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1. Introduction
The low-permeability strata in which shale gas and shale oil deposits are currently
being exploited in Canada and the United States are called shales, but range in texture
and composition from true shales (Haynesville Shale, Louisiana) to mudstones and
54 M.B. Dusseault / Geomechanics in Shale Gas Development
silty shales (Barnett Shale, Texas; Horn River Shale, British Columbia; Utica
Formation, Quebec), to siltstones (Montney Formation, Alberta and British Columbia;
Bakken Formation, North Dakota). Formation mineralogy may be entirely siliceous
(quartz-illite mineralogy - Utica Formation) and range to fine-grained arkosic strata
that are carbonated cemented and with secondary calcite cementing one or more joint
sets, either partially or fully, and even carbonate-rick laminated mudstones. In most
cases the hydrocarbon in the shale was generated therein (the “source” rock), although
in some shale oil strata (Bakken and Three Forks Formations in North Dakota and
Saskatchewan) the light oil and associated gas has migrated into the fine-grained silty
strata from adjacent source rocks. Similarly, in fine-grained silts (tight gas) such as in
the Ordos Basin in Shanxi, Ningxia and Nei Mongol, China, the gas has migrated
substantial distances into the rock, and these reservoirs generally are called “tight gas”
strata, and also classified as “unconventional” resources. They are all being developed
with similar technologies: horizontal wells and large-scale hydraulic fracturing.
In all these cases, and many other similar formations around the world (Vaca
Muerta Formation, Neuquen Basin, Argentina; Longmaxi Formation, Sichuan Basin,
China; Frederic Brook Formation, Maritimes Basin, Canada; Canol River Formation,
Upper Mackenzie Basin, Canada), the rock mass matrix is of such low permeability (k)
that Hydraulic Fracturing (HF) is necessary to generate economically viable production
rates. HF may take place in vertical wells when the strata thickness is greater than
perhaps 200 m (Fig 1), but more and more, HF is implemented in horizontal wellbores
from 1 to 3 km long, so as to generate a large volume of enhanced-k rock mass in
contact with the well. In particular, the thickness of shale gas reservoirs can vary from
20-60 m (sections of the Barnett and Marcellus Shales) to several hundred meters
(Montney Formation) and up to 600-700 m exceptionally, perhaps in cases where thrust
faulting has resulted in formation stacking (Frederic Brook Formation).
All low-k strata are naturally fractured to some degree; the abbreviation NFR –
Naturally Fractured Rock - will be used, and these fractures will be called joints, to
avoid confusion with the term “fracture”, reserved for the induced HF process as much
as possible. One set of discontinuities (not actually joints), an important one because
they may serve as general fluid diffusion paths to induced or naturally open fractures,
are the sedimentary bedding-planes. These are generally closed because of a horizontal
disposition and the vertical stress (v) in the rock mass. Bedding-planes represent
planes of weakness that are easy to part or shear during HF.
Commonly, there are two or three additional joint sets in a NFR mass that are
oriented normal to the bedding planes, formed in the geological past when the effective
stress () for some reason became zero. The condition 0 is the HF condition, and
in general one may assume the tensile strength of the rock to have been modest
compared to the total stresses when these joints were generated. More precisely, the
resistance to Mode I (extensional) fracturing was small when joints were generated
because granular siliceous sediments have little true tensile resistance at the grain scale,
and because the sharpness of the fractures that were being formed led to local crack-tip
extensional stress concentrations that easily overcame the low tensile strength..
