphical representation of
the relationship between amplifier gain and operating
frequency is called a frequency-response curve.

2
 Basic concept
• The gain of an amplifier remains relatively constant across a
band of frequencies. When the operating frequency starts to
go outside this frequency range, the gain begins to drop off.
The greater the increase or decrease in operating frequency
(outside the constant-gain band), the greater the decrease in
gain.
• two frequencies of interest, fc1 (lower cut-off frequency) and
fc2 (upper cut-off frequency), are identified on the frequency-
response curve. These are the frequencies at which gain
decreases to approximately 50% of midband gain.
• since fc1 and fc2 are the bandwidth limits, the bandwidth of an
amplifier can be found as the difference between fc1 and fc2.
• BW = fc1 – fc2

3
 Basic concept
• An amplifier is operated at a dc Q-point and is subjected to two types of
signals: ac signals and dc signals. Often several amplifiers are
cascaded by capacitors as shown below.
• The ac signal from the source can flow from one stage to the next
stage while the dc signal is blocked. As a result, the dc biasing
voltages of the amplifiers do not affect the signal source, adjacent
stages, or the load. Such capacitors is called coupling capacitor and
the cascaded amplifiers are called capacitive coupled amplifiers.

4
 Basic concept

• In bipolar and FET discrete

amplifiers, emitter and
source bypass capacitors
are often included so that
emitter and source resistors
can be used to stabilize the
Q-point without sacrificing
the small signal gain. The
bypass capacitors are
assumed to act as short
circuits at the signal
frequency.

5
 Logarithms

a  bx , x  logb a

a  b  10   100
x 2

x  logb a  log10 100  2

Common logarithm: x  log10 a

6
 Decibel

• Increase in power level, e.g., from 4W to 16W does not mean

that audio level increase by a factor of 16/4 = 4, but a factor of
two because it is derived from 42=16. For a change of 4W to
64W, the audio level increase by a factor of 3 because 43=64.
• In logarithmic form, the relationship = log4 64 = 3.

P2
Unit - bel (Alexander Graham Bell) G  log10 bel
P1

But the bel was too large, so the decibel (dB) is defined so that 10 dB = 1 bel

P2
Therefore G  10log10 dB
P1

7
 P2
G  10 log10
P1
V22 Ri
 10 log10 2
V1 Ri
2
 V2 
 10 log10  
 V1 
V2
 20 log10 dB
V1

8
9
General Frequency Considerations

Frequency Response: The frequency range in which an amplifier

will operate with negligible effects from capacitors and device
internal capacitances; often called the mid-range.

• At frequencies below mid-range, the coupling and bypass capacitors

lower the gain.

• At frequencies above mid-range, stray capacitances associated with the

active device lower the gain.

Also, cascading amplifiers limits the gain at high and low frequencies.

10
 bandwidth (BW)  f 2  f1
Bode Plot
A Bode plot illustrates the
frequency response of an
amplifier.
The horizontal scale
indicates the frequency (in
Hz) and the vertical scale
indicates the gain (in dB).
The mid-range of an amplifier
is called the bandwidth of the
amplifier.
The bandwidth is defined by
the difference between upper
and lower cutoff frequencies.
Cutoff frequency – any
frequency at which the gain
has dropped by 3 dB from its
mid-range value

11
 f1 , f 2 : Cutoff, half-power
frequencies
2
2
Midband power output V Avmid Vi
Pomid  
o

Ro Ro

At half-power frequencies

2
 1 
Avmid Vi
2
  Avmid Vi 0.707 Avmid Vi
2
 2
PoHPF  0.5  
Ro Ro Ro

12
Normalized gain vs. Frequency plot

Av Av
 20 log10
Avmid Avmid
dB

The midband value = 1

At half-power frequencies = 0.707  1 2
13
Decibel plot of the normalized gain vs. frequency plot

At midband frequencies = 20log10 1  0

 
At cut-off frequencies = 20log10 1 2  3 dB

14
Phase-plot for an RC coupled amplifier

15
 Low-frequency analysis: RC circuit

At f = 0 Hz At very high frequency

1 1
XC   XC  0
2 fC 2 fC

Vo  0 V Vo  Vi
16
 Vo
AV 
Vi

When the frequency increases, the capacitive

reactance decreases, output voltage increases
and gain increases.

