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In-situ rainwater harvesting and

gravel mulch combination for corn
production in the dry semi-arid
region of China

Article in Journal of Arid Environments · December 2000

DOI: 10.1006/jare.2000.0705

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Journal of Arid Environments (2000) 46: 371–382
doi:10.1006/jare.2000.0705, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on

In-situ rainwater harvesting and gravel mulch

combination for corn production in the dry
semi-arid region of China

Xiao-Yan Li*, Jia-Dong Gong & Xing-Hu Wei

Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, P.R. China

(Received 8 February 1999, accepted 15 August 2000)

A field study was conducted to determine the effect of a combination of

ridge and furrow method of in-situ rainwater harvesting with gravel mulch on
corn production, soil moisture storage, and water-use efficiency in the dry
semi-arid region of China. Results showed that plastic-covered ridges had an
average runoff efficiency (runoff/rainfall) of 87% as compared to
7% for bare ridges, and could generate runoff at a threshold value of
0)8$0)2 mm rainfall. Bare ridges produced runoff only under high inten-
sity rainfall events, and was ineffective for harvesting rainfall in the study
area. The plastic-covered ridge and gravel-mulched furrow method of rain-
water harvesting was effective in conserving moisture and increasing yield
and water-use efficiency. The grain yield in this treatment was 1)9 times
that of the conventional flat soil cultivation (control), and the water-use
efficiency was 1)8 times that of the control. The good performance of the
film-covered surface ridges and gravel-mulched furrows is attributed to
the better utilization of light rains, improvement of infiltration in the root zone,
and suppression of evaporation losses.

 2000 Academic Press

Keywords: rainwater harvesting; ridge; furrow; gravel mulch; runoff;

corn production; soil moisture storage; water-use efficiency; China

Introduction

Limited and erratic precipitation in the dry semi-arid region of north China often results
in low crop yields and sometimes in total crop failure. Therefore, an increase in the
quantity of water available to crops could lead to an improvement of the reliability of
production as well as the level of production (Reij et al., 1988). The water availability for
crop production can be improved through various soil and water management practices
(Reij et al., 1988; Gupta, 1995). Gravel mulch (known as ‘shatian’ or ‘sandy fields’ in
Chinese) is one such technology which has been used to conserve the sporadic and
limited rainfall in a region of rapidly draining loess soils in north-west China for

*Corresponding author: Xiao-Yan Li, Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research
Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Donggang West Road 260, Lanzhou 730000, P. R. China. E-mail:
lxy2@hotmail.com

0140}1963/00/120371#12 $35.00/0  2000 Academic Press

372 X.-Y. LI ET AL.

centuries. Gravel-mulched fields cover 188,500 ha in the loess plateau of north-west

China with annual rainfall of 215–320 mm (Gale et al., 1993). Such fields are concen-
trated in the Gansu Province as well as adjoining counties in the neighbouring Ningxia
Hui Autonomous Region and the Qinghai Province. The construction of gravel-
mulched fields, fertilizer application, and tillage pattern were described in detail by Gale
et al. (1993).
Gravel mulches have also been used to conserve soil moisture in the low rainfall
regions of other countries in the world, such as Montpellier, France (Lamb & Chapman,
1943), South Africa (Adams, 1966), Colorado, Texas and Montana, U.S.A. (Fair-
bourn, 1973), and Chamoson, Switzerland (Nachtergaele et al., 1998). Many studies
showed a gravel mulch to be effective in reducing evaporation and runoff,
improving infiltration and soil temperature, and checking soil erosion and salinization
(Lamb & Chapman, 1943; Hide, 1954; Adams, 1966; Unger, 1971a, 1971b; Fairbourn,
1973; Poesen & Lavee, 1991; Kemper et al., 1994; Van Wesemael et al., 1995; Roundy
et al., 1997; Li et al., 2000). Gravel mulch can also effectively co-ordinate the
dynamics of moisture, heat, air and fertilizer to alter environmental conditions at the
micro-scale to meet the physiological requirements of crops (Luo, 1991). The value of
this traditional practice does not lie in its direct application or suitability for the
rest of the world. Rather, the importance of this practice rests in its potential as
a springboard for new ideas and innovative practices in similar environments. Its
importance is in identifying and making evident certain underlying principles that
might be of use when combined with higher levels of technology or different social,
as well as physical, circumstances (Gale et al., 1993). So, the study of a combined
effect of gravel mulch with a high level of soil and water management on crop yield
is necessary.
Water harvesting based on the collection and concentration of surface runoff
for cultivation has been practiced in different parts of the world for thousands of
years (Bruins et al., 1986; Reij et al., 1988). Micro-catchment water harvesting
(MCWH) which collects runoff from short slopes is especially useful in arid and
semi-arid regions where irrigation water is not available or too costly to use (National
Academy of Science, 1974; Boers et al., 1986). The major advantages of MCWH are
that it is simple, cheap, replicable, efficient and adaptable (Reij et al., 1988). The
ridge and furrow method of MCWH was found to be effective on tree growth and
crop production (Vashistha et al., 1980; Lal, 1986; Gupta, 1995). This study was
designed to combine the gravel mulch technique with ridge and furrow methods
of MCWH to maximize the advantages of both methods for corn production.
The objectives were to evaluate the runoff characteristics of the ridge and
to determine the effect of ridge and furrow in-situ rainfall harvesting combined with
the gravel mulch conservation technique on water storage, water-use efficiency, and
corn production.