The condition 0 could have been reached when an increasing pore pressure in
situ (po) exceeded the least total compressive stress – po 3. In fine-grained source
rocks, this likely occurred during hydrocarbon generation as kerogen was
M.B. Dusseault / Geomechanics in Shale Gas Development 55
catagenetically converted to liquids and gases so that po rose until HF occurred. This
generated a HF network with the dominant joint (fracture) set at 90° to the orientation
of 3, which was almost certainly the least horizontal stress (hmin) at that time. Many
shale gas reservoirs, despite being hundreds of millions of years old, are overpressured
to this day, especially the Jurassic Haynesville Shale, which has a pore pressure ratio of
about 1.8, compared to the hydrostat of fresh water. Others, such as the Horn River
Formation, are mildly overpressured (1.3), and in some cases the strata are normally
pressured (Utica). Note that the only way that fluid hydrocarbons can escape from
argillaceous source rocks is through joints (existing or generated): the water-wet
condition of many silica surfaces and the restrictive pore throat sizes (sub-micron)
mean that capillary forces as so large that significant non-wetting phase efflux cannot
happen through an intact matrix. Thus, internal pressures can be trapped for long times,
especially if the shales are clay-rich (Haynesville Shale).
The orientation of 3 may have been imposed by distant tectonic forces
(extensional or compressional), or lateral stress conditions may have been close to
isotropic (hmin HMAX 3 (2)) if tectonism was absent. Logically, the larger the in
situ lateral stress anisotropy, the more likely it is that the joint set at 90° to 3 became
strongly dominant, whereas in cases of weak h anisotropy at the time of joint
formation, two or even three (e.g. @ 60º orientations to each other) joint sets roughly
similar in intensity could form.
Mathematical modeling (e.g. Dusseault and Simmons 1982) confirms that when an
induced fracture is generated and grows in one orientation, the stress normal to the
fracture plane increases somewhat as the aperture expands along with fracture length
growth, and the stress parallel to the fracture drops slightly so that locally the direction
of 3 rotates. In strata that are horizontally isotropic mechanically, this process must
also occur, and favors the generation of a joint set of secondary importance but oriented
at 90º to the primary joint set that initiates first. This is shown on Figure 1.
Figure 1: Bedding surface of the Brown Shale, Central Sumatra Basin, Indonesia
The photo shows an exposed bedding surface of the Brown Shale, the oil source
rock for the Central Sumatra Basin in Indonesia. In this exposure, the kerogenous
56 M.B. Dusseault / Geomechanics in Shale Gas Development
Brown Shale is at the surface, but in the central part of the basin it is 2.5-3 km deep,
just deep enough to have entered the oil-generation window, and the oil in fields such
as Duri (the largest producing heavy oil field in Asia for 30 years) was sourced from
this formation. Where the Brown Shale has generated oil deep in the basin, it is
thought to be a potentially rich shale oil prospect. The dominant joint set strikes SW,
pointing at the mountains, indicating that 3 = hmin was parallel to the mountains, a
common condition in foreland compressional basins. The secondary orthogonal joint
set (white solid lines) is non-penetrating, with joint terminations against the primary
joint set, showing that they formed after the primary set.
Another non-tectonic reason for joints to form and generate a NFR mass is loss of
volume during diagenesis, which has three primary sources:
x Continued consolidation; i.e., expulsion of water because of an excess pore
pressure arising from loading as burial continues, with delayed drainage.
x Loss of bulk volume as oil and gas are expelled from the source rock
x Mineral diagenesis, in particular a smectite-to-illite transition, accompanied by
a significant -V and generation of quartz and additional free water.
When general volumetric shrinkage occurs, v remains unchanged because the
weight of the overburden must be carried, but h (both hmin and HMAX) must drop
because of the no-lateral-strain condition that exists in laterally extensive flat-lying
strata. Thus, 3 (hmin) drops until the HF condition is reached (po 3) and vertical
joint sets are formed. This volumetric shrinkage processes are often taking place at the
same time that overpressures are being generated through oil and gas formation.
compressibilities within the deep constraining rock mass are hard to specify in
a consistent, rigorous manner.
