2017 Quadfecta Digital Data Acquisition and DSP

Digital Data Acquisition
Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2017 Realize Innovation.

How to Make a Good Measurement
Digital Data Acquisition
Page 2 Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2017 Siemens PLM Software

Signals and Processing
Signal: measurable quantity carrying information about some physical phenomenon
• Pressure, displacement, acceleration, …
• Temperature, voltage, biomedical potential (EKG, EEG, ...)
The signal is generated by a sensor or transducer

• Accelerometer: acceleration  voltage
• Microphone: pressure  voltage
• Strain Gauge: strain (deformation)  voltage
• Thermocouple: temperature changes  voltage
The signal is what you want to analyze in view of a particular problem
Analog Signal

Signals and processing
Digital Data Acquisition:

• Most sensors have an analog signal output
• Computers are limited to analysing finite
datasets
• Discretization in time and in amplitude
• Convert Analog signals to Digital Signals
Output
• Time File

Avoid - Bad Data

Measurement Chain
1 Structure
2 Sensor
3 Wiring
4 Signal Conditioning
5 Alias Filter
6 Analog to Digital Converter
7 Time File

Measurement Chain
Analog Domain Digital Domain
physically measured Digital signal

quantity + noise representation
Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Sensor Conditioning Gain Alias ADC DSP
Protection
sensor Cable Conditioner and Filter ADC Calculation

sensor supply accuracy
noise noise noise noise noise

Measurement Chain
1 Structure
2 Sensor
3 Wiring
5 Alias Filter
7 Time File

Measurement Chain

Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Protection


Structure
• Sensors can go just about

anywhere and measure just
about any physical phenomena
• The structure can have an
effect on the measurement

Structure Wind Turbines
BLADES NACELLE
& HUB GEARBOX GENERATOR
& TOWER
• High power / high current /high frequency controlled electronics e.g.
• Long power wires
• Power cables to the grid in the ground have shown serious problems for
long microphone cables when doing outdoor sound power.
• Metal structures that are controlled by electrical engines can also present a
high frequency antenna that easily couples to strain gauges.

Structure Examples
Easier Harder

Potential Structure Issue Summary
Do you have to run long lead wires?
Does the structure have large electric currents?
Common Noise Generators:
Temperature changes?

Digital Data Acquisition Agenda
1 Structure
2 Sensor
3 Wiring
5 Alias Filter
7 Time File

Measurement Chain

Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Protection


Typical Sensors
Wheel force Stress/Strain Acceleration Pressure
Microphones
Strain gages DC-accelerometers
Pressure transducer
ICP-accelerometers
WFT
• Tension
• Compression
• Force Fx, Fy, Fz • Sound Pressure
• Torque • Body accelerations
• Moment Mx, My, Mz • Brake pressure
• Local stresses • Subsystems
• Angle, speed • Air pressure - dampers
Force / Moment Displacement Temperature Others
Load Cells String pots Thermocouple • RPM
Torque Sensors LVDT • GPS – Global position
• CAN signals
• Video
• Absolute displ.
• Engine torque • Relative displ. • Engine
• Drive shafts e.g. damper, bushings • Gearbox

Active vs Passive Sensors
“Passive” sensors add little or no noise to the measurement chain:

• Piezoelectric (charge) transducers
• Strain gauges
“Active” sensors have on-board electronics that do add noise:

• ICP sensors
PCB
333Bxx
• DC accelerometers
PCB
3711B03

Isolated vs Non Isolated Sensors
A sensor is isolated form the structure when current cannot flow between
the sensor and structure
Sensors that are Electrically Isolated from the Structure

• Strain Gages are usually Isolated from Structure
• Some commercial sensors provide electrical Isolation
• Accelerometers – PCB J Suffix
Sensors that are commonly not isolated from structure

• Thermocouple
• Accelerometers (isolation bases)
• These sensors require floating or isolated grounds to prevent ground loops
When taking Operational Measurements it is recommended to use isolated sensors

Ground Loops
• When installing accelerometers onto electrically conductive surfaces, there
exists the risk of ground noise pick-up.
• If Sensor is grounded at a different electrical potential than the signal
conditioning and readout equipment, ground loops can occur
• Noise from other electrical equipment and machines that are grounded to the
structure can enter the ground path of the measurement signal through the
base of a standard accelerometer

Ground Loops
• When installing accelerometers onto electrically conductive surfaces, there
exists the risk of ground noise pick-up.
• If Sensor is grounded at a different electrical potential than the signal
conditioning and readout equipment, ground loops can occur
• Noise from other electrical equipment and machines that are grounded to the
structure can enter the ground path of the measurement signal through the
base of a standard accelerometer
TWO PATHS TO GROUND = BAD!!!

Possible Causes / How Do Ground Loops Appear in Data
Although usually 50 or 60 Hz Ground Loop can

be any frequency created large power devices
like frequency controlled electric motors
Possible sources are:

• motors, pumps, generators,…
• mains supply, electric power
to machines
• lights
• other EM field sources

How Do We Fix Ground Loops
• The easiest solution is to break the ground loop is by electrically isolating or
"floating" the accelerometer from the test structure:
• In case no manufacturer provided isolation is available, one can make use of
insulating materials.
These include:
• isolating tape
• isolation base
• gluing paper between sensor and structure can already improve the situation
substantially

How Do We Fix Ground Loops
• The easiest solution is to break the ground loop is by electrically isolating or
"floating" the accelerometer from the test structure:
• In case no manufacturer provided isolation is available, one can make use of
insulating materials.
These include:
• isolating tape
• a piece of Bakelite
• gluing paper between sensor and structure can already improve the situation
substantially
ONE PATH TO GROUND = GOOD!!!

Other Options to Deal With Ground Loops
• Other tips for decreasing ground loop effects:

• If possible, make sure all parts of the loop are grounded on the same
physical ground. This also includes the amplifier.
• Try to switch off possible EMC sources in the vicinity of the test table.
• Unplug data acquisition system from AC power
• If using AC power make sure grounding plug is working
• Use grounding strap
• Use Isolated Ground Transformer
• Cleans up power does not break ground
• Use Clean Power – Orange plug
• For sensors that are electrically connected to ground, Floating supply (T8,
VD8, PQFA) is required for the removal of ground loop noise. Try using a
signal conditioner with a floating ground
24 copyright LMS International - 2011

Recommended setup for in-vehicle power of LMS Scadas Mobile (SCM) frontend
Additional considerations:
• Use shielded Ethernet cable
• Use LMS-provided Ethernet adapter in the laptop
• Laptop must use a non-grounded power brick, or (if using DC
vehicle power) be grounded to the same point as the Scadas.
• Optional Scadas ground cables shown above are only required NOTE: SCADAS Mobile units require at least
if running off of internal batteries or other non-grounded power
11Vdc (with a max. of 42Vdc). Less than 11 volts
supply (e.g. auxiliary batteries).
can cause damage to the power supply.
• If using auxiliary batteries, use 2 connected in series to provide
24 volts.
• Remember: the entire measurement system must be grounded
at one point, and one point only!

Sensor Mounting Frequency Responses

Accelerometer Mounting Examples
Easy-Mount Swivel Clips Adhesive-Mount

~ 1000 Hz maximum
Magnet Mount Stud w shoulder

(c’bore required)

Accelerometer Mass Loading Effect Examples
Mass Loading Example 173 Hz

0.14 gram 0.14 gram
accelerometer accelerometer
alone
6”
hacksaw blade 100 Hz

0.14 gram accelerometer
mounted on top of a 2.7 gram
mass
center of shaker

Accelerometer Mass Loading – Determine if the Problem Exists?
Add additional mass in proportion

to accelerometer mass and monitor
any change in response when test
is repeated

Additional Accelerometer Mass Loading Effect Examples
Mounting blocks can be trouble! They must be evaluated

with the specific accelerometer.
aluminum blocks
Page 31 Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2017 Sandia Siemens PLM Software

Multi-run Modal – Can’t take all the points at once

Modification Prediction for Mass Loading

Measurement Chain
1 Structure
2 Sensor
3 Wiring
5 Alias Filter
7 Time File

Measurement Chain

Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Protection


Wiring
• Wiring can be complicated sometimes

• Connectors can be critical for field data acquisition
• Rough environments can cause intermittent connections
• Unshielded cable can act as antennas EMI ( Electro Magnetic
Interference)
• Cables can act as low pass filters
• Cross Talk

Cabling Noise Sources – Electro-Magnetic Interference EMI
Electrostatic
• Electrostatic Fields - generated by the presence of
voltage with, or without current flow
• Mechanism: capacitive coupling, by which charges
of correspondingly alternating sign are developed
on any electrical conductors subjected to the field
• Example Fluorescent Lights
Magnetic
• created either by the flow of electric current or by
the presence of permanent magnetism
• In order for noise voltage to be developed in a
conductor, magnetic lines of flux must be “cut” by
the conductor
• Examples Electric Motors and Transformers

Countermeasure Electrostatic - Shielding
Transducer Lead wires become antennas

The simplest and most effective barrier
against electrostatic noise pickup is a
conductive shield, sometimes referred to as
a Faraday cage
It functions by capturing the charges that
would otherwise reach the signal wiring
Must be provided with a low resistance
drainage path (ground)
Popular types of cable shields are braided
wire and conductive foil.

Countermeasure for Magnetic Noise
Electrostatic shield wires ineffective, requires different shielding principle that bends or
shunts the magnetic field
Ensure that noise voltages are induced equally in both sides of the amplifier input
• Common Mode Noise Reduction: covered in Signal Conditioning
The noise voltages (V1 and V2) induced in the signal wires will therefore depend
greatly upon their distances from the current-carrying conductors
• Twisting the signal conductors together tends to make the distances equal, on the
average, thereby inducing equal noise voltages which will cancel each other.
Special attention required for cables running in parallel with high current lines. (Current
produces magnetic fields).

