EE 324 Electric Circuits II 2014-2015; 2nd Semester

AC Fundamentals
Engr. Justiniano B. Menes Jr.

ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) CIRCUITS

An alternating quantity either current or voltage is that which acts in alternate direction and
whose magnitude undergoes a definite cycle of change in a definite interval of time.

Difference between AC and DC

DC voltage has constant polarity. Kind of
electricity made by a battery (with definite
positive and negative terminals), or the kind of
charge generated by rubbing certain types of
materials against each other. A great portion of
the energy is converted to DC for use in many
types of industry, in railway transportation and in
communication systems. A substantial part of the
gigantic electrochemical industries, for example, depends upon DC for such electrolytic processes as
electroplating.
The transformer’s ability to step AC voltage up or down with ease gives AC an advantage
unmatched by DC in the realm of power distribution. When transmitting electrical power over long
distances, it is far more efficient to do so with stepped-up voltages and stepped-down currents (smaller-
diameter wire with less resistive power losses), then step the voltage back down and the current back
up for industry, business, or consumer use.
The benefits of AC over DC with regard to generator design are also reflected in electric motors.
While DC motors require the use of brushes to make electrical contact with moving coils of wire, AC
motors do not. In fact, AC and DC motor designs are very similar to their generator counterparts
(identical for the sake of this tutorial), the AC motor being dependent upon the reversing magnetic field
produced by alternating current through its stationary coils of wire to rotate the rotating magnet around
on its shaft, and the DC motor being dependent on the brush contacts making and breaking connections
to reverse current through the rotating coil every 1/2 rotation (180 degrees).

Generation of AC Voltage and Current

Alternating voltage may be generated by:
a. Rotating a coil in the magnetic field (generated emf)
b. Rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil (induced emf)

The value of voltage generated or induced depends on:

a. Number of turns of the coil
b. Strength of the magnetic field
c. Speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates

Induced emf equation:

e = N(dØ/dt) x 10-8 where: N = number of turns
dØ/dt = rate at which flux changes through the coil, Maxwells
e = induced emf, Volts
Generated emf equation:
v = βlvsinѲ x 10-8 where: β = flux density, lines/in2, Maxwells/in2
l = length of the wire/conductor that is moved relative to the
flux, inches
v = velocity of the wire with respect to the flux, in/s
Ѳ = angle through which the conductor has moved from a
vertical position, electrical degrees (°)

Variation of equation: v = (2πfNβA)sinѲ where: f = frequency of coil rotation in Hz

A = area of coil
EE 324 Electric Circuits II 2014-2015; 2nd Semester
AC Fundamentals
Engr. Justiniano B. Menes Jr.

Example:
1. Calculate the average voltage induced in a coil of 300 turns through which the flux changes from
250,000 to 20,000 Maxwells in 0.15s. (Siskind)
2. Calculate the maximum value of the emf generated in a coil which is rotating at 50rev/s in a
uniform magnetic field of 0.8Wb/m3. The coil is wound on a square former having sides 5cm in
length and is wound with 300 turns. (Theraja)
3. How many turns of wire are there in a coil in which 35.7V are induced when the flux through it
increases uniformly at a rate of 3 x 106 Maxwells per second? (Siskind)

Sine/Sinusoidal Wave
When an alternator produces AC voltage, the voltage switches polarity over time, but does so in
a very particular manner. When graphed over time, the “wave” traced by this voltage of alternating
polarity from an alternator takes on a distinct shape, known as a sine wave:

Cycle – a complete change in value and direction of an alternating quantity. A cycle may also be
specified in terms of angular measure. One complete cycle has two alternations and is equal to 360
electrical degrees or 2π radians.
Time Period (T) – time it takes to complete one cycle. Seconds.
Frequency (f) – number of cycles per second expressed. It is also called as the rate of back-and-
forth oscillation of a wave. Hertz (Hz) or cps.
f = 1/T or T = 1/f
f = (PN)/120 where: P = number of poles
N = speed, rpm

Conversion of Mechanical degrees (M.D.) to Electrical degrees (E.D.):

E. D. = (P/2)(M.D.) where: P = number of poles

Wavelength (λ) – the length of one complete wave or cycle or the distance travelled by the
wave in one cycle.
λ = v/f = velocity/frequency where: v – velocity of propagation (m/s)
- 3 x 108 m/s for radio waves, 344 m/s for
sound waves

Different Forms in Instantaneous Voltage Equation

v(t) = VmsinѲ = Vmsin(ωt) = Vmsin(2πft) = Vmsin[2π(1/T)t]

Where: v(t) = instantaneous value of voltage, volts
Vm = maximum value of voltage, volts
ω = angular frequency/velocity, rad/s
t = time, seconds
EE 324 Electric Circuits II 2014-2015; 2nd Semester
AC Fundamentals
Engr. Justiniano B. Menes Jr.

By closely looking at the above equations,

a. The maximum value or peak value or amplitude of an alternating voltage is given by the
coefficient of the sine of the time angle.
b. The frequency (f) is given by the coefficient of the time divided by 2π.
NOTE: ωt whose unit is radian can be replaced by Ѳ expressed in degrees.

For any given Ѳ, the time required to complete on cycle is given by:

𝟏
𝐭 𝐟
= where: t = time, seconds
Ѳ 𝟑𝟔𝟎°
f = frequency

Similarly, if the above voltage wave is a current wave, then the equation is:
i(t) = Imsin(ωt),
Where: i(t) = instantaneous value of current, amperes
Im = maximum value of current, amperes

Example:
1. An alternating current frequency 50Hz has a maximum value of 100A. Calculate:
a. Its value 1/600 second after the instant the current is zero and its value decreasing
thereafter
b. How many seconds after the instant the current is zero (increasing thereafter ward) will the
current attain the value of 86.6A?
2. A 60cycle current has a maximum value of 6.5A. What will be the instantaneous value of current
2.5m seconds after the wave passes through zero in the positive direction? (5.26A)
3. An alternator has 6poles. At what speed must the machine be driven to develop 60Hz?
4. An alternating current of frequency 60Hz has a maximum value of 120A. Find:
a. The instantaneous value after 1/360 seconds.
b. Time taken to reach 96A for the first time.
5. A current is given by i(t) = 22.62sin377t A. Determine the (a.) amplitude, (b.) frequency, (c.)
magnitude of current at t = 0.01s.
6. In an experiment, a sinusoidal waveform is observed to complete 8 cycles in 25m seconds.
Determine the frequency of the waveform.
7. If emf in a circuit is given by v(t) = 100sin628t V. What is the maximum value of voltage and
frequency?

Maximum value – the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during positive or negative
half cycle. It is the height of an AC waveform as measured from the zero mark to the highest positive or
lowest negative point on a graph. Also known as the crest amplitude of a wave.

Average value – the average value of all the instantaneous value of half (either positive or negative)
cycle of alternating quantity. It is the mathematical “mean” of all a waveform’s points over the period of
one cycle. The steady current which transfers across any circuit the same charge as is transferred by that
alternating current during the same time.

Effective value – the value of alternating quantity which when applied to a given time produces the
same expenditure of energy as when DC is applied to the same circuit for the same interval of time. The
effective value is also called the ‘root-mean-square” (RMS) value. Is given by that steady (DC) current
which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same heat as produced by the
alternating current when flowing through the same circuit over time.
EE 324 Electric Circuits II 2014-2015; 2nd Semester
AC Fundamentals
Engr. Justiniano B. Menes Jr.

Average Value of a Sinusoidal Quantity for Half Cycle

 Mid-