These challenges, combined with the efforts needed to mathematically couple
different processes (thermal, hydrodynamic, mechanical), lead to a vexing but exciting
problem that requires analysis at different scales (Geers et al. 2010):
x The small scale (millimeters o meters) processes include joint-matrix
coupling, mechanical behavior of individual joints (compressibility,
hysteresis…), and multiphase fluids flow (gas-oil-water) in heterogeneous
joint systems.
x The intermediate scale (meters o 10’s of meters) processes involve blocky
rock mass behavior, local stress redistributions, shear slip of joints subjected
to high deviatoric stresses, and changes in mechanical properties because of
the changes in joint apertures that are taking place.
x The large scale (> 50 m) involves interactions with stress field changes among
different HF zones and adjacent wellbores (~100 to 300 m apart), the effect of
far-field boundary conditions, the presence of through-going features such as
lithology changes or faults, the mechanical properties of the bounding strata,
and large-scale pore pressure changes with stress redistribution at the inter-
wellbore scale (>100 m).
It is not yet clear what approaches will be optimum for the mathematical modeling
of NRF masses subjected to HF and then to years of pressure decline from production,
perhaps followed by one or more episodes of restimulation (re-entry and additional HF).
What is clear at the present time is that these models must be sensitive to different
lithostratigraphic conditions, different virgin stress and pressure fields, different rock
fabric (at the large scale), different phase behavior (especially in the case of oil-gas
systems), and different assemblages of flowing fluids (gas, oil, perhaps some water) in
an interconnected induced fracture/joint system that is experiencing an evolution of
properties. Because of this complexity, there is merit in identifying the first-order
issues in particular cases, and focusing the modeling effort on those issues, rather than
trying to include all of the physical processes. To achieve this goal and make
reasonable predictions, the physics and modeling of the processes must be understood
(Jing 2003; Lanru and Feng, 2003); then, parametric analysis are undertaken to identify
the most important processes (Sarkarfarshi et al. 2014).
For the first HF in a horizontal well (Figure 2), generally at the toe of the well, one
set or several sets of perforations are isolated, and a fluid pumped in at high pressure.
In this case, the virgin stress field controls fracture behavior and an approximately
ellipsoidal shape is generated for the stimulated zone. For the second and subsequent
M.B. Dusseault / Geomechanics in Shale Gas Development 59
HF along the horizontal axis of the well, stresses have been altered somewhat as the
result of the volumetric strain imposed by the first sets of HF, and induced fractures
can be expected to respond to the altered stress field by propagation direction changes.
The presence of adjacent wells that have been subjected to HF stimulation, and the
stress changes associated with depletion as production develops, will also affect HF
propagation behavior. Complexities of HF operations are beyond the discussion scope,
but much trial-and-error work is done to find optimized approaches, which will
certainly be different in the various types and depths of reservoirs being developed.
In the great majority of shale gas HF operations, 3 = hmin, therefore induced fractures
or fracture networks will be vertical and oriented macroscopically at 90° to the hmin
direction. In cases of geological uplift and large-scale erosion in an otherwise non-
tectonic basin, such as the Michigan Basin or the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin
100 or 200 km from the disturbed belt, the condition 3 = v may extend from the
surface to depths of perhaps 1 km. Thus, deep HF will be vertical because 3 = hmin.
The stress contrasts in the horizontal plane will affect how fractures propagate. A
high contrast (e.g. hmin > 1.2·HMAX at 2-3 km depth) will result in a much stronger and
consistent HF orientation with a smaller tendency to generate ancillary fracturing in the
orthogonal direction. Smaller stress contrasts make it easier to have additional smaller
fractures in the direction parallel to hmin, and this should lead to less length extension
of a fracture network A to hmin, and a concomitant increase in the width of the fracture
network. Furthermore, the weaker the stress contrast, the more likely it is that stress
changes induced from one fracture stage will affect the fracture propagation in
subsequent stages, so that the fracture networks become affected and adopt complex
shapes, dependent on the local stress field alterations. Spanish Peaks dike patterns
show these effects: the primary HF (dike) propagated A to hmin (which is regionally __
to the mountain front, but subsequent injection episodes were more and more affected
by the induced stress changes from repeated magma injections (Figure 3).