Methods and materials

Climate and soil

This study was conducted during the 1998 rainy season at the Experimental Agriculture
Ecology Station of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, located in the dry semi-arid
regions of north-west China (Gaolan County, Lanzhou, Gansu Province). Based on 30
years of records, mean annual rainfall is 263 mm with 21)9% inter-annual variability.
Seventy per cent of the rain occurs between the months of May and September. Mean
potential evaporation is 930)6 mm year!1. Mean annual temperature is 8)43C, with
a maximum of 20)73C (July) and a minimum of !9)13C (January). The soil is sandy
loam of loess origin, which belongs to the Haplic Orthic Aridisols according to the
 CORN PRODUCTION IN CHINA
Table 1. Selected physical and chemical properties of the soil at the experimental field site

Depth Sand Silt Clay Organic Cation Bulk pH CaCO3 CaSO4

(cm) 2.0–0)05 0)05–0)002 (0)002 content exchange density (1:25) (%) (%)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (g kg!1) (Cmol kg!1) (Mgm!1)

0–20 12)3 66)9 20)8 19)40 9)26 1)38 8)72 22)71 0)20
20–40 5)0 73)7 21)3 9)51 6)98 1)41 9)02 14)65 0)78
40–70 11)7 70)7 17)6 5)28 5)34 1)39 8)81 16)12 4)39
70–100 7)9 76)5 15)6 4)41 4)45 1)38 8)86 14)53 1)88

373
374 X.-Y. LI ET AL.

Chinese Soil Taxonomy Research Group (1995). The soil profile description and
characteristics of soil horizons are presented in Table 1.

Runoff efficiency observation

Two runoff plots, near the corn growing plots, were constructed for measuring the
efficiency of plastic-covered ridges in inducing surface runoff. A 60 cm wide by
3 m long ridge (25 cm high) was formed in each runoff plot. The side-slope degree
of the ridge was about 403. One ridge was covered with 0)008 mm thick plastic film and
the other was bare as the control. A cement block border, 20 cm high, was installed
around the ridge to divert runoff water from the ridges to the barrels. Asphalt was
sprayed on the surface of the cement block to prevent infiltration of rainwater into the
cement block and the soil. The barrel was covered with a close fitting plastic sheet to
prevent it from collecting precipitation and to prevent the evaporation of the collected
runoff water. A 1000 ml measuring cylinder or calibrated stick was used to measure
the amount of runoff for a small or big storm. The runoff was measured after
each rainstorm or twice daily during continuous rainfall events (Mehdizadeh et al.,
1978). A standard rain gauge and a siphon-type recording gauge were used to measure
the amount and intensity of rainfall.

Experimental design for corn production

In the corn growing plots, the system consisted of shaping the soil surface with ridges
and furrows alternately in the flat field. Ridges that were 60 cm wide (slope degree was
about 403) served as rainwater harvesting zones and 60 cm wide furrows served as
planting zones. Corn was planted 25 cm apart in two rows in the furrows at the base of
the ridges. A schematic diagram of the system with crop configuration is indicated in
Fig. 1. The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design. There were four
treatments with three replications, which were: T1"ridge covered with 0)008 mm thick
plastic film and furrow mulched by 5 cm thick gravel (3–5cm in diameter); T2"ridge
covered with 0)008 mm thick plastic film and bare furrow; T3"bare ridge and bare
furrow; T4"bare flat soil (check). Corn was planted on 6 May 1998, and the cultivar
was a hybrid of early maturity (Jiudan). Corn was planted in 60 cm ridge and 60 cm
furrow plots with a density of 66,700 plants ha!1, and flat soil plots with a density of

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of in-situ rainwater harvesting combined with gravel mulch system.
 CORN PRODUCTION IN CHINA 375