Cabling Best Practices
More twists per unit length
better
If must have excess cable

avoid coiling, fold instead

Long Wires on Strain Gauges
• Lead-wire causes voltage drop – so you do not
get requested excitation
• This de-sensitizes the Bridge causing an error
in calibration (sensitivity)
• Two Countermeasures:
1. Lead wire compensation: measure lead
wire resistance and mathematically
calculate error in sensitivity
2. Sense Line: Non current carrying line
that allows system to adjust excitation
voltage to ensure you get the specified
excitation
• When long reaches of multiple conductors are
run adjacent to each other, problems with
crosstalk between conductors can be
encountered. With runs of 50 feet [15 m] or
more, significant levels of noise can be induced
into sensitive conductors through both magnetic
and electrostatic coupling
• Countermeasure individually shielded
pairs one pair for excitation, and one pair
for the signal

Long Wires on Accelerometers
Capacitance in wire acts as low pass filter (rc-circuit)

Cable Length Example
Example:
• 100 ft. cable
• capacitance of 30 pF/ft, the total
capacitance is 3000 pF.
• This value can be found along the
diagonal cable capacitance lines.
• Maximum output range of 5 volts
• constant current signal conditioner is
set at 2mA,
• The ratio on the vertical axis can be
calculated to equal 5.
• The intersection of the total cable
capacitance and this ratio result in a
maximum frequency of approximately
10.2 kHz

Frequency Dependent Calibration
FRF Inverse FRF
Short Cable
Long cable
Impulse Response
Long cable compensated
Supporting long cable or measurement distortion

compensation

Frequency Dependent Calibration
Frequency dependent calibration
• Correct measurements that have a non-flat

frequency response (for example a telemetry
system, long cables …).
• The correction will be done in the time domain,
such that both time domain and frequency domain
data are corrected.
• The measured time data is corrected online
during the measurement with the defined
frequency calibration curve.
• This is done by constructing a time domain filter
from a frequency calibration curve with almost
identical amplitude/phase characteristics as the
defined frequency calibration curve

Measurement Chain
1 Structure
2 Sensor
3 Wiring
5 Alias Filter
7 Time File

Measurement Chain

Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Protection


Signal Conditioning - Components
Signal conditioning means manipulating an analog signal in such a way
that it meets the requirements of the next stage for further processing.
Most common use is in analog-to-digital converters
• Can Include AC Coupling - ICP
Sensor Supply:
• Provides low noise excitation source either current or voltage to
transducer
Amplifier:
• Scales input voltages to input of ADC
• Single ended and Differential

Signal Conditioning Examples
V8 VD8 VDER VD8MO V24 VS8 VC8 VCF4MO VM8 VB8 DB8 DB8II VB8II BDS4 DCH4 T8 RV4 CN2/4 FR4 WFI2 CAM DAC4 AO16 XSI
Voltage AC x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Voltage DC x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
ICP, IEPE x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Charge x x x
Diff Charge x
Conv Mic x
Digital Audio (SPDIF) x
MEMS x x x x
Bridge Voltage x x x x x
Bridge Current x
Potentiometer x x x x x
AC Excitation x x
Digital Wheel Force x
Temperature x
CAN x o
Flex Ray x
GPS or IRIG o
Tacho x x
Encoder x o
Recorder o
Analog Out x x x x x
Video x
Comments Diff +/-32V 51Khz Floating

Sources of Noise Electronics
Analog electronic circuits are built with resistors,

capacitors, inductors, semiconductors and switches.
Each electronic component has a certain noise
contribution
Signal conditioning and anti alias filtering adds

thermal noise
Sensor supply circuits can also produce noise

Instrumentation Amplifiers
Single-ended. An unbalanced input, non-isolated. Suitable for measurements where common mode
voltages are zero, or extremely small.
Differential. A balanced input, non-isolated. Suitable for measurements where the sum of common mode
and normal mode voltages remains within the measurement range of the amplifier.
• Helps common mode voltage noises
Single-ended, floating common. An isolated and quasi-balanced input (the floating common is typically
connected to the (-) input of a differential amplifier). Suitable for off-ground measurements up to the
breakdown voltage of the isolation barrier, and exhibits very good common mode rejection (100 db typical).
Differential, floating common. An, isolated and balanced input. Suitable for off-ground measurements to
the breakdown voltage of the isolation barrier, and exhibits superb common mode rejection (>120 db).

Isolation Amplifiers - Electrical Safety
Amplifiers providing input-to-output isolation without channel-to-channel isolation.
This is a less expensive form of isolation that offers only one isolation barrier for a multi-
channel instrument. Although the commons of each channel are isolated from power ground
by the input-to-output isolation barrier, they are not isolated from each other. Therefore a
common mode voltage on one will attempt to float all the others, sometimes with disastrous
results. This form of isolation is suitable only when it is certain that that there is only one
common mode voltage that is equally applied to all channels.
Amplifiers providing both input-to-output and channel-to-channel isolation. This is the
purest form of isolation, and the option that should be considered for nearly all applications.
Multi-channel instruments that employ it are immune to inconsistent common mode voltages
on any combination of channels within the limits of the amplifiers.
Galvanic Isolation: is a principle of isolating functional sections of electrical systems to
prevent current flow; no metallic conduction path is permitted. Energy or information can still
be exchanged between the sections by other means, such as capacitance, induction or
electromagnetic waves, or by optical, acoustic or mechanical means.

Common Mode Noise Rejection
Cancels Common Mode Voltages: appears simultaneously and in phase on each of

the instrument's inputs with respect to power ground.
Common Mode Noise Rejection property of Differential amplifier typical spec 80dB
Example: Assume that you want to measure a 3VDC normal-mode signal in the
presence of a +6VDC CMV, and assume that
• the normal-mode signal gain is 1. Product Spec:
• 80dB = 20 log (VCMV in / VCMV out) Common Mode Rejection (60Hz):
79dB@10V input range, 99dB@1V input
• 80dB = 20 log (6VDC / VCMV out)
range and 109dB@£100mV input range
• 4 = log (6VDC / VCMV out)
• 10,000 = 6VDC / VCMV out
• VCMV out = 0.6mV

Single Ended Coupling
EMF
SCADAS output
Signal on wire
amplitude
FFT
60
frequency [Hz]

Differential Coupling (common mode rejection)
EMF
SCADAS output
+
-
Signal on wire
-

Strain Gauge
 Strain is defined as the change in length compared to the dl = change in

nominal length length
 ε = ΔL / L
 Positive ΔL = “tensile” strain
Negative ΔL = “compressive” strain
lo = original length
 Strain unit = “microstrain” or με (μE)

 because of very small relative length changes (1E-6 to 1E-3)

Gauge measures change in resistance
 A strain gauge is one long resistive wire, embedded in a very

thin foil
 Unique property: resistance is proportional to the change in length
 ΔR / R = k x ε

Gauge: Will it measure correctly?
F F
Axial Torsion Bending

Gauge: Will it measure correctly?
F F
YES NO NO
Axial Torsion Bending

Strain Gauge Formulas – Wheatstone Bridge
 Typical bridge set-up

 E.g. Wheatstone bridge
 Measured voltage dependent on
input voltage and strain changes
Signal Conditioning for Strain Gauge

• Excitation Voltage
• Zeroing Capability
• Gain setting
• AC coupling for dynamic strain
• Bridge Completion
Formula relates Bridge output voltage to

strain

Bridge Configurations and Types of Strain
Gauges must be oriented in specific

directions to measure specific types
of strain
 Combinations of several strains

 To compensate for shear strain
 To compensate for temperature
 If loading direction is unknown
Note table taken form NI website

Signal Conditioning - Strain gauge
 A strain gauge is one long resistive wire,

embedded in a very thin foil
 Unique property: resistance is proportional to
the change in length
 ΔR / R = k x ε
 Strain is defined as the change in length
compared to the nominal length
 ε = ΔL / L
 Positive ΔL = “tensile” strain
Single strain gauge Negative ΔL = “compressive” strain
 Strain unit = “microstrain” or με (μE)
 because of very small relative length changes
(1E-6 to 1E-3)
Poisson bridge Strain rosette  Combinations of several strains
 To compensate for shear strain
 To compensate for temperature
 If loading direction is unknown
 Typical bridge set-up
 E.g. Wheatstone bridge
 Measured voltage dependent on input voltage
and strain changes
Strain Gauge Set-Up Questions
Input Mode - Bridge Type Parameters needed for Strain

Bridge gage resistance
External Sense
Gauge Processing
Shunt Wire
ShuntBranch
Internal Shunt Resistance
External Shunt Resistance
Bridge strain gage factor
Simulated value
Bridge supply
Balancing strategy
Bridge lead resistance
No.Active gages
Range
Actual Sensitivity

Quarter vs Full Bridge
• Full Bridge has common mode noise rejection because of 2 wire
(differential) connection to amp
• Differential Voltage
• Quarter and Half Bridges have a one wire connection
• Single ended Voltage
Quarter Bridge Full Bridge

Rotated Half Bridge
 Half bridge single wire

signal no common
mode noise rejection
possible
 No completion required
Rotated Half Bridge

creates a differential
output
Requires completion

Noise Demo
1.00
F AutoPow er Quarter Bridge Curve 10.00 600.00 RMS Hz
500e-3 F AutoPow er Full Bridge
300e-3
0.02 9.34e-3 0.35 muE
200e-3
1.38e-3 1.01e-3 0.02 muE
100e-3
70e-3
50e-3
30e-3
20e-3
muE
Log
10e-3
7e-3
5e-3
3e-3
2e-3
1e-3
700e-6
500e-6
300e-6
200e-6
100e-6 10.00 60.00 600.00

10.00 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600.00
Hz

What to try for Noise
• Cable Shield
• If possible, make sure all parts of the loop are grounded on the
same physical ground. This also includes the amplifier.
• Try to switch off possible EMC sources in the vicinity of the test
table.
• Unplug data acquisition system from AC power run on battery
• If using AC power make sure grounding plug is working and if in
Lab with clean power and isolated ground use the Orange plug
• Use grounding strap
• Use Isolated Ground Transformer
• Any other ideas?

Measurement Chain

Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Protection


Filters

First Filters in Measurement Chain
AC Coupling – Removes DC Bias

Anti Aliasing – Minimizes the Effects of
Aliasing
• Our mission understand how filters work –

What exactly they do to our data:
• The Good
• The Bad

Ever noticed AC and DC when selecting InputMode?
• Under InputMode in Channel Setup
• Alternating (Capacitive) Coupling
• Direct Coupling
• Affects frequency content of your data
• Affects resolution of your data

AC vs DC
FFT
Amplitude
Offset (DC)
+
Fluctuation (AC)
Amplitude
frequency
Amplitude
Net signal (AC and DC)
FFT
time

What is Coupling?
Coupling is the transfer of electrical energy between two mediums by means of

physical contact.
NOTE: Coupling will effect the frequency content of your data.
Two couplings on SCADAS Mobile. One coupling between 4pin LEMO cable and Tach1 channel and
one coupling between 7pin LEMO cable and dynamic channel1.

What is AC Coupling?
• Alternating coupling
2.5
• Allows only AC (non-zero) signals to pass through a 2.0 Acoustic Pressure
connection 1.5
1.0
• Removes DC offset so values fluctuate about zero 0.5
Pa
0.0
Real
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
17.50 17.60
s
Time (Throughput)

What is DC Coupling?
• Direct coupling
1.00
100.00
• Misnomer:
Allows both AC and DC signals to pass
55.00 (offset)
• 0 Hz component: acts as an offset
Real
Amplitude
uE
DC component the 55µE offset Strain with DC coupling
AC component the fluctuation about the

offset
• DC coupling = AC+DC
-100.00 0.00
4.00 s 10.00
(Time)

Quiz!
AC or DC coupling?
2.5
ICP Microphone? 2.0 Acoustic Pressure
1.5
1.0
0.5
Pa
0.0
Real
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
AC!
17.50 17.60
s
Time (Throughput)

Quiz!
AC or DC coupling?
AC!
ICP Accelerometer?