Figure 4: Induces HFs tend to rise because of pressure and stress gradient differences
This rising tendency is often (but not quite accurately) called the fluid buoyancy
effect (it is actually a mismatched gradient effect), and it leads to a higher HF driving
pressure at the top of the fracture than at the bottom, enough to enhance upward and
suppress downward propagation. Under normal conditions, this would lead to
placement of horizontal wellbores at about the 0.25 level of the reservoir, depending on
fluid viscosity, density and injection rate, unless unusual stress conditions exist. In
some cases (Barnett Shale), there is a basal aquifer that must be avoided, so HF well
placement is higher in the zone to restrict catastrophic communication with free water.
62 M.B. Dusseault / Geomechanics in Shale Gas Development
Figure 5: Wedging open and propping a natural fracture plane with injection pressure
An important aspect of the HF process in a stiff NFR is that the wedging involves
some small rotations, and these rotations must be accommodated by the rock mass, the
importance of which will be discussed further. In particular, these rotations are
transmitted through the rock mass, and before the displacements become small with
distance from the induced wedging fracture, there may be important displacements
happing in adjacent joints (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Rigid block rotation easily opens some adjacent unbonded fractures
Nevertheless, the general shape of the fracture network, including opened adjacent
joints, must approximate an ellipsoid, with some shape modifications because of
buoyancy effects, non-uniform distribution of stresses among strata, non-uniform
mechanical rock properties (stiffness, Poisson’s ratio) and the possible presence of
strong natural fabric oriented at a low angle to the principal stresses.
M.B. Dusseault / Geomechanics in Shale Gas Development 63
The representation is greatly exaggerated in thickness in the direction of 3; the L/a
ratio is much greater than shown. The proppant cannot enter in to the induced wedged
joints all the way to the tip, many of the small aperture lateral responses are devoid of
proppant, but still possess greatly enhanced conductivity that will aid in gas flow, and
that increases the open surface area within the volume, accelerating diffusional gas
escape from the matrix blocks in the NFR.
The diagram shows the primary HF, in darker blue, as a stepped shape. The next
Section describes the mechanics of this shape.
Assume a joint intersects or is close enough to the initiation point so that it presents a
plane of weakness to the fluid being injected. This is of high probability if perforations
are used or if a substantial length of borehole (e.g. 25 m) is simultaneously subjected to
the high HF pressure. Given a high matrix cohesive strength, it is highly probable,
indeed almost certain, that the fracture will initiate in some direction other than A to 3.
This also means that the fracture initiation pressure will reflect a different tangential
stress than one might surmise from an elastic borehole stress analysis. Indeed, the
classical concept of breakdown pressure must be recast for HF in NFRs, and values
from one point to another in the rock mass are unlikely to be consistent because of
64 M.B. Dusseault / Geomechanics in Shale Gas Development
different intersecting joint angles to the borehole. The wellbore scale mechanisms
involved are shown in Figure 8.
Because the matrix has substantial fracture resistance compared to the joints, and
because the joints in opening slightly as the pressure increases generate to a high Mode
I tip stress concentration, propagation of the induced fracture opening is little impaired
by cohesive resistance, and as the fracture grows longer, the cohesive strength of a
largely unbonded joint contributes almost negligibly to the overall fracture zone
growth. However, fracture tip processes remain important at the local scale.
Figure 9 shows the mechanism of induced fracture orientation changes. A more
detailed explanation is warranted.
x When a fracture is opened in a joint-controlled direction that is not coincident
with the principal stress direction, the shear stress must be relieved because
the fluid in the fracture cannot sustain a shear force (upper sub-figure).
x As the shear force is relieved, there is a small shear displacement relative to
the faces of the joint, in the example shown, leading to left-lateral movement.
x This creates a loading a distortion of the rock mass in the region of the open
crack, and this causes loading and unloading of the faces of ancillary joints, an
effect shown in the crack tip figure inset in the upper left.
x When the internal fracture pressure “feels” a sufficiently large local stress
redistribution in the vicinity of the tip, it will follow the path of least
compressive stress.
x This causes the fracture to turn in a specific direction predicated by the natural
fracture system fabric.
x The re-oriented fracture continues to propagate in the new direction, only now
the induced shear displacement is a right-lateral movement in the figure.
x And, the process continues as the overall fracture length grows, keeping the
macroscopic fracture (scale much larger than the characteristic joint length)
oriented approximately A to 3, in the most energetically favored global
orientation (work minimization).