110,055 plants ha!1. The plant density in the bare flat soil represents the traditional flat
cultivation adopted by local farmers in a normal year. Organic matter and fertilizer was
applied to the furrows at a rate of 37,500 kg yard manure ha!1, 150 kg N ha!1 and 75 kg
P2O5 ha!1. Gravel was applied to the soil surface before the corn was planted. The
height of corn was obtained by measuring from the base of the stem to the highest point
on the plant at harvest time. Final yield estimation was based on the area of land used
including the area of ridges and furrows combined.
Soil moisture was determined gravimetrically to a depth of 100 cm with an increment
of 20 cm. The measurements were conducted at different growing stages. Ten-
siometers were installed at 10, 20, and 40 cm depth to monitor matric potential
variations due to different treatments. Observations were made at the same time in
the morning every day.

Results and discussion

Rainfall and runoff

The total rainfall was 304 mm during the 1998 rainy season. There were 36 rainfall
events in the corn growing period. Of these, only 10 produced runoff of 17)42 mm
from the bare ridge catchment (BRC), while all 36 rainfall events resulted in runoff
of 224)5 mm from ridge covered with plastic film catchment (RCPFC). Cumulative
precipitation and runoff from both BRC and RCPFC during the experiment are
presented in Fig. 2.
Plastic-covered ridges produced a high rate of runoff. The average runoff
efficiency (runoff/rainfall) reached 87%, while the maximum efficiency was
close to 100% (99)6%). The reason for this was that the plastic was impermeable and

Figure 2. Cumulative rainfall and runoff from BRC and RCPFC during corn growing
season (from May 6 to September 6) in 1998. Cumulative rainfall; Cumulative
runoff from RCPFC; Cumulative runoff from BRC.
376 X.-Y. LI ET AL.

Figure 3. Cumulative rainfall and runoff from plastic-covered ridge corresponding to

different times during a storm on (a) 9 July 1998 and (b) 30 July 1998. Cumulative
rainfall; Cumulative runoff.

smooth, so no infiltration occurred. Moreover, a short length and a relative great slope of
ridge led to rapid flow into the furrow. The lag between the beginning of rainfall and the
beginning of runoff is short (see Fig. 3(a, b)), and runoff took place within
minutes of the onset of rainfall.
Daily runoff from RCPFC was significantly correlated to daily rainfall. A linear
regression equation was established between daily rainfall and daily runoff as
follows (see Fig. 4):
R"0)98(P!0)8$0)2)
r"0)994
where R is daily runoff (mm), P is daily rainfall (mm), and r is the coefficient of
correlation, which is significant at the 0)0001 level. According to the definition and use of
the linear regression model of Diskin (1970), the threshold value for runoff from
RCPFC is 0)8$0)2 mm, i.e. 0)8$0)2 mm is the minimum amount of daily rainfall
required to produce runoff from RCPFC. It includes rainfall interception (rainfall
retained by plastic film surface and subsequently evaporated) by plastic-covered ridges
and evaporation during rains.
The runoff efficiency of the bare ridges was very low compared to that of
plastic-covered ridges, only 7% during the experiment period. This was in part due to
a low runoff coefficient of the bare ridges. It generated runoff only under
high intensity rainfall. Runoff occurred as a rainfall-excess or infiltration-excess
overland flow process, whereby the rainfall rate exceeded the infiltration rate of the soil
(Wilcox et al., 1997). Total runoff was often dependent upon fewer single storm
events. The highest intensity rainfall with an I30"19)2 mm h!1, on 20 May in 1998,
 CORN PRODUCTION IN CHINA 377

Figure 4. Relationship between daily rainfall and daily runoff from plastic-covered ridge.

produced 7)72 mm of runoff, 44% of the total yearly runoff, which had
a runoff efficiency of 66%. While a 26 mm rainfall with an I30"2)8 mm h!1,
on 19 August 1998, generated a runoff of 0)4 mm and had a runoff effi-
ciency of 15%. The distribution of the amount and intensity of rainfall indicated that
78% of rainfall events are below 10 mm and 83% occur at intensity (5 mm h!1 in this
area. These results confirm that, contrary to common assumption for arid and semi-arid
areas, much of the rainfall is rather low intensity in this region. Therefore, bare ridges
within the field for harvesting rainfall under low intensity rains are not effective in
this region, as a major part of the rainfall infiltrates into the bare ridges and evaporates
later. The bare ridge and furrow rainwater harvesting technique was most effective
in Gupta’s (1995) experiment for improving the tree growth of Azadirachta indica,
Tecomella undulata and Prosopis cineraria in the Indian Desert, because 90% of this area’s
annual rainfall was received between July and September, which occurred in a few
showers of high intensity resulting a high runoff. The average amount of annual
rainfall is similar in the India desert and the Gaolan County of China, but the
number of rainy days is 10–15 and 48 per year, respectively. The imporant differ-
ence is that the rainfall in the Indian Desert is of higher intensity than that in the
Gaolan County.