Quiz!
AC or DC coupling?
Strain Gauge?
AC or DC?

Setting a Sensor to AC or DC
• Two strain gages on the same beam at the 1.00

100.00
same location
• One set to AC coupling
• One set to DC coupling 55.00 (offset)
Real
Amplitude
uE
• Elastic region?
• Plastic region? Strain with AC coupling

Strain with DC coupling
-100.00 0.00
4.00 s 10.00
(Time)

Why use a DC accelerometer?
• DC blocking capacitor removes low

frequency components of the signal
• What if we need those low

frequency components?

0 Hz Cutoff?
freq (Hz) Amplitude
0.01 0.019996001
0.02 0.039968038
(0.5, 0.707) 0.03 0.059892291
0.04 0.079745222
0.05 0.099503719
Amplitude 0.06 0.119145221
0.07 0.138647845
0.08 0.157990501
0.09 0.177152998
0.1 0.196116135
0.2 0.371390676
0.3 0.514495755
0.4 0.624695048
0.5 0.707106781
0.6 0.76822128
0.7 0.813733471
0.8 0.847998304
0.9 0.874157276
1 0.894427191
2 0.9701425
3 0.986393924
4 0.992277877
Frequency (Hz) 5 0.99503719

Quiz!
If this was your spectrum, would you use AC or DC

coupling?
amplitude
amplitude
frequency [Hz] time [s]

Why Not Both?
But what if we care about the AC and DC

component!?
T the signal:
1 leg gets set to DC coupling
1 leg gets set to AC coupling
amplitude
frequency [Hz]

Quantization
• The real time signal will be split up in discrete levels  quantization

• The difference between analog value and digital value is quantization error or
quantization distortion
• Quantization error is proportional to the input range
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝐵𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 =
2𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠
Decrease range
Decrease bin size Increase resolution
Bin size
Decrease quantization error
Using AC coupling can increase your resolution!

Don’t we have enough bits?
Voltage Range # Discrete Levels (16 bit system)

10V 65536
10V
Range Gain
65536 bits to
10 X1
discretize signal
1 X10
-10V
.1 X100
.01 x1000
5V 32768
0.01V
2.5V 16384
65 bits to
discretize signal
1.25V 8192 -0.01V

Thought Experiment: DC Accelerometers
• What is the offset of a DC accelerometer? Gravity on Earth is 9.8m/s2
• What would the offset be if we Gravity on Earth’s Moon is 1.6m/s2

had a DC accelerometer on
the moon?
• What would the offset be if we had a Gravity on Jupiter is 24.8m/s2
DC accelerometer on Jupiter?

General Guidelines
• AC is ideal for measuring quickly

fluctuating signals
• DC Is ideal for monitoring
• Resolution of signal is increased by slowly changing signals
removing the DC offset
• Ideal for when measuring

• AC is used for any ICP sensors
offset is key

Where do I set AC or DC Coupling?

Data Acquisition Hardware Filters
Anti-Aliasing ( Low Pass Analog Filter)
• 4-pole Equal Time Delay filter with 164kHz cut-off frequency and 0.01dB flatness
AC Coupling Filter (High Pass Analog Filter)
• Voltage AC or ICP - .05, .5 and 7 Hz
A/D Converter (Low Pass Digital Decimation Filters to prevent Aliasing in the re-sampling
process)
• Digital decimation filter to ADC rate of 204.8 KHz
• 150dB/oct digital filter with 100dB alias protection provides an alias free bandwidth of
92kHz on a 204.8 KHz Sample Rate
• If Final Sample rate other than ADC rate chosen then: Then decimation filters are
composed of 3 types of filters that are used to Divide by 2 (half band filters) and to 2 types
of filters to divide by 2.5
VC8 Charge Conditioner
• Digital 4-pole (8th Order) Butterworth 5Hz high-pass filter used to remove trybo-electric
noise
Additional Low Pass Filters form 102400 Hz to 200 Hz in 25 Hz increments are available
• IIR design

Analog Filters -
Active
• Amplifiers included in a filter design can
be used to improve the performance and
predictability of a filter
• Main Use:
• AC Coupling
• Anti Aliasing
Passive
• RC
• RL
• LC
• RLC

Why Filter?
We want to mitigate certain

frequencies in our signal
• Alias Filters
• Noise Reduction
• AC Coupling
We want to accentuate certain
frequencies in our signal
• Whole Body Vibration
• A-Weighting

Types Of Filters
•Other types of filters

•Notch – Narrow Band, Band Stop Filter
•Tracking Filter – Tracks Frequency like 1st order Vibration
•FRF Filter – User Defined Frequency Response

Defining Your Filter
Cut-off frequency -3dB

Trivia
What does the “IR” in FIR and IIR
mean?
•Ingersoll Rand
•Ingrown River
•Impulse Response

Trivia
What does the “IR” in FIR and IIR

mean?
•Impulse Response - Comes from

FFT

Method of Filters
FIR – Finite Impulse Response

• Rectangular
• Hanning
• Hamming
• Chebysev
• Kaiser
IIR – Infinite Impulse Response

• Butterworth
• Bessel
• Chebyshev
• Inverse ChebyShev
• Cauer

Filtering Process
Define filter in Frequency domain
• Cut-off Frequency (FIR and IIR)
• Filter Order (FIR and IIR)
• Attenuation (Some IIR)
• Ripple (Some IIR)
Convert Filter to a Impulse Response Function
Convolve Filter with signal
• Convolution in Time Domain = Multiplication in Frequency
Domain

IIR and FIR Filter
Impulse Response describes filter function in Time

Domain
A A
t
Hz
Note: Impulse Response is the Inverse FFT of the Filter Frequency Response Function

IIR and FIR Orders
The number of “points” that describes the filter

determines how sharp it is.
A A
t
Hz
 The greater the # of points, the sharper the filter

FIR Filter Design
A FIR filter can be represented by this equation:

Convolution
 In block diagram:

FIR Filter Design
Where:
a: amplitude of filter
n: n point in input N
N: total number of filter points
K: K point in filter
x: input signal
y: output signal
x2 a2
y2
x4 x5 y3 y5
y0 y4
x0 x1 x3 a0 a1 a3 a4 a5
y1
 x - original time history data

 a - filter “points” from 0 to N
 y - is the filtered time history

FIR Filter Design
y0 = a0x0 + a1x-1 + a2x-2 + a3x-3 . . .

y1 = a0x1 + a1x0 + a2x-1 + a3x-2 . . .
y2 = a0x2 + a1x1 + a2x0 + a3x-1 . . .

FIR Filter Design
y0 = a0x0 + a1x-1 + a2x-2 + a3x-3 . . .

y1 = a0x1 + a1x0 + a2x-1 + a3x-2 . . .
y2 = a0x2 + a1x1 + a2x0 + a3x-1 . . .
x-3 x-2 x -1 do not exist!

FIR Filter Design
Until Nth point in

signal there is no
solution thus a
delay
x-3 x-2 x -1 do not exist!
This causes delay associated with filters!

FIR Filter Design
So the greater the number of points:
• Filter is sharper
• Calculation takes longer
• Delay is greater

FIR Filter Design: Window

FIR Filter Design: Order

FIR Filter Design
The “points” in the filter are sometimes called “taps”.
Wonder why?

FIR Filter Design
The “points” in the filter are sometimes called “taps”.
Looks familiar!

Belgium and Beer

IIR Filter Design
Recursive filter is much quicker – But at what cost

• Non linear delay (function of frequency)
• Possible instability
Less Filter Coefficients or Taps Required for Same Roll-Off

IIR Implementation
Two Convolutions one with the previous inputs and one with previous outputs
Convolving functions are filter coefficients
http://www.bores.com/courses/intro/iir/5_eq.htm

IIR vs. FIR

Unwanted Effects - Delay
The group delay of a set of filters provides a measure of the
average delay of a filter as a function of frequency.
The frequency response of a filter is given by

IIR vs. FIR
IIR FIR
Points Low - Fast High - Slow
Phase/Delay Not Constant Constant
Stability Sometimes Always

IIR Filter Design – Frequency Response

IIR Filter Design
Transition Group Delay

Pass Band Stop Band
Width
Butterworth Flat Monotonic Wide Medium
Chebyshev Equiripple Monotonic Narrow Substantial
Inv. Chebyshev Flat Equiripple Narrow Limited
Cauer (Elliptical) Equiripple Equiripple Narrowest Substantial
Bessel Sloping Sloping Very wide Flat

Filter Demo
1.50 1.00
800e-3
600e-3
400e-3
200e-3
Amplitude
Real
0
/
-200e-3
-400e-3
-600e-3
-800e-3
-1
-1 F 1:square
F 2:1000Hz_LP
F 3:1000Hz_LP_0Phase
-1.50 0.00
2.229 2.230 2.230 2.231 2.231 2.232 2.232 2.232 2.233 2.234 2.234 2.235 2.235 2.236 2.236 2.236 2.237 2.238 2.238
s

Frequency Domain Filter Response
1.00 1.00
400e-3
200e-3
100e-3
40e-3
20e-3
10e-3
4e-3
2e-3
1e-3
400e-6
200e-6
100e-6
40e-6
Amplitude
20e-6
Log
10e-6
/
4e-6
2e-6
1e-6
400e-9
F AutoPow er 1000Hz_LP
200e-9
F AutoPow er 1000Hz_LP_0Phase
100e-9 F AutoPow er square
40e-9
20e-9
10e-9
4e-9
2e-9
1e-9
300e-12
0.10e-9 0.00
0.00 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2500.00
Hz

Signal Conditioning - AC Coupling Filter
freq (Hz) Amplitude
0.01 0.019996001
0.02 0.039968038
0.03 0.059892291
0.04 0.079745222
0.05 0.099503719
0.06 0.119145221
0.07 0.138647845
0.08 0.157990501
0.09 0.177152998
0.1 0.196116135
0.2 0.371390676
0.3 0.514495755
0.4 0.624695048
0.5 0.707106781
0.6 0.76822128
0.7 0.813733471
0.8 0.847998304
0.9 0.874157276
1 0.894427191
2 0.9701425
3 0.986393924
4 0.992277877
5 0.99503719

Customer Issue
Phase referencing data to Tachometer

• Tachometer on data channel
• Tachometer on dedicated input
Results were different depending how tachometer was referenced
1.00 1.00
Spectrum Point1 504 rpm Spectrum Point1/Point4 504 rpm
Phased to Tach Channel
Phased to input channel (tach sine wave)
Amplitude
Amplitude
V
V
0.00 0.00
180.00 180.00
°
°
-180.00 -180.00
0.00 order 16.00 0.00 order 16.00
Point1 (CH1) Point1 (CH1)
1.00 1.00
Order 1.00 Point1 Order 1.00 Point1
Amplitude (RMS)
Amplitude (RMS)
V
V
0.00 0.00
180.00 180.00
°
°
-180.00 -180.00
500.00 rpm 10100.00 500.00 rpm 10100.00
Tacho1 (T1) Tacho1 (T1)
0.05 0.05
Order 1.00 SR_CH1 Order 1.00 SR_CH1
Amplitude (RMS)
Amplitude (RMS)
Slope - Phased to Tacho Flat - Phased to Channel
V
V
0.00 0.00
180.00 180.00
°
°
-180.00 -180.00
500.00 rpm 10100.00 500.00 rpm 10100.00
Tacho1 (T1) Tacho1 (T1)

Measurement Chain
1 Structure
2 Sensor
3 Wiring
5 Alias Filter
7 Time File

Measurement Chain

Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Protection


Antialiasing Filter
Purpose : To prevent folding of frequency content above

Nyquist frequency into Measurement Bandwidth
Nyquist frequency
(Bandwidth)
fs
f max 
2
LMS System prevents Aliasing by the combination of an
Analog anti-aliasing filter and Over Sampling in the Sigma-
Delta Converter

Scadas Analog Anti-Aliasing FIlter

ALIASING
Are you sure you’re getting

what you think you’re getting?