M.B. Dusseault / Geomechanics in Shale Gas Development 65
x This leads to various distortions and small rotations of the adjacent rock
blocks, leading to the effect in generating a fracture network shown in Figure
7, leading to an approximately ellipsoidal shape, shown in Figure 2.
Figure 9: Induced local fracture direction changes as a function of orientation and scale
The propagation distance at which the fracture will reorient is a function of the
stress difference magnitude, the orientation of the joint fabric with respect to the
principal stress field orientation, the cohesive resistance of the joints sets, and the
mechanical properties of the matrix blocks and of the rock mass. For example, if the
major joint fabric angle is close to 90° from 3, the induced fracture will propagate a
long distance from the borehole before changing direction. On the other hand, if the
initial propagation is along a joint oriented at a large angle to the primary preferred HF
direction, such as 60-75° from 3, the rectification forces build up more quickly with
length because the shear stresses that are relieved by the opening of the joint are larger.
Note that the fracture tip processes are scale-independent: they occur at the scale of
the rock fabric, which is predicated by the geological history and lithostratigraphic
factors. However, because the induced fracture zone grows in size, the tip energy
becomes less important as the large-scale fracture length extends.
A final major point for HF processes in NFRs is that the entire process is accompanied
by small-scale shear slip, sub-millimetric scale generally, along limited lengths of the
affected joint. These are detectable as stick-slip microseismic events (Warpinski 2014)
which can be recorded within the propped pod region, but as pressures propagate, it
66 M.B. Dusseault / Geomechanics in Shale Gas Development
also occurs in the region beyond the propped pod (Pirayehgar & Dusseault 2015 -
simulation attempts).
The joint slip and shear dilation effect occurs because of the reduction in n across
a favorably oriented joint as pore pressure increases. Figure 10 shows the process.
When the slip criterion is satisfied for the joint, a small shear displacement occurs
to relieve the shear stresses, and this causes a local (scale no larger than a few meters)
stick-slip event. However, the joint surface is rough at the small scale, and some
dilation takes place, leaving remnant conductivity along the joint plane. This is a
classical Mohr-Coulomb shear mechanism (Figure 11); irreversible, controlled by joint
friction and cohesion, as well as by the stress orientations and the degree of pore
pressure penetration along the joint.
When the joint slips, the distortion may be mainly ductile if the rock is clay-rich
and less cemented; smearing and plastic deformation may lead to little or even no
remnant conductivity. In brittle rocks, the small aperture is more easily maintained, but
as depletion occurs, n increases, and the joint will compress, reducing the drainage
effectiveness (a function of asperity ductile deformation and the joint compressibility).
This helps explain why, in clay-rich shale gas strata such as the Haynesville shale in
M.B. Dusseault / Geomechanics in Shale Gas Development 67
Louisiana, HF treatments do not lead to as long a well life as in other, more brittle
strata, such as the Marcellus quartz-illite (and some CaCO3) shale.
The importance of small-scale fabric at the joint surface level is substantial, as
rough joints will be far more difficult to mobilize, but will sustain conductivity,
whereas smooth joints will shear more easily, but with far less dilation. Of course, the
proper choice of joint compressibilities and mechanical properties remains one of the
challenges of mathematical simulation of the HF in NFRs process.