Soil moisture storage

Volumetric water content averaged 24)0, 23)9, 23)0, and 22)9% in T1, T2, T3 and
T4 plots, respectively, at the first measurement on May 10. So differences among
378 X.-Y. LI ET AL.

Figure 5. The effect of ridge and furrow rainwater harvesting combinded with gravel mulch
on soil moisture storage ( 0–20 cm; 20–40 cm; 40–60 cm; 60–80 cm; 80–100 cm).

treatments were not significant. There was not much rain in May and June, and moisture
storage in the upper 100 cm soil layer was almost the same among the various treatments
(Fig. 5).
From July to September, as the rain increased, moisture storage in the upper 100 cm
layer increased significantly in T1 and T2 due to the water harvesting and gravel mulch
treatments (Fig. 5). The highest amount of water was stored in the T1 treatment (178,
178, and 195 mm in July, August and September, respectively, as compared to 152, 129,
and 130 mm in the control). Use of plastic film as a partial surface cover coupled with
a surface ridge in the T1 and T2 plots concentrated the rainfall and forced deeper
penetration into the soil. It is known that evaporation rate is inversely related to the depth
of moisture (Gardner, 1958), so as the water penetrated deeper under the covered ridge
system it would be available to the plant for a long time and would be less subject to
evaporation. The average ratio of the depth of rain penetration under RCPFC and the
control is about 2)4:1. Evaporation is very high in the study area, a rainfall of 10–20 mm
(seen as a considerable rainfall in the semi-arid region of China) can moisten the dry top
soil layer only 2)5–5 cm in the flat field. However, the evaporation capacity can reach
10 mm per day in warm periods, so only after 2–3 days does the rain water retarded in
soil evaporate completely (Liu, 1998). The bare ridge treatment produced little
runoff, therefore there is no obvious difference in moisture storage between
T3 and T4 plots under the condition of high potential evaporation. The T1 treatment
could conserve more water than T2 because gravel mulch could increase infiltration rate
by intercepting and absorbing raindrop impact, and impeding lateral flow of excess
surface water. Thus, it preserved the structure of the immediate soil surface, held excess
water in contact with the soil surface longer and allowed more infiltration (Adams,
1966). Moreover, gravel mulch can reduce the evaporation rate of soil water (Adams,
1966; Fairborn & Cluff, 1974; Kemper et al., 1994; Roundy et al., 1997). Water
evaporating into the atmosphere is greatly slowed because it first moved as vapour across
the gravel pores. In a field study in Montana, gravel mulch reduced evaporation by up to
40% and improved water-storage efficiency by as much as 45% in a 2-year period
compared to areas without mulch (Choriki et al., 1964).
 CORN PRODUCTION IN CHINA 379

Figure 6. Matric potential variations of T1, T2, and T4 plot during July 10 to July 31 at the depths
of (a) 10 cm, (b) 20 cm and (c) 40 cm; and (d) rainfall.

The infiltration and evaporation changes could be explained by matric potential (cm
H O) variations of T1, T2 and T4 treatment plots during July 10 to July 31 (Fig. 6). In

general, matric potential increased as rainfall occurred. At 10 cm depth, the matric
potential value was higher in T1 than in T2 and T4 treatment plots during the dry spell of
July 16 to July 24.This was due to the lower evaporation rate of gravel mulch compared
to bare soil surface. During the rainy period of July 26 to July 31, the matric potential
value of T2 and T4 was higher than that of T1 at a depth of 10 cm, but the results were
opposite at 20 cm depth during the same period. This resulted from the high infiltration
rate of gravel mulch. The matric potential value was much higher in T1 plot than in
T2 and T4 plots at a depth of 20 cm. In all cases, T1 and T4 plots showed a sharp increase
or decrease of matric potential during the period of rainy or dry period due to high
infiltration or evaporation. The variability of T1 was a little higher than T4 , while
T2 showed a comparatively steady variation. These results also suggest that the film-
covered ridge and furrow technique can increase infiltration rate and resist evaporation
as compared to flat bare soil. Some problems arose from tensionmeters in the T3 plot
due to installation, and it was hard to analyse the matric potential variation of
T3 treatment with incomplete data. But the results of soil moisture storage in T3 and
T4 plots may suggest that the change trend of matric potential is similar for T3 and
T4 treatments.