Alisasing - Sampling = only look from time to time …
t
1
Fs 
t
Are you getting the right amplitude?

Are you getting the correct frequency???

Beneficial use of Aliasing
Something strange?
Glass vibrates at 608 Hz,
while we see it vibrating at
2 Hz!

Sampling – Potential Source of Trouble
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
Sample Actual Observed

Hz Frequency Frequency
100 25 25
100 50 50 Nyquist Frequency f max
100 60 40
100 75 25
100 100 0
100 125 25
100 150 50
100 160 40
100 175 25
100 200 0
“Observed”
frequencies f /2
s
True
frequencies
0 fs/2 fs 2fs 3fs

Aliasing Example 1

Aliasing Example 2

How Do I Minimize Aliasing
Sample Extremely high: If there is no frequency

content above Nyquist Frequency then there is no
Aliasing
•This is not always practical or possible:
• Large files sizes,
• Limitations of data acquisition equipment
Anti-Aliasing Filter
•Low Pass Analog and Digital filters

Anti Aliasing Filter
Anti-aliasing filter: Ideal Case Lowpass filter to prevent

Amplitude
aliasing:
Removes frequencies
that violate Nyquist from
1
analog signal before
digitizing
0
Frequency fs/2=fmax fs

Minimizing Aliasing Effects
Anti-aliasing filter: Real World Extremely sharp

analog filter, but “brick
Amplitude
wall” effect is not
 Make sure the signal
does not contain
possible
frequencies above half
the sample frequency fs
1 Roll off point starts
 Do this by applying a
sufficient performing low- @ 80% of bandwidth
pass filter
 Be aware that the

amplitude of the last
portion of the spectrum
is attenuated by the filter
0 80% of fs
Frequency
Automatically done in good data acquisition hardware

Example – Multiple Sweeping Sine Tones
Alias-free
Sweep Speed
Amplitude
Frequency range
suffering from aliasing
Frequency
Practical Sample Rate Considerations
Anti-aliasing filters are a necessary part of most data acquisition

system systems.
In order to ensure alias free data in the band of interest sample rates
are often:
f s  2.5 f max
This places the filter roll-ff outside the band of interest
Example for 100 Hz Alias free band
250
100 * 2.5  250   125  125 * .8  100 Hz !Frequency Domain!
2
Aliasing Demo
105 Hz 1 V Sine Wave Amplitude .21
Sample Actual Observed Amplitude

Hz Frequency Frequency Volts
100 80 80 1
100 95 95 0.79
100 105 95 0.21
100 120 80 0.00006

Measurement Chain
1 Structure
2 Sensor
3 Wiring
5 Alias Filter
7 Time File

Measurement Chain

Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Protection


Types of ADC’s
A direct-conversion ADC
A successive-approximation ADC
A ramp-compare ADC
The Wilkinson ADC
An integrating ADC (also dual-slope or multi-slope ADC)
A delta-encoded ADC or counter-ramp
A pipeline ADC (also called subranging quantizer)
A sigma-delta ADC (also known as a delta-sigma ADC)
A time-interleaved ADC
An ADC with intermediate FM stage
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog-to-digital_converter

The Analog to Digital Converter (ADC, A/D or A to D)
Converts a continuous quantity to a discrete time digital

representational
• Typically device that converts an input analog voltage or
current to a digital number proportional to the magnitude
of the voltage or current
• Reverse is called Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)
Resolution of the converter indicates the number of discrete
values it can produce over the range of analog values.
The values are usually stored electronically in binary form,
so the resolution is usually expressed in bits. In
consequence, the number of discrete values available, or
"levels", is a power of two
Discretizes in both amplitude and time (sample rate).
Need to understand errors in both

Some ADC Formulas
The number of voltage intervals is given by
• where M is the ADC's resolution in bits.

The voltage resolution of an ADC is equal to its overall voltage
measurement range divided by the number of discrete values:
• where M is the ADC's resolution in bits and EFSR is the full scale
voltage range (also called 'span'). EFSR is given by
# of Bits # of Voltage steps (+/-10 Volts)/Bit

8 255 7.81E-02
12 4095 4.88E-03
16 65535 3.05E-04
24 16777215 1.19E-06

ADC Errors
Aliasing. A precondition of the sampling theorem is that the signal be bandlimited. However, in practice, no
time-limited signal can be bandlimited. Since signals of interest are almost always time-limited (e.g., at most
spanning the lifetime of the sampling device in question), it follows that they are not bandlimited. However,
by designing a sampler with an appropriate guard band, it is possible to obtain output that is as accurate as
necessary.
Integration effect or aperture effect. This results from the fact that the sample is obtained as a time
average within a sampling region, rather than just being equal to the signal value at the sampling instant.
The integration effect is readily noticeable in photography when the exposure is too long and creates a blur
in the image. An ideal camera would have an exposure time of zero. In a capacitor-based sample and hold
circuit, the integration effect is introduced because the capacitor cannot instantly change voltage thus
requiring the sample to have non-zero width.
Jitter or deviation from the precise sample timing intervals.
Noise, including thermal sensor noise, analog circuit noise, etc.
Slew rate limit error, caused by an inability for an ADC output value to change sufficiently rapidly.
Quantization as a consequence of the finite precision of words that represent the converted values.
Error due to other non-linear effects of the mapping of input voltage to converted output value (in addition
to the effects of quantization).

Sigma Delta ADC Process
24 Bit Sigma-Delta Converter Process on Scadas Mobile
• Over Sample - Max Sample Rate
• 32 x 204.8 KHz = 6.5 MS/sec (MS= Million Samples)
• Decimate to ADC Rate 204.8 KHz
• Resampling requires digital re-sampling filter to prevent aliasing
• digital filter of 150dB/Oct roll-off
• 100dB alias protection
• Provides Alias free bandwidth of 92kHz -
• Further decimation to software selectable sample rate in steps of 2 and 2.5
• Each decimation requires re-sampling filter

Integer Decimation to User defined Rate

Integer Decimation to User defined Rate

How Does the Sigma Delta Sample For Reference?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta-sigma_modulation
http://www.beis.de/Elektronik/DeltaSigma/DeltaSigma.html

Sampling Rate – Number of Samples Per Second (Hz)
To store real world signals on computers, the signals must be converted

from analog to discrete time and amplitude pairs in the digital domain
(ADC)
What is the Maximum Frequency/Bandwidth I need to Measure?
Amplitude 1
fs 
t
fs Sample rate/Frequency
f max Max Frequency - Bandwidth
Time
t Time between samples
Nyquist frequency
t = 1/fs T = N t
(Bandwidth)
Shannon’s Sampling theorem
f max 
fs f s  2 f max
2
Time Domain Sampling Considerations
1.00
Real
/
-1.00 F 1:10at1000Hz 1.00
5.00 s 6.00
0.90
Real
/
-0.90 F 2:10at30Hz 0.87

5.00 s 6.00
1.00
Real
/
-1.00 F 3:10at50Hz 0.94

5.00 s 6.00
1.00
Real
/
-1.00 F 4:10at100Hz 0.96

5.00 s 6.00

Time Domain Sampling Considerations
In order to accurately capture a wave form in the time domain,
we must sample much higher.
f s  10 f max
1.10 1.00
1.00 1.00
1 1.00
-1.00 1.00
F AutoPow er 10at1000Hz
1.00
5.00 s 6.00 900e-3 F AutoPow er 10at100Hz
F 1:10at1000Hz 1.00 F AutoPow er 10at50Hz
F AutoPow er 10at30Hz
800e-3 Curve 10.00 Hz
1.00 (/)^(1/2)
0.90 700e-3 1.00 (/)^(1/2)
-0.90 1.00 (/)^(1/2)
Amplitude
Amplitude
600e-3
(/) 1/2)
5.00 s 6.00 1.00 (/)^(1/2)
F 2:10at30Hz 0.87
(
500e-3
1.00 400e-3
-1.00
300e-3
5.00 s 6.00
F 3:10at50Hz 0.94 200e-3
100e-3
1.00
0.00 10.00 0.00
-1.00
1.00 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 50 6070 100 200 300 400500 1000.00
5.00 s 6.00
Hz
F 4:10at100Hz 0.96
Frequency
Time
Must sample very quickly to
capture amplitude in time domain!

Time Domain Sampling Demo

Time Domain Function Sampling - Demo
5.4
F 1:1:+Z 5.38
4.5 Time F 2:4000Hz:+Z 5.25
4.0 F 3:2000Hz:+Z 4.64
3.5 F 4:1000Hz:+Z 4.58
3.0
2.5
Real
g
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.2
0.00 s 0.11
0.10
0.01 F PSD 1:+Z 0.0203
F PSD 1000Hz:+Z 0.0204
1.00e-3 F PSD 2000Hz:+Z 0.0202
100e-6 F PSD 4000Hz:+Z 0.0203
10.0e-6
/Hz
Log
1.00e-6
g2
100e-9
10.0e-9
1.00e-9
100e-12 Frequency
10.0e-12
10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 60.00 100.00 200.00 300.00400.00 600.00 1000.00 2000.00 3000.00 5000.00
Hz

What is Quantization?
In analog-to-digital conversion, the difference between the actual analog value

and quantized digital value is called quantization error or quantization
distortion.
This error is either due to rounding or truncation. The error signal is sometimes
considered as an additional random signal called quantization noise because
of its stochastic behavior.
The continuous amplitude of the real time signal will be split up in discrete levels
(= 2NUMBER of BITS)  QUANTIZATION
Quantization refers to the precision of amplitude conversion
Time

Analog to Digital signal: Quantization
The continuous amplitude of the real time signal will be split up in discrete
levels = 2number of bits  QUANTIZATION

Properties of Quantization Error (Noise):
Random (stochastic)
• If not at max range
• Considered as an additional random signal called quantization noise because of its stochastic
behavior
Proportional to input range
Proportional to the number of bits in the systems
At lower amplitudes the quantization error becomes dependent on the input signal, resulting in
distortion
In an ideal analog-to-digital converter, where the quantization error is uniformly distributed
between −1/2 LSB and +1/2 LSB, and the signal has a uniform distribution covering all
quantization levels, the Signal-to-quantization-noise ratio (SQNR) can be calculated from
• Where Q is the number of quantization bits

• The most common test signals that fulfill this are full amplitude triangle waves and saw tooth
waves. Ideal SQNR dB
12 72.24
16 96.32
24 144.48

Types of Quantization Errors
Under load – Measuring .0001 V range set to 10 V

• Can Create Quantization Noise
Overload – Measuring 1 V range set to .1 V
• Will cause Clipping

Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)
Voltage
Bits
Levels
8 256
12 4096
16 65536
24 16777216
Precision of
conversion is
controlled by the
number of bits of
resolution in the
Analog to Digital
Converter.