Now, the picture is more complete, and an additional component of deformation,
the shear dilation, has been described. This contributes to the overall flow
enhancement of the HF zone, and leads to the concept of the “stimulated volume”,
shown in Figure 12, where there is a central “propped pod” surrounded by a region
where shear and dilation (evidenced by microseismic events) has enhanced
conductivity, albeit far less than within the central zone. This has led many to use an
analogy of a road network, where the superhighways are the propped, wide-aperture
joints, the secondary highways are the unpropped joints opened that were opened by
rigid block rotations near to the propped joints (Figure 7), and the distant region mostly
contains the network of country roads arising from shear of joints. The latter roads are
rough and small; they can only sustain limited, slow traffic, yet nevertheless contribute
substantially to the overall flow toward the wellbore because the stimulated volume is
much larger than one would surmise only from the wedging and propping processes.
NFRs not only are anisotropic in their bulk permeability, the nature on the anisotropy is
that of a high-order tensor because of the presence of different joint sets at different
orientations (i.e. a second order tensor has an insufficient number of independent
parameters and assumes orthogonality). Each joint has a conductivity, and averaging
over a REV (L>>LS), where LS is a characteristic mean spacing, yields a bulk
directional permeability value. In a NFR with two orthogonal joint sets at 90° to
bedding, one might reasonably expect to define three principal permeability values co-
68 M.B. Dusseault / Geomechanics in Shale Gas Development
axial with the major discontinuity directions, and this might be, at a large scale (L>>LS),
approximated by a second order permeability tensor. However, in a NFR with three
joint sets orthogonal to bedding, for example at 60° orientations, additional terms are
needed to describe the bulk up-scaled permeability.
More challenging than defining initial up-scaled permeability is tracking k-
changes at an appropriate scale during HF, altering joint apertures, and thereby altering
individual joint flow capacity in a strongly non-linear manner, often taken to be cubic
in nature (i.e. if all else is constant, q v a3). Furthermore, these changes take place at
scale less than the REV scale necessary for up-scaling. It is not clear how to resolve
this conundrum to allow more efficient simulation of HF processes. The discussion
below does not lead to a strong recommendation, but it suggests that simulations will
have to be based on the stipulation of a spatiotemporally evolving “permeability” akin
to a higher-order damage mechanics formulation, linked to aperture increases and shear
displacements. How to formulate this in a useful manner remains an important task.
Figure 13. The flow computation scheme in DEM modeling – from the ITASCA Corp. web site
The first major effect is the opening of the discrete fracture system by the HF
process, shown in a DEM simulation.
The model simulation parameters for fluid are not so relevant as the clear
imposition of flow anisotropy governed by the differential stress field that acts upon the
NFR. The DEM example shown below (Figure 14) is statistically homogeneous at the
large scale, formulated with random Voronoi polygonization that gives an initially
isotropic up-scaled permeability. All joints and contact stiffnesses are identical, and in
principle it is straightforward to introduce spatial or statistical variations in these
M.B. Dusseault / Geomechanics in Shale Gas Development 69
Figure 14. Induced anisotropy on the flow regime as the result of a HF (Pirayehgar, ongoing)
The effect of stresses and the primary fracture propagation direction is clear, even
in this statistically random simulated joint system that does not have strong joint sets.
x The black lines represent those joints wedged open more than a small defined
limit, and represents the HF network with the ancillary, close-by joints that
are also wedged open.
x The system is subjected to a differential boundary stress, and injection takes
place at the central site. The strong fabric (the rock blocks cannot be fractured
in this simulation causes a stepped shape in the directly affected zone as the
fracture propagates approximately to A to the far-field 3 orientation. Local
non-randomness of fabric at a small scale leads to some departures in the HF
zone orientation.
x The colors are linked to different values of pore pressure in the joint system
which possesses a small initial joint conductivity value, and is also linked to
aperture changes in deformed joints. Pressures are highest near the black lines
representing the wedged region of the rock mass, giving an overall anisotropy
of pressure field response, a roughly elliptical area.
x This process is affected by joint fabric, aperture-conductivity relationships
linked in part to joint compressibility, and the magnitude of the differential
stress boundary conditions (MAX – min).