Corn grain yield

Corn grain yield (based on both area of ridges and furrows occupied) in T1 and T2
treated plots were significantly higher than in T3 and T4 plots (Table 2). Plastic-covered
380 X.-Y. LI ET AL.

Table 2. Effect of in-situ rainwater harvesting and gravel mulch on corn

yield, grain weight per head, weight per 1000 grains, the number of grains per head,
and water-use efficiency for corn production

Treat- Corn yield Grain weight Weight Number Corn Water-use

ment (kg ha!1) per head per 1000 of grains height efficiency
(g) grains (g) per head (m) (kg ha!1 mm!1)

T1 8904)3*
a 133)7a 262a 488a 1)89a 25)7a
T2 7025)7b 105)3b 234b 425s 1)72a 19)9b
T3 3464)8d 51)95c 193)1c 267b 1)15b 9)97d
T4 4782)3c 47)8c 187c 244b 1)1b 14)3c

*Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different (p'0)05)
according to Fisher’s LSD test. T1"plastic-covered ridge and gravel-mulched furrow structure; T2"plas-
tic-covered ridge and bare furrow structure; T3"bare ridge and bare furrow structure; T4"flat bare soil
(check).

ridge and gravel-mulched furrow method of water harvesting was the most successful
treatment with 1)3, 2)6 and 1)9 times the grain yields of T2, T3 and T4 , respectively. The
yield of T3 plot was even less than that of the control plot, although grain weight per
head, weight per 1000 grains and number of grains per head were
not significantly different at the 0)05 level (Table 2). One reason for the failure of
T3 in yield improvement was that the bare ridge treatment could not accumulate
enough water for production and occupied an area of land space demonstrating its
uselessness for harvesting rainwater for corn production in this region. Another reason
was that the plant density in T4 was 65% higher than in T3 , more heads of corn per m2
ensure a higher yield in T4 than in T3 in a wet year such as 1998. Cao et al.
(1994) reported that there was no difference in corn grain yields between the
bare ridge treatment and traditional flat soil culture in the drought year due to water
stress.
In general, the yield trends corresponded well to the distribution of runoff
efficiency and soil moisture storage. The gravel mulch in T1 resulted in a consider-
able increase in corn yield, grains weight per head, and 1000 grains weight, compared to
the T2 treatment. Apart from its water conversation property, gravel cover can also
improve soil temperature. Temperature in gravel-mulched field was 2)2–2)73C higher
than bare soil at a depth of 20 cm. Corn germinated 2–4 days and tasseled 4–7 days
earlier in the gravel mulch treatment than in other treatments. This is similar to the
results of Fairborn & Cluff (1974).

Water-use efficiency

Water-use efficiency (WUE) (based on grain produced, growing-season precipita-

tion, soil water changes, and area covered by ridges and furrows) increased from 9)97
and 14)27 kg ha!1 mm!1 in T3 and control plots, respectively, to 25)69 kg ha!1 mm!1
in T1 plot (Table 2). The large increase in WUE for T1 and T2 treatments indicated a
higher efficiency of precipitation for corn production with the plastic-covered ridge
water harvesting and gravel mulching treatment than the bare ridge and control treat-
ment. A more effective use of growing season rainfall, in combination with in-situ
rainwater harvesting and conservation practices, reduce plant water stress and permit
a greater response to precipitation during the critical bottling, flowering and grain-filling
growth stages, which beneficially affect grain yields.
 CORN PRODUCTION IN CHINA 381

Summary and conclusion

The study demonstrates the usefulness of plastic-covered ridge and gravel-mulched

furrow in-situ rainwater harvesting and conservation practices in improving the
effectiveness of small storm, crop yield, and water-use efficiency in the dry
semi-arid region of China. The plastic-covered ridge can harvest rainwater under low
intensity rainfall, but the bare ridge produced runoff only under high intensity
rainfall, and was ineffective in regions such as the Gaolan County in China. The
plastic-covered ridge and furrow rainwater harvesting structure could enhance soil
moisture storage and rainfall use so as to ensure a higher level and reliability of corn
production.
The study also values the importance of gravel mulch to increase infiltration, decrease
soil evaporation, and improve soil temperature. It prevents unproductive loss of water
and improves corn yield.
The most effective size of ridge for different crops needs to be studied, and
depends on the amount of rainfall, soil and variety of crop.

We would like to extend our thanks to the Chinese Science and Technology Ministry (Project No.
199904350601) and Chinese Academy of Sciences for financial support. The research work was
also supported by Innovation Project from Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineer-
ing Research Institute (CAS). Mr Xizhong Lu is appreciated for his assistance in installing field
equipment and generating data.

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