17
 Voltage divider rule V  RVi
R  XC
o

RVi
Magnitude of Vo Vo 
R 2  X C2

RVi RVi 1
When XC  R Therefore Vo    Vi
R R
2 2
2R 2
2

Vo 1
And AV    0.707 XC R
Vi 2
1 1
The XC  R  f1 
frequency 2 f1C 2 RC

18
 1
In terms of logs GV  20log10 AV  20log10  3 dB
2

Vo
when AV   1 (max. value) GV  20log10 1  20  0   0 dB
Vi

The gain
Vo R 1 1 1
Av     
Vi R  jX C 1  j  X C R  1  j 1  RC  1  j 1 2 fRC 

1
Av 
1  j  f1 f 

Vo 1
Magnitude and phase Av    tan 1  f1 f 
Vi 1   f1 f 
2

19
 1 1
when f  f1 Av    0.707  3dB
1  1
2
2

f1
In the Logarithmic form Av dB  20log10
f
f1
At f  f1   1, and  20 log10 1  0 dB
f
1 f1
f  f1   2, and  20 log10 2  6 dB
2 f
1 f1
f  f1   4, and  20 log10 4  12 dB
4 f
1 f
f  f1  1  10, and  20 log10 10  20 dB
10 f

20
Bode plot for low-frequency region

21
BJT Amplifier Low-Frequency Response

At low frequencies, the

reactances of the coupling
capacitors (CS, CC) and the
bypass capacitor (CE) affect
the circuit impedances.

22
Flashback

CE

23
 Coupling Capacitor (CS)

The cutoff frequency due to CS can be calculated

using
1
fLs 
2π (Rs  Ri )Cs

where
Ri  R1 ||R2 ||Re

24
 Coupling Capacitor (CC)

The cutoff frequency due to CC can be calculated using

1
fLC 
2π (Ro  RL )Cc

where
Ro  RC ||ro

25
 Bypass Capacitor (CE)

The cutoff frequency due to CE can be calculated with

1
fLE 
2πReCE

where Rs
Re  RE||(  re )
β

and
Rs  Rs ||R1 ||R2

26
Example 1
Determine the lower cut-off frequency

27
Effect of CS  f L  6.86 Hz
S
General formula
for cutoff
Effect of CC  f L  25.68 Hz
C
frequency

Effect of CE  f L  327 Hz
E

Low cut-off frequency = f LE

End of Example 1
 Roll-Off of Gain in the Bode Plot
The Bode plot not only
indicates the cutoff
frequencies of the
various capacitors it also
indicates the amount of
attenuation (loss in gain)
at these frequencies.

The rate of attenuation

is sometimes referred to
as roll-off.

The roll-off is measured in dB-per-decade or dB-per-octave

29
 Roll-Off Rate (dB/Decade)
-dB/decade refers to the
attenuation for every 10-
fold change in frequency.

For attenuations at the

low-frequency end, it
refers to the loss in gain
from the lower cutoff
frequency to a frequency
that is one-tenth the
cutoff value.

fLS = 9kHz gain is 0dB

fLS/10 = .9kHz gain is –20dB
Thus the roll-off is −20dB/decade

30
 Roll-Off Rate (-dB/Octave)

-dB/octave refers to the

attenuation for every 2-
fold change in frequency.
For attenuations at the
low-frequency end, it
refers to the loss in gain
from the lower cutoff
frequency to a frequency
one-half the cutoff value.

This is a little difficult to see

on this graph because the
horizontal scale is a fLS = 9kHz gain is 0dB
logarithmic scale. fLS / 2 = 4.5kHz gain is –6dB
Therefore the roll-off is 6dB/octave

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FET Amplifier Low-Frequency Response

At low frequencies, the

reactances of the
coupling capacitors (CG,
CC) and the bypass
capacitor (CS) affect the
circuit impedances.

32
 Coupling Capacitor (CG)

The cutoff frequency due to CG can be calculated with

1
f LC
2π (Rsig  Ri )CG

where
Ri  RG

33
 Coupling Capacitor (CC)

The cutoff frequency due to CC can be calculated with

1
fLC 
2π (R o R L )CC

where

Ro  RD ||rd

34
 Bypass Capacitor (CS)

The cutoff frequency due to CS can be calculated with

1
fLS 
2πReqCS

where
1
Req  RS || rd  Ω
gm

35
FET Amplifier Low-Frequency Response

The Bode plot indicates that

each capacitor may have a
different cutoff frequency.

The capacitor that has the

highest lower cutoff
frequency (fL) is closest to
the actual cutoff frequency
of the amplifier.

36
 Miller Capacitance

Any p-n junction can develop capacitance. This capacitance

becomes noticeable across:
• The BJT base-collector junction in a common-emitter
amplifier operating at high frequencies
• The FET gate-drain junction in a common-source
amplifier at high frequencies

These capacitances are represented as separate input and output

capacitances, called the Miller capacitances

37
 Miller Input Capacitance (CMI)

CMi  (1 Av )Cf

Note that the amount of

Miller capacitance is
dependent on inter-
electrode capacitance
from input to output (Cf)
and the gain (Av).