Figure 15 shows how some of the effects of a fault and of shear of joints can be
evaluated in a DEM approach. The figure (a different tessellation than before) has an
included fault, and it is interesting to note several major features resulting from the
simulation. In examining these figures, remember that the ultimate goal is not only to
understand the various effects, but potentially to find a way to up-scale such results
(D’Addetta et al. 2004).
70 M.B. Dusseault / Geomechanics in Shale Gas Development
Figure 15. Introduction of a fault plane and shear effects in the DEM simulation (Pirayehgar ongoing)
x Overall, the pressure pattern is little affected by the presence of the fault, the
flow patterns remain dominated by the black-lined central HF zones.
x On the right-hand side, the planes of slip are shown, with colors scaled to the
magnitude of slip. The fault has slipped a large amount because of the
differential stress field, the favorable fault inclination, and the fracturing.
x Outside of the central region are locations where the joints have exhibited
shear above a small, pre-set value. The low level of interconnectivity of these
slip surfaces is an artefact mainly of the choice of frictional coefficients of the
joint surfaces and the displacement limit chose for graphical representation.
x As stated above, specific results are affected by fabric, dilation functions, and
the magnitude of MAX – min.
similar, with more pressure anisotropy in the examples with higher deviatoric stresses.
Also not shown are the joints that experienced shear slip, although it is clear that this
joint shear-slip behavior is stronger in cases where the deviatoric stresses are the largest.
Figure 16. Effect of stress rotation on fluid flow in joints in simulation without hydraulic fracturing, is the
CW rotation angle of the 3 direction applied to the model (e.g. Jalali 2014, Jalali et al. 2015)
Figure 17. Effect of stress difference on the HF zone shape in a random DE tessellation (Pirayehgar 2015)
The major factor on flow pattern anisotropy in these simulations remains the
opening of the highly conductive HF planes, but there is an effect of the stress
differential, mostly in that the shape of the zone of fracturing becomes less strongly
anisotropic as an isotropic stress condition is reached. For simplicity, only the
“wedged” primary cracks were shown.
72 M.B. Dusseault / Geomechanics in Shale Gas Development
Figure 18. Effect of stress difference on area of the zone and pressure distributions (Yetisir 2015)
The pressure distribution control changes sharply throughout the affected zone
because of the induced aperture changes and the tip of the HF opened zone can be seen
as a sharp corner in the pressure curve across the midpoint. Beyond the HF opened
zone, there is still a pressure decline because all joints are permitted some flow. As
discussed earlier, it is feasible to alter and statistically distribute such joint parameters,
but the major effects can be seen in the figures.
M.B. Dusseault / Geomechanics in Shale Gas Development 73
In an attempt to “quantify” the effects of fabric and stress ratio on the affected
zone area and the pore pressure distribution, values are given on the plots. It is well to
remember that these are simulated values, and although we believe that the general
physical picture is clarified, scaling of DEM simulations to real cases (D’Addetta et al.
2004), introducing stochastic factors, and altering fabric patterns represents a great deal
of computation effort, in addition to trying different ways to display the results and
determine the dominant (first-order) effects in a relative manner.
The final computational results shown for this general introductory article are two
figures showing the effects of strong fabric on the HF response. The effect of strong
fabric on pressure distribution in a non-HF case was already shown in Figure 16;
Figures 19 and 20 are only examples of the effect of several of the myriad joint fabric
patterns that may be postulated.
Figure 19 shows some results on both normal stress-controlled wedging of joints
and shear displacements of joints for the same fabric model, but subjected to the
different differential stresses in the plane. The magnitudes of the simulated shear
displacements is larger than what takes place in situ (less than a millimeter based on
microseismic event inversion), but these displacements are functions of the joint
properties chosen for the simulation. Because a high limit for plotting was chosen, 2.5
mm, only those joints very close to the wedged regions on the left are shown. Had a
lower displacement limit been chosen, the region would be shown to be populated with
far more slip planes, decreasing in displacement outward from the wedged planes.
In Figure 20, the beginnings of studies on the effects of various scales are
represented by a preliminary investigation of the size of the model with respect to the
scale of the DEM blocks. The question was initially to understand if it was possible to
generate reasonable simulations without worrying if the rock mass discretization scale
was too coarse with respect to the dimensions of the model. The results show that, for
these two scales, the results are similar. Although the larger block model gave a larger
affected area for the pore pressure changes, and there is, as expected, more fine detail
in the smaller block simulations, this gives some confidence that first-order effects can
be reasonably captured by relatively coarsely discretized models. However, such tests
must be repeated when strongly different fabrics are investigates to assure that artefacts
arising from model ill-design are kept to a minimum. These results should also give
some insights into the issues associated with up-scaling so that more effective,
reservoir-scale modeling can be reasonably achieved with current computational
capabilities.
74 M.B. Dusseault / Geomechanics in Shale Gas Development
Figure 19. Showing the impact of stress ratio on both wedging and shear (Pirahehgar & Yetisir 2015)
M.B. Dusseault / Geomechanics in Shale Gas Development 75
Figure 20. Exploring the scale effects of simulation results (Pirahehgar & Yetisir 2015)
5. Final Comments
the production history, and the rock mass behavior during subsequent re-
fracturing episodes.
o Changes in primary orientations are likely because stresses are affected at
an appreciable scale by the volumetric changes associated with HF
o A stimulated volume is developed, dominated by wedging in the central
part, and by shear displacement and dilation outside of the central zone,
which is partially propped by co-injection of a granular agent.
x The processes involved lead to nonlinear slip and wedging behavior of joints,
and also of the rock mass itself, in that large-scale properties (such as rock
mass compressibility) are altered by creation of wedged and sheared zones.
o Shear slip is a major effect, but is dominated by wedging in terms of
energy dissipation, stress changes, and impact on permeability changes.
o The magnitude, geometric scale (extent) and production impact of the
shearing and wedging are governed by joint behavior and the lithology
and stiffness of the rock mass, as well as the joint geometry, and the
magnitude and continued existence of the dilation effect as stresses and
pressures change.
x Geoscience aspects of heterogeneity in rock properties and stress distributions
are primary factors. Designing HF operations and optimizing treatments must
be based on a detailed geomechanics earth model, well populated with
reasonable parameters measured or inferred using strong inference methods.
x Petrophysics contributions to an understanding of mechanical response cannot
be underestimated (Bust et al. 2014): geoscience underpins engineering.
x Upscaling approaches must be developed to allow physically robust modeling
of the processes involved; this is a challenging area.
Figure 21. The “child’s blocks” representation helps to understand the mechanisms
References
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Acknowledgements
Simulation results provided by Reza Jalali, PhD, Atena Pirayehgar, MSc, Mike Yetisir,
BSc, Li Ruiqiang, MSc. ITASCA Corp. provided research access to software.
Canada’s Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council awarded a four-year
grant to Robert Gracie (Civil Engineering, Waterloo) and me. I have learned a lot
about shale gas geosciences form Professor N. Harris of the University of Alberta.
78 M.B. Dusseault / Geomechanics in Shale Gas Development
Appendix 1: Summary of Geomechanical Properties of Some Shale Oil and Shale Gas Plays, North America
M.B. Dusseault / Geomechanics in Shale Gas Development 79
Notes:
x The assembling of geomechanical data for this table is part of a PhD project by Li Ruiqiang (2015)
at the University of Waterloo, Canada
x The value ranges are set based on data from various studies or testing results on various
specimens within one study. Extreme values are eliminated to ensure a representative range, so
that better comparative results can be expected.
x Missing of certain types of data for some formations occurs due to the lack of robust research
results in the open literature.
x Those Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio ranges with confining/differential pressure numbers
specified are static values, whereas the ranges given without specifications are dynamic values.
x Comprehensive research on the geomechanics of shale gas/oil formations is still sparse at this
stage; many geomechanical properties are not included in this table but are considered important
for comparisons. Further research and literature review are needed for a more sophisticated table.