What does Quantization Noise look like
Signal looks Blurry

Bit Noise

What Can Causes a Quantization Noise - Underload
Under-load AKA
improper Input
Range Setting

How to Mitigate Quantization Errors
Optimize the Input Range on your acquisition system

Result of Optimized input Range
Clean clear signal

High dynamic
Range

Be careful when Setting Range - Overload
Overhead should
be used to
minimize overload
conditions
Chose a sensor
with proper
maximum range

Scadas Mobile Overload Detection
Overload Detection done in multiple stages
Overload notification
24 Bit ΣΔ ADC
• How do I minimize
• Use Overhead when auto-ranging
• Select proper sensitivity sensor
• Minimize Noise

Range Setting - Demo

Channel to Channel Skew Eliminated
Simultaneous Sampling
• Eliminates time skew between channels
• Simplifies both time and frequency based analysis
techniques
Multiplexed Sampling
• Channels are sampled sequentially
• May require software correction for detecting certain
patterns

Phase Match Basics of Sine Waves - Phase
x(t )  A sin(2ft   ) Phase Match: Maximum

time stamp error of a
given frequency sine
1.00 wave at a specified input
0.70
0.50
range:
0.20
Real
0.00
/
-0.30
-0.50
  2ft
-0.80
-1.00 1.02 1.05
OR
  t
1.00 1.041.06 1.08 1.10 1.12 1.141.161.18 1.20 1.221.241.261.28 1.30 1.32 1.35
s

Some definitions of Sine Waves
Time domain
T0
t [s] 1 rad
Period: T0 [s]
 2
Frequency domain
f [Hz]
Frequency: f0 = 1/T0 [Hz]
f0
 [rad/s]
Pulsation / circular frequency:
0 0 = 2f0 = 2/T0 [rad/s]
Delay time = (Phase Match/360) *Period

Phase Match
Phase match:
• Better than 0.2º @ 10kHz with 10V
input range
Phase (deg) Freq (Hz) Time (s)

0.2 10000 5.56E-08
• Max Sample Rate Time
Between Samples
4.88e-6 sec at 204.8Khz
Delay time = (Phase Match/360) *Period

Measurement Chain
1 Structure
2 Sensor
3 Wiring
5 Alias Filter
7 Time File

The Time File
System Throughput Rate
Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Protection
Interface
The amount of measured data device
The amount of data that can be transferred Application

• By the acquisition system (data bus) software
• By the interface device (e.g. LAN, SCSI)
• By the application software
PC storage
The write speed to host PC storage

Instrument performance parameters
The amount of measured data
System Throughput Rate calculation for 120 microphones over full-audio alias free bandwidth
Channel count x Sampling frequency x bytes per sample @ 24 bit ADC
[#] [Hz] = [MSamples/sec] x [bytes/sample] [Mbytes/sec]
120 x 51,200 = 6.1 x3 = 18.5
System Throughput Rate calculation for 960 accel's (320 nodes in 3 directions) for aircraft GVT
960 x 512 = 0.49 x3 = 1.47
System Throughput Rate calculation for 40 accel's for high-speed turbine testing
40 x 102,400 = 4.096 x3 = 12.29

Typical System Configuration to Write 14 MS/s
Dell Precision R5500 2U 19” rack mountable workstation:

• Processor: Intel Xeon X5647 Quad core processor (2.93 GHz)
• Memory: 6 GB ECC memory
• Graphics: 256 MB NVIDIA Quadro NVS 295
• Raid controller: Perc6i RAID controller
• Operating system hard drive: 146 GB 15k RPM SAS Hard drive in
RAID1 (redundant operating system drive), total 146 GB capacity
(136 GB effective capacity)
• Data hard drive: 146 GB 15k RPM SAS Hard drive in RAID1
(redundant data drive), total 146 GB capacity (136 GB effective
capacity)
• DVD: 8x DVD+/-RW
• Operating System: Windows 7 Professional

Do I Have to Re-take Data???
1. Depend on what data is used for and how data

is contaminated.
1. NVH –
2. Durability
2. Main tool for correcting data is filters

1. Kalman Filtering
2. Spike Filters
3. De-trend

Spike Filter Demo

Drift Demo

Kalman Filter Demo
10.00
6
4 F AutoPow er Filtered
3 F AutoPow er Signal+Noise
600e-3
400e-3
Log
V
300e-3
200e-3
100e-3
60e-3
40e-3
30e-3
20e-3
0.01
0.00 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 500.00
Hz

Operational Modal Analysis in the presence of harmonics
Fixed (or slowly varying) harmonics

• Harmonics make the identification process
more difficult Main rotor (MR) Tail rotor (TR)
• Modal estimators will preferably find

harmonics instead of structural modes
• Remove from data
Sokol helicopter in-flight data

How to remove distributing rotating component contents during
operational test?
Objective: identify structural dynamic during operating condition.
Problem: presence of harmonics cause high level contribution& mask the structural
resonance
Measured data: time recording without knowing the input force
Methodology:
1. Identify presence of harmonics
2. RPM trace
a. Measure tacho
b. Use RPM extraction tool
3. Remove harmonic
a. Upsample data in angle domain
b. Angle domain synchronious averaging
c. Remove orders (= a - b)
d. Resample c in time domain
4. Perform operational modal anlaysis

Harmonic Filter
Separation of “random” and “discrete” components by
time (angle) synchroneous averaging
• Random components decreases by averaging over
some periods
• Equivalent to comb filter
N 1
1
y (t ) 
N
 y (t  nT )
n0

Harmonic Filter Demo
0.10 1.00
F AutoPow er filter_10:+Z 696.59 rpm
40e-3 F AutoPow er filter_100:+Z 696.59 rpm
F AutoPow er StrWhl:+Z 696.59 rpm
20e-3
10e-3
4e-3
2e-3
1e-3
Amplitude
400e-6
Log
g
200e-6
100e-6
40e-6
20e-6
10e-6
4e-6
2e-6
1.00e-6 0.00
0.000 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00 6.50 7.00 7.50 8.00 8.50 9.00 10.000
order
Derived Order (EngineTacho)

How do I Compare Systems?
What do they mean ?

How relevant are they?
How to compare them objectively?

Instrument specifications System layout and sources of noise

Sensor supply
Structure
Signal
Protection

Conclusion: every element in this chain effects the dynamic range

Fact: the dynamic range is only measured with the total chain

Instrument specifications
• System Specification Terms
• Dynamic Range
• Spurious Free Floor or Noise Floor
• Spurious Free Dynamic Range
• Signal to Noise
• Harmonic Distortion
• Common Mode Noise Rejection
• Phase Match
• Cross Talk
Signal
Conditioning Gain Alias ADC DSP
Protection
Conditioner and Filter ADC Calculation

noise noise noise

Dynamic Range
Definition: Dynamic Range
Is the ratio between the smallest and largest possible signal that can be
measured with a measuring system
• Your ears is capable of hearing anything from a whisper to the
sound of the loudest rock concert.
• Your eyes can see objects in starlight or in bright sunlight.
High dynamic range is preferred as it ensures:

• More confidence in the measured signal
• Less dependency on instrument’s settings (e.g. reliable data
irrespective of the input range setting)
• No artifacts like noise, distortion and aliased signals contaminate
the measured signal
• Full use of the sensor capabilities

Measures of Dynamic Range
When Comparing Systems make sure you understand how dynamic range
is defined and measured
Measures of dynamic range:
• Signal to noise ratio (SNR)
• Spurious free floor (SFF) also known as noise floor (NF)
• Spurious free dynamic range (SFDR)
• Total harmonic distortion (THD)
• Signal-to-quantization-noise ratio (SQNR) - Theoretical
• Overall Dynamic Range

Signal to Noise Ratio
Definition: Signal to noise ratio (SNR) Time Domain
SNR specification is important in time data information because it says

something about the noise energy instead of its spectral distribution.
SNR of a data acquisition channel is defined as the ratio between the

maximum rms value of a full scale signal to the rms sum of all other
spectral components (noise) in that channel.
SNR is also referred to as “dynamic range” and is measured with a

shorted input (without applying a signal) over a bandwidth of 20kHz.
SNR value is given for individual gain stage independently
SNR = 20 x 10log(VFSrms / Vnoiserms)

• Input range is set to 10V (=7Vrms)
• With the input shorted, the measured rms noise
over 20kHz bandwidth is 0.125mVrms LMS SCADAS –E series modules
20 x 10log(7Vrms / 0.125mVrms) = 115dB Overall
Input SNR SFF dynamic
range range
10V 115dB -150dB 178 dB
3.16V 115dB -150dB 178 dB
1V 115dB -150dB 178 dB
316mV 110dB -148dB 178 dB

Theoretical vs Actual SNR
Theoretical max signal to noise is the quantization SNR or
SQNR
Given By:
For a 24 Bit System = 144 dB
Commercial 24 bit system at full scale 10V = 115 dB
Difference attributed to noise sources in signal conditioning
and ADC process

Spurious Free Floor
Definition: Spurious Free Floor (SFF) – Frequency Domain
SFF is important in frequency domain analysis since it says something
about any spectral components that are caused by the instrument at
specific settings
Also known as “Noise Floor” (NF)
The ratio of the maximum input voltage (full scale signal) to the peak
spurious of all other spectral components over a certain bandwidth
(20kHz)
SFF is an autopower measurement based on an FFT (no window) with
at least 16k points spectral resolution. Averaging up to 8 or 16
autopower spectra will contribute to having a clear view on the
instrument capabilities
SFF value is given for individual gain stage independently
SFF = 20 x 10log(VFS / Vspurious )
• Input range is 10V LMS SCADAS –E series modules
• The measured peak noise
over 20kHz bandwidth is 0.316µV Overall
range range
20 x 10log(10V / 0.316µV ) = 150dB
10V 115dB -150dB 178 dB
3.16V 115dB -150dB 178 dB
1V 115dB -150dB 178 dB
316mV 110dB -148dB 178 dB

Overall Dynamic range
Definition: Overall Dynamic Range – Frequency Domain
ODR should be seen as the overall qualification of a an instrument. The

value shows the min & max signal values that can be measured with
the given instrument at all input ranges
The ratio between the value of the highest full scale input range voltage
and the highest spectral peak in the noise floor of the lowest input
range over a 20 kHz frequency bandwidth
ODR = 20 x 10log(VFS (max range) / Vspurious (min range))

• Max input range is 10V
• The measured peak noise at the lowest input range (316mV) over
20kHz bandwidth is 0.013µV
LMS SCADAS –E series modules
20 x 10log(10V / 0.013µV) = 178dB Overall
range range
10V 115dB -150dB 178 dB
3.16V 115dB -150dB 178 dB
1V 115dB -150dB 178 dB
316mV 110dB -148dB 178 dB

Total Harmonic Distortion
Definition: Total Harmonic Distortion
Modern data acquisition instruments usually do not suffer from bad

linearity (the main cause for distortion), but large harmonic
components can certainly influence the reliability of a measurement
THD qualifies the linearity of the measurement chain
The ratio between the rms value of an applied pure sine wave and
the rms sum value of all measured harmonics (usually only up to
the 5th) Good practice is to apply a signal with an amplitude of 70%
(-3dB) of the full scale range. The advised method to determine
THD is to perform an autopower measurement based on an FFT
with at least 16k points spectral resolution. Averaging up to 8 or 16
autopower spectra will contribute to having a clear view on the
instrument capabilities.
THD = 20 x 10log(VFSrms / sum of rms harmonics)
Better than -98dB @ 3dB below full scale

Cross Talk
Cross Talk: is any phenomenon by which a signal transmitted on

one circuit or channel of a transmission system creates an
undesired effect in another circuit or channel. Crosstalk is usually
caused by undesired capacitive, inductive, or conductive coupling
from one circuit, part of a circuit, or channel, to another.
Specification
• Cross talk between any two channels: -123dB at 1 kHz typical,
independent of input range settings
20 x 10log(CH1 / CH2)
Note: 20 dB is a factor of 10 (decade)

Test Technology: DSP (Digital
Signal Processing)
Fourier transform – Aliasing & leakage – Measurement functions
Digital Signal Processing Agenda
1 DSP Fundamentals
2 Aliasing
3 Leakage and Windows
4 Spectrum vs Autopower
5 Filters
6 Amplitude Discretization


DSP Fundamentals Aliasing Leakage and Windows
Sampling Rate, Spectral

Lines, FFT, etc
Frequency
Filters
Response
Spectrum vs Autopower
Functions
FIR and(FRFs)
IIR
Amplitude Discretization

Signals and processing
Digital Signal Processing: signal processing using a computer-based system

• Most transducers output an analog (continuous) signal
• Computers are digital devices (0/1; on/off)
• Convert the sensor signal into a discrete stream of digital information
• Discretization in time and in amplitude
• Massive loss of information when sampling
 Domains: Different domains provide unique insight to the signal
 Time
 Frequency
 Laplace

Time, Frequency and Laplace Domains
Time
Each domain can be Domain
thought of as a different Each domain
coordinate system that highlights a
is used to view or particular aspect of
describe the the characteristics of
characteristics of a transformation transformation a system or event.
system or event.
subset
Frequency Laplace
Domain parameter estimation Domain
• The time domain is usually the basis for a description of a system’s dynamic behavior.
e.g. differential equation of motion. Events are measured as a function of time.
• The frequency domain highlights the periodic characteristics of the system or event.
• The Laplace domain describes the system in terms of poles and zeroes or residues.

Time, Frequency and Laplace Domains
Time
Each domain can be Domain
thought of as a different Each domain
coordinate system that highlights a
is used to view or particular aspect of
describe the the characteristics of
characteristics of a
Uh, sounds a system or event.
transformation transformation
system or event.
FFT cool... But, WHAT
the #$%@ is it,
subset
and HOW does it
Frequency Laplace
work?
Domain parameter estimation Domain
• The time domain is usually the basis for a description of a system’s dynamic behavior.
e.g. differential equation of motion. Events are measured as a function of time.
• The frequency domain highlights the periodic characteristics of the system or event.
• The Laplace domain describes the system in terms of poles and zeroes or residues.

Joseph did help us a lot …
-1
-2
-3 Joseph Fourier
-4
(º1768 - †1830)
Théorie analytique de la chaleur (1822)
• Fourier’s law of heat conduction

2.5
1.5
0.5
u   2u  2u 
-0.5
k  2  2 
-1
-1.5
-2
t  x y 
-2.5
Any signal can be described as • Analyzed in terms of infinite mathematical

a combination of sine waves of Useful by-product series
different frequencies

Fourier Transform
Transforms from Time Domain to Frequency Domain

Fourier: “Any signal can be described as a unique combination of sine
waves of different frequencies and amplitudes”
Complicated signals become easier to understand
No information is lost when converting!
Amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude
Frequency
Time
(Hz)
(seconds)

Some conversion history
Fourier series - Joseph Fourier (1822)

• Origin
Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)
• Sampling + finite time
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) – Cooley & Tukey (1965)
• Efficient algorithm for FFT
• Power of 2 number of samples (e.g. 512, 1024, 2048, 4096, …)
Fastest Fourier Transform in the West (FFTW) – Frigo & Johnson (1999)
• Efficient algorithm for DFT for non-power-of-2 number of samples
FFT = Fast Fourier Transform (Power of 2 samples)

DFT = Discrete Fourier Transform (Non-power of 2 samples)

Why Is My FFT Amplitude Different?
1. One Sided / Two Sided

2. Scaling
3. Leakage
4. Windows
5. Function Type and Frequency
Resolution
6. Averaging

Fourier transform
For mathematicians …

Convert from time to frequency domain and X    x t  e  j t

dt
back 
Fourier integral:

xt   
1

j t
 X  e d
For lowly humans … 2 
 FFT/DFT supported by modern signal analyzers
 Basic function in all LMS Test.Lab software

4
2.5
3 2
2 1.5
1
1
0.5
0 0
-1 -0.5
-1
-2
-1.5
-3 -2
-4 -2.5
Detect sine waves in signal Draw line at frequency

Most Signals We Analyse are Not Continuous So!
Discrete Fourier Transform Time to Frequency
Amplitude
Frequency to Time
Time
t = 1/fs T = N t
No Information lost

Some definitions of Sine Waves
Time domain
T0
t [s] 1 rad
Period: T0 [s]
 2
Frequency domain
f [Hz]
Frequency: f0 = 1/T0 [Hz]
f0
 [rad/s]
Pulsation / circular frequency:
0 0 = 2f0 = 2/T0 [rad/s]

Basics of Sine Waves - Frequency
Sine Wave Equation x(t )  A sin(2ft   )

A = Amplitude
f = Frequency
Amp θ = Phase
t = Time
  2f time
Remember
1 second
Where:
f is in Hz
‘ω is in radians/sec

Basics of Sine Waves: Frequency
Amp Amp
time time
1 second 1 second

Basics of Sine Waves: Amplitude
Amp Amp
time time
1 second 1 second

Basics of Sine Waves: Amplitude
5 g Peak
5
3.5 g RMS (.707 of Peak)
Amp
0
time
-5
10 g Peak-to-Peak (2xPeak)
Scaling Can Cause Amplitude Difference

Fundamentals of Sine Waves
x(t )  A sin(2ft   ) Phase is the amount of shift
in time relative to another
  2ft
reference.
OR (another signal, start of FFT block, etc.)
  t
1.00 Phase is measured
0.70
as an angle.
0.50
We say the blue
0.30 signal “lags” the red
0.10 by about 45° or /4
Real
0.00
/
radians.
-0.30 It is equivalent to say
-0.50
the blue signal
“leads” the red by
-0.70
-0.80 315° or 7/4 radians.
-1.00 1.03
1.00 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.10 1.12 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.20 1.22 1.24 1.26 1.28 1.30 1.32 1.35
s

Fourier Transform
Q: “What is the output of an FFT?”
A: A spectrum in the frequency domain. It represents a
series of sines and cosines in the form of complex
numbers. When these numbers are summed they form
the original signal in the time domain.
Solution: a + jb = complex number

a = real part
b = imaginary part
j = -1
Note :You will get a complex number for each point in your spectrum

Frequency Spectrum – Complex Numbers
Q: “How do I make sense of this complex numbo-jumbo?”
A: Spectrum most commonly viewed as Magnitude/Phase
Log
Magnitude
Phase
Phase
Hz
AKA: Bode Plot

Single vs Double Sided FFT?
•Output is double
sided most
commercial
software will multiply
by 2 and not display
negative frequency
•No physical
significance for NVH
or Durability to
negative Frequency
If double sided spectrum you may be off by 2

Integration and Differentiation in Frequency Domain
F 1:Displacement
B 2:Velocity
B2 3:Acceleration
5 Hz Sine Wave
Displacement 1.00 32.00 2.56
x(t )  A sin(t   )
700e-3
500e-3
Velocity 200e-3
Real
Real
Real
in/s
in
x(t )  A cos(t   )
g
0
-300e-3
-500e-3
Acceleration
-800e-3
x(t )   A sin(t   )
-1.00 0.00 0.05 -32.00 -2.56
2
0.00 20e-3 50e-3 70e-3 100e-3 100e-3 200e-3 200e-3 0.20
s
Simply Multiply 5 Hz sine wave with .05 second shift

Θ = ωt = 2πft =2*3.14*5*.05 = 1.57 rad = 90 deg
or Divide by ω

Integration in Frequency Domain
100.00 10.00 0.15
70 F Spectrum Random Acceleration

60 B Spectrum Random Velocity
B2 Spectrum Random Discplacement
50
40
30
20
10
7
Converting from
6
5 acceleration to velocity /ω
4
In/s^2
in/s
Log
Log
Log
in
g
700e-3
600e-3
500e-3
400e-3 Converting from acceleration
300e-3
200e-3
to Displacement /ω^2
0.10 10.0e-6 9.49e-9
1.00 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 1000.00
249 copyright LMS InternationalHz- 2011

Integration in Time Domain

Simpson - 3 point Rule
. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simpson's_rule

Trapezium – 2 Point Method
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapezoidal_rule

Differentiation in Time Domain
Two Point
Three Point
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_differentiation

From Acceleration to Displacement in Time Domain
0.80 1.00
1. Up-sample 2x = 4x Bandwidth
F 3:accel:+Z Filter • RESAMPLING(CH1;2048;80;0.01;50;15)
2. Filter Integrate Acceleration to Velocity
3. Filter Integrate Velocity to Displacement
Amplitude
Real
in
Integration Constant Removed with Filter

-0.90 0.00 INTEGRATE(FILTER_HP(INTEGRATE(FILTER_HP(
92.00 s 157.00
CH2;2;2);2);2;2);2)
20000.00 1.00
F 4:accel:+Z No Filter
Amplitude
Amplitude
in
Double Integration No Constant Removal

DOUBLEINTEGRATE(CH2;2)
0.00 0.00
92.00 s 157.00

Frequency spectrum – Time history
Selection of domain, depending on the application aims

Equivalence of time and frequency domain: no loss of
information
t f t f
t f t f
t f t f
Time Frequency Time Frequency

Examples – Fourier transform

No Information Lost?
Original Time FFT Inverse FFT
F 1:100.5Hz F Spectrum 100.5Hz F Time 100.5Hz

1.10 1.10 1.10
Amplitude
Real
Real
/
/
-1.10 0.00 -1.10
0.50 s 0.60 0.00 Hz 1000.00 0.50 s 0.60
F 2:100Hz F Spectrum 100Hz F Time 100Hz

1.10 1.10 1.10
Amplitude
Real
Real
/
/
-1.10 0.00 -1.10
0.50 s 0.60 0.00 Hz 1000.00 0.50 s 0.60
F 3:random F Spectrum random F Time random

1.80 0.12 1.80
Amplitude
Real
Real
/
/
-1.80 0.00 -1.80
0.00 s 1.00 0.00 Hz 1000.00 0.00 s 1.00
F 4:square F Spectrum square F Time square

1.10 1.30
Amplitude 1.10
Real
Real
/
/
-1.10 0.00 -1.10
0.00 s 1.00 1.00 Hz 1000.00 0.00 s 1.00

FFT Phase
1.00
Real
/
2.01240
2.01120 F 1:Phase_0
-1.00
F 2:Phase_45
2.00 s 2.02
1.01
  2ft
/
0.00
180.00
°
-180.00 100.00 Spectrum Phase_0

0.00 Hz Spectrum Phase_45
200.00

FFT Square Wave
2.00
F 3:square
Real
/
-1.000 -1.000
-2.00 2.010 2.020

2.00 s 2.05
1.30
Spectrum square
Amplitude
/
Hz
0.00 0.00 100.00 Linear 600.00
Phase
180.00 0.00 100.00 Linear 600.00

°
-180.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 Hz
300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Hz

FFT Square & Triangular Wave
2.00
F 3:square
F 4:triangle
Real
/
-2.00 2.01 2.02

2.00 s 2.05
1.30
Spectrum square
Spectrum triangle
Amplitude
/
Hz
0.00 0.00 100.00 Linear 600.00
Phase
180.00 0.00 100.00 Linear 600.00

°
-180.00
0.00 Hz
Hz 600.00

DSP Quantities & Terminology
Time Domain
Record Length/Observation Time 
Sampling Increment t
Block Size 
Frequency Domain
Sample Rate/Frequency fs
Maximum Frequency/Bandwidth f max
Frequency Resolution f
Spectral Lines  2

Moving between Time & Frequency Domains: FFT
Sample in Time Domain Plot in Frequency Domain
FFT
Amplitude
Amplitude
FFT-1
Time Frequency
Time No information is Frequency

lost moving
Domain between domains Domain

Signal Processing
Acquisition Time?
Frequency Resolution?

Sampling Rate – Number of Samples Per Second (Hz)
To store real world signals on computers, the signals must be converted

from analog to discrete time and amplitude pairs in the digital domain
(ADC)
What is the Maximum Frequency/Bandwidth I need to Measure????
Amplitude 1
fs 
t
fs Sample rate/Frequency
f max Max Frequency - Bandwidth
Time
t Time between samples
Nyquist frequency
t = 1/fs T = N t
(Bandwidth)
Shannon’s Sampling theorem
f max 
fs f s  2 f max
2
Sampling Parameters and the effects in Frequency domain
Information Discarded
USABLE FREQUENCY
RANGE
“BANDWIDTH”
No usable data
frequency
f
f max  s fs
2
f s  2 f max
Shannon’s Sampling Theorem

“What should my Sampling Frequency be?”
Using a microphone for sound quality recordings
• Human hearing frequency range is:

• 20 Hz – 20 kHz
• Sample > 40 kHz

• Typical .mp3 is 44.1 kHz

Using an accelerometer for measuring engine firing order on a

4 cylinder engine with a max speed of 6000 rpm?
• Dominant engine firing order = 2nd
6000 rotations 1 minute 2 fire

X X = 200 Hz
minute 60 seconds rotation
f max  200 Hz
f s  400 Hz

Using an accelerometer to measure an impact test on a metal structure?
• At least twice as high as the highest mode of interest

Acquisition time vs Observation Time (Frame Size)
Acquisition Time
Time FFT is
calculated over
Observation Time / Frame Size T

Sampling in the Time Domain – Digital Signals
TIME DOMAIN fs= Sampling Frequency FREQUENCY DOMAIN

N = Block size (# Samples)
spectral lines
FFT
Amplitude
Amplitude
t Time
f
Frequency
Sampling Interval (sec/sample) t = 1/fs Frequency Resolution (Hz) f = 1/T
Observation Time/ (seconds)    t # Spectral Lines = N/2*

Frame Size
Block Size – # Samples (unit-less) N *calculate magnitude & phase for each spectral line

Mathematical Relationships
Relationship between Observation Time, Frequency

Resolution, Bandwidth, Sample Rate and Block Size
1 Bandwidth Sampling Frequency

   f
T Spectral Lines Block Size
1 1
T 
f Re solution

POP Quiz
Frame size is 2 seconds what is

Frequency Resolution?
Block size is 1024 How many spectral

lines do we have?
If the bandwidth is 256 Hz and the block

size if 512 what is the Frequency
Resolution?

POP Quiz
1. Frame size is 2 seconds what is Frequency T

1

1
f Re solution .5 Hz
Resolution?
2. Block size is 1024 How many spectral lines do we

have? 1024/2 512
3. If the bandwidth is 256 Hz and the block size if 512

what is the Frequency Resolution?
256*2/512 1 Hz

When Choosing The Right Bandwidth and Sample Frequency
Step 1: Determine your highest frequency of interest
•Dictates your sample rate (Fs = 1/∆t), Bandwidth
Step 2: Determine the appropriate frequency resolution
•Dictates your Spectral Lines and will determine your frequency resolution.
→This will dictate T, the length of time over which the FFT is
processed.
Keep in Mind:
The shorter the FFT Observation time, T,

the coarser the frequency resolution, Δf.
The longer the FFT Observation time, T,

the finer the frequency resolution, Δ f.

Analyzer Set-up
Online Processing
Offline Processing


Lines, FFT, etc
Frequency
Filters
Response
Spectrum vs Autopower
Functions
FIR and(FRFs)
IIR

What is Leakage
When your signal does not correspond to a spectral line
5 V Sine Wave - 3 Hz
5 V Sine Wave - 2.5 Hz
5v
?
1 Hz Δf
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6
Hz Hz

DSP Errors: Leakage
Because of non-periodicity in observation window
Smaller amplitude
Smearing of
spectral content
Reason FFT Amplitude May Not Match

Periodic Signals
T T = N t
YES!
Are these signals the same?

Non-Periodic Signals
T T = N t
Are these signals

the same?
NO!

Windows: Minimize Leakage
Original signal
Window function
x
0
=
Windowed signal

Windows: Minimize Leakage
No longer have “impulse” in signal

Finite Observation – Side Effect
Expect
1.00
2.5 Linear scale
Amplitude
(m/s 2)
2
1.5
0.5
0 0.00
-0.5
0.00 Hz 100.00
-1
-1.5 0.00
-2 Log scale
-2.5
(m/s 2)
dB
2.5
2 -60.00
1.5
0.00 Hz 100.00
1
0.5
Actually See
-0.5 1.00
-1
-1.5
Linear scale
Amplitude
(m/s 2)
-2
-2.5
0.00
2.5 2.5 2.5 0.00 Hz 100.00
2 2 2
1.5 1.5 1.5

0.00
1
0.5
1
0.5
1
0.5
Log scale
(m/s 2)
dB
0 0 0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1 -1 -1
-1.5 -1.5 -1.5

-60.00
-2 -2 -2
-2.5 -2.5 -2.5 0.00 Hz 100.00

Leakage – Amplitude Uncertainty
Periodic observation A-periodic observation

100% of amplitude 63% of amplitude
“ Boss, this system is giving me

something between 6 and 10g ”

“How can we minimize the effects of leakage?”
A: Windows

Window Types – Specific Characteristics
Rectangular, uniform Hanning Flat top

Time domain
AKA No Window
Freq. domain

Window Properties – What do they do to your data
Window distort the amplitude and total energy content

of the data. They also Smear the frequency resolution
this smearing cannot be corrected

Windows Windows limit spectral resolution
Hanning: 1.5 f Flattop: 3.4 f

Up to 15% amplitude Up to 0.02% amplitude

Amplitude Errors

Energy Errors

Window Correction factors
Done automatically is software – smart displays

Types of windows and their application
No Window

More Windows

More Windows

Window Demo 50.5 Hz Sine Wave
F AutoPow er Sine 50.5 Hz Uniform

F AutoPow er Sine 50.5 Hz Hanning
Curve 50.00 Hz F AutoPow er Sine 50.5 Hz Flattop
1.10
0.64 /
1.00 0.85 /
900e-3
1.00 /
0.70
800e-3
0.50 F 1:Sine 50.5 Hz 1.00 700e-3
Amplitude
600e-3
0.20
/
500e-3
Real
0.00
/
400e-3
300e-3
-0.30
200e-3
-0.50
0.00 50.00
-0.80
40 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 60
-1.00
Hz
5.00 5.02 5.05 5.07 5.10 5.12 5.15 5.17 5.20
Which Window
s
Would be best for a calibration?
What is the trade-off for better Amplitude resolution?

Window Demo 50.5 Hz Sine Wave

Curve 50.00 Hz F AutoPow er Sine 50.5 Hz Flattop
1.10
0.64 /
1.00 0.85 /
900e-3
1.00 /
0.70
800e-3
0.50 F 1:Sine 50.5 Hz 1.00 700e-3
Amplitude
600e-3
0.20
/
500e-3
Real
0.00
/
400e-3
300e-3
-0.30
200e-3
-0.50
0.00 50.00
-0.80
40 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 60
-1.00
Hz
5.00 5.02 5.05 5.07 5.10 5.12 5.15 5.17 5.20
Which Window s
Would be best for a calibration? Flat Top
What is the trade-off for better Amplitude resolution? Frequency Res

RMS Value???

F AutoPow er Sine 50.5 Hz Flattop
1.10
900e-3
800e-3 Curve 9.90 96.79 RMS Hz

0.01 4.72e-3 0.71 /
700e-3
6.20e-6 3.11e-6 0.71 /
600e-3 0.21e-3 0.08e-3 0.71 /
Amplitude
/
500e-3
400e-3
300e-3
200e-3
100e-3
0.00 9.90 96.79

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Hz

Windows On an log Scale
10.00 Curve 50.00 Hz

4 0.64 / Uniform / No
2 0.85 / F AutoPow er Sine 50.5 Hz Uniform
1 1.00 /
F
F
AutoPow er Sine 50.5 Hz Hanning
AutoPow er Sine 50.5 Hz Flattop
window has
400e-3
200e-3
significant
100e-3 smearing across
40e-3
20e-3
broad frequency
10e-3
4e-3
range
Log
/
2e-3
1e-3
400e-6
200e-6
100e-6
40e-6
20e-6
10e-6
3e-6
1.00e-6 50.00
1.00 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 100.00
Hz

Summary of Sampling Effects:
• Aliasing – Frequency content in signal above Nyquist

frequency (Sample frequency divided by 2)
• Solution – Low Pass Anti-aliasing filter
• Sample Extremely High
• Leakage – Signal in observation window (FFT
window) not periodic
• Solution Use Window to mitigate
• Hanning General Purpose
• Flat Top Calibration

1 DSP Fundamentals
2 Leakage and Windows
5 Filters
6 Amplitude Discretization


Lines, FFT, etc
Frequency
Filters
Response
Spectral Function
Functions
FIR and(FRFs)
IIR

Spectral Functions We Will Cover In This Section
Spectrum
• Complex number the form of a+ib from FFT calculation
• Provides amplitude and Phase information
Autopower Spectrum
• Magnitude of the spectrum squared
• Provides amplitude only information
Cross Power Spectrum
• Complex number of the form a+ib
Power Spectral Density Function (PSD)
• Magnitude only spectrum normalized by frequency
resolution

Types of Data

Output of the Fourier Transform = Spectrum
•Spectrum is Referred to as Sx
•The Zero Hz value represents the mean in the signal
•Effects of averaging:
•Phase must be relative to fixed point or spectrum will average to
zero – Uncorrelated noise will average out
•Units: Linear (not squared)
•Applications:
•ODS, Crosspower Calculations, Phase referenced spectrum
2.00 1.00
Amplitude
Amplitude
/
0.00 0.00
5.00 s 5.10
F 1:50HzMean_1
1.00 F AutoPow er 50HzMean_11.00

Amplitude
Amplitude
/
0.00 0.00 50.00 0.00

0.00 Hz 100.00

Autopower Spectrum
Autopower Spectrum is Referred to as Gxx

•Spectrum multiplied by complex conjugate
Effects of averaging:
•Will obtain amplitude average
Units: Linear, Power (squared)
Applications:
•Understanding spectral content in a signal, used more often than the
spectrum
Gxx  S S x  (a  ib)(a  ib)

*
x

Frequency Spectrum vs Autopower
Frequency Spectrum X() Autopower Spectrum

• Amplitude and Phase Sxx () = X() .
• Random data averages to 0 X*()
amplitude
• Square of Frequency Spectrum
• Amplitude only
Acq 1 • No problem averaging random
signals
+
Acq 2
=
AVE

Crosspower Spectrum
Crosspower Spectrum is Referred to as Gxy
•Spectrum multiplied by complex conjugate of a second spectrum
Effects of averaging:
•The components of x(t) and y(t) that are not correlated are attenuated
with averaging regardless of trigger condition.
Units: Power
Applications:
•Indicates the mutual power and relative phase between signals x(t) and
y(t).
•Used to calculate FRF’s and coherence, ODS
Gxy  S S y
*
x

Power Spectral Density (PSD)
 PSD Power (magnitude squared) per unit frequency

Units^2/Hz
 Effects of averaging:
Willobtain amplitude average
 Units: Power
 Applications:
Characterizing the energy content in a stationary random signal
Shaker table testing
Gxx
PSD 
f

Amplitude Mode (Scaling) and Format

Change scaling in Test.Lab
60.00
AutoPow er DRE 1183.4 rpm Tp 2 Hz Pa Hanning 0.03 Pa 0.03
dB
Pa
10.00
0.00 Hz 6400.00
Frequency

Measurement Processing
Chain Resampling
Sensor supply to Specified Rate
Structure
Signal DSP
Sensor Gain Alias ADC DSP To
Conditioning
Protection Computer
To Computer
for Data FFT Processing
Processing
• Function Auto-power, Spectrum, PSD etc…
• Window type
• Block Size / Frequency resolution / Spectral lines
• Scaling – Peak / RMS

Demo – Spectral Lines Effects of PSD vs AutoPower on Random
and Periodic Signals

Demo – Spectral Lines Effects of PSD vs AutoPower
F AutoPow er Point8 Autopow er 2Hz F PSD Point8 PSD 4HZ

0.10 2.00e-3
Amplitude
Amplitude
V2/Hz
V
0.02 200e-6
0.00 Hz 1100.00 0.00 Hz 1100.00
F AutoPow er Point8 Autopow er_sine_1Hz F PSD Point8 PSD_sine_1Hz

F AutoPow er Point8 Autopow er_sine_2Hz F PSD Point8 PSD_sine_2Hz
0.50 0.50
Curve 500.00 Hz Curve 500.00 Hz
0.50 V^2 0.50 V^2/Hz
0.50 V^2 0.25 V^2/Hz
Amplitude
Amplitude
V2/Hz
V2
0.00 500.00 0.00 500.00

400.00 Hz 600.00 400.00 Hz 600.00

Autopower Linear vs. Autopower PSD
When changing the number of spectral lines, the following

rules applies for the amplitude levels:
Sinusoidal Signal Random Signal

(periodic)
Autopower Linear Levels are Same Levels are Different
Autopower PSD Levels are Different Levels are Same



(periodic)

Autopower of Random Signal
Which Party 6
Person
Party
will be happier?
3
Person
Party 3 Person Party
Pitcher = Signal
Cup = Spectral Line



(periodic)



(periodic)

Autopower PSD of Random Signal
How to make 6
Person
Party
equal?
3
Person
Party
Pitcher = Signal
Cup = Spectral Line

Autopower PSD of Random Signal
How to make 6
Person
Party
equal?
3
Person
Party “Normalize” (ie
divide) by delta f
Example: 1 Hz versus .5 Hz
delta f
Pitcher = Signal
Cup = Spectral Line



(periodic)



(periodic)

Autopower of Sine Signal
How is sine 6
Person
Party
different than
3
Person random?
Party
Pitcher = Signal
Cup = Spectral Line

Autopower of Sine Signal
Sine puts everything 6
Person
in one glass, no Party
matter how many
3
Person glasses are
Party
available
Pitcher = Signal
Cup = Spectral Line



(periodic)



(periodic)

Autopower PSD of Sine Signal
PSD tries to 6
Person
“normalize” Party
3
Person
Party
Pitcher = Signal
Cup = Spectral Line

Autopower PSD of Sine Signal
PSD tries to 6
Person
“normalize” Party
3
Person And makes sine
Party
amplitudes different
Pitcher = Signal
Cup = Spectral Line



(periodic)

Spectrum Averaging
Linear Average Energetic Average
Noise Reduction
Peak Hold Interested in Energy
No constant Phase
Interested in max value
Log Average
Exponential Average
Averaging dB Values Used to weight most recent

samples
Demo – Averaging on Spectrum vs AutoPower
0.05
50e-3
40e-3
40e-3
40e-3
30e-3
Amplitude
F Spectrum Point8
V
F AutoPow er Point8
30e-3
20e-3
10e-3
10e-3
5e-3
0.00
0.00 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100.00
Hz

Random excitation
Averaging – Watch out for phase
3 averages
CrossPower or FRF – Noise attenuated
3.50
Amplitude
/
Spectrum - Amplitude reduced
10 averages
Hz
0.00 0.00 Linear
2.70 1100.00
180.00 0.00 Linear 1100.00
Phase
°
Hz
-180.00
Amplitude
0.00 Hz 1100.00
/
Hz
20 averages
0.00 0.00 Linear 1100.00
Phase
2.20
180.00 0.00
°
-180.00 Linear 1100.00
0.00 Hz 1100.00
Amplitude
/
40 averages
Hz
0.00 0.00 Linear 2.101100.00
Phase
180.00
-180.00 0.00 Linear 1100.00
°
0.00 Hz
Hz 1100.00
Amplitude
/
Hz
0.00 0.00 Linear 1100.00
Phase
180.00
-180.00 0.00 Linear 1100.00
°
0.00 Hz
Hz 1100.00

Processing Time Data - Overlap

Overlap or No Overlap?

RMS Level in Frequency Domain Step 1
•Where f1 and f2 are the frequency range you are taking the
RMS value over
•Sometimes called Narrow Band RMS
•IF entire Frequency range is used this is called the Overall

Level

RMS Level in Frequency Domain Step 2
RMS: Root Mean Square and is a measure of the energy

in a signal
 A02 K 1 2 Ak2 
Spectrum RMS     Ai  
 2 i 1 2
 A0 K 1 A 
Autopower RMS     Ai  0 
 2 i 1 2
 A0 f K 1 A f 
PSD RMS     Ai f  0 
 2 i 1 2 

RMS Level in Time Domain
RMS: Root Mean Square and is a measure of the energy
in a signal
1 k 2
Time Domain RMS  
k  1 i 0
yi
RMS Level in Frequency Domain
Equivalent to Overall Level if frequency Domain

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Digital Data Acquisition

Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2017 Realize Innovation.

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The signal is generated by a sensor or transducer

The signal is what you want to analyze in view of a particular problem

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Digital Data Acquisition:

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6 Analog to Digital Converter

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physically measured Digital signal

sensor Cable Conditioner and Filter ADC Calculation

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6 Analog to Digital Converter

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physically measured Digital signal

sensor Cable Conditioner and Filter ADC Calculation

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• Sensors can go just about

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6 Analog to Digital Converter

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physically measured Digital signal

sensor Cable Conditioner and Filter ADC Calculation

Page 15 Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2017 Siemens PLM Software

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“Passive” sensors add little or no noise to the measurement chain:

“Active” sensors have on-board electronics that do add noise:

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Sensors that are Electrically Isolated from the Structure

Sensors that are commonly not isolated from structure

When taking Operational Measurements it is recommended to use isolated sensors

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TWO PATHS TO GROUND = BAD!!!

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Although usually 50 or 60 Hz Ground Loop can

Possible sources are:

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ONE PATH TO GROUND = GOOD!!!

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• Other tips for decreasing ground loop effects:

24 copyright LMS International - 2011

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Easy-Mount Swivel Clips Adhesive-Mount

Magnet Mount Stud w shoulder

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Mass Loading Example 173 Hz

hacksaw blade 100 Hz

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Add additional mass in proportion

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Mounting blocks can be trouble! They must be evaluated

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6 Analog to Digital Converter

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