38
 Miller Output Capacitance (CMO)

If the gain (Av) is

considerably
greater than 1,
then

CMO  C f

39
 High-frequency analysis: RC circuit

Low-pass filter
1
XC 
2 fC

When the frequency increases, the capacitive reactance

decreases, resulting kind of short circuit, producing less
voltage output, and gain decreases. V
AV  o

1 Vi
The gain Av 
1  j  f f2 
1
Magnitude and phase Av   tan 1  f f 2 
1   f f2 
2

40
With increasing frequency, the magnitude drops
off at 6 dB/octave.

41
BJT Amplifier High-Frequency Response
Capacitances that affect
the high-frequency
response are

Junction capacitances
(parasitic capacitances)
Cbe, Cbc, Cce
Wiring capacitances
Cwi, Cwo
Coupling capacitors
CS, CC
Bypass capacitor
CE

42
 Multistage Frequency Effects
Each stage has its own frequency response, but the output of
each stage is affected by capacitances in the subsequent stage.
For example, the output capacitance (Co) is affected by the input
Miller Capacitance (CMi) of the next stage.

f1
f1  f 2  21 n  1 f 2
21 n  1
43
High-frequency ac equivalent model

At high-frequency, capacitors CS, CC, and CE are assumed

to be short-circuit state.

Ci  CWi  Cbe  CM i
Co  CWo  Cce  CM o
44
Thevenin circuit for input Thevenin circuit for output

45
Thevenin circuit for input

1
f Hi 
2 RThi Ci

Ci  CWi  Cbe  CMi

At very high frequency, the effect of Ci is to reduce the

total impedance. Therefore, voltage across Ci is
reduced, and the current Ib is also reduced → the gain
of the system dropped.

46
Thevenin circuit for output

1
f Ho 
2 RTho Co

Co  CWo  Cce  CM o

At very high frequency, the reactance Co decreases,

thus the total impedance is also decreased. The output
Vo is dropped.

47
 Input High-Frequency Cutoff (fHi)
1
fHi 
2πRThi Ci

where
RThi R s ||R1 ||R2 ||Ri

and
Ci  CWi  Cbe  CMi
 CWi  Cbe  ( 1  Av )Cbc

48
 Output High-Frequency Cutoff (fHo)

1
fHo 
2πRThoC o

where

RTho  RC||RL||ro

and

Co  CWo  Cce  CMo

49
 The hfe parameter (or  )
hfe (or ) Variation of a transistor varies with
frequency
1
fβ 
2πβmid r e(Cbe  Cbc )

50
Example 2
Sketch the frequency response for the low and high frequency
regions

51
f Hi  738.24 kHz
f Ho  8.6 MHz High cut-off frequency =

End of Example 2

52
 BJT Amplifier Frequency Response

Note the highest lower cutoff frequency (fL) and the lowest upper cutoff
frequency (fH) are closest to the actual response of the amplifier
53
FET Amplifier High-Frequency Response

Capacitances that affect the high-frequency response:

Junction capacitances
Cgs, Cgd, Cds
Wiring capacitances
Cwi, Cwo
Coupling capacitors
CG, CC
Bypass capacitor
CS

54
 Input High-Frequency Cutoff (fHi)

1
fHi 
2πRThi Ci

Ci  CWi  Cgs  CMi

CMi  (1  Av )Cgd

RThi  Rsig||RG

55
Output High-Frequency Cutoff (fHo)

1
fHo 
2πRThoCo

Co  CWo  Cds  CMo

 1 
CMo 
 1  Cgd
 Av 

RTho  RD||RL||rd

56
 Multistage Amplifier Response

Once the cutoff frequencies have been determined for each stage
(taking into account the shared capacitances), they can be plotted.
Note the highest lower cutoff frequency (fL) and the lowest upper cutoff
frequency (fH) are closest to the actual response of the amplifier

57
 Square-wave testing
Square wave consists of multiple frequencies (odd harmonics)
- Fourier series expansion

58
 Insufficient BW of amplifier
Producing distorted squarewaves

If the output of
the amplifier is
not a perfect
square wave
then the
Poor low-frequency response Very poor low-frequency response amplifier is
‘cutting’ off
certain
frequency
components of
the square
wave.

Poor high-frequency response Very poor high-frequency response

59
 Tutorial Questions

Do the following questions from Chap 9:

13, 15, 23, 27, 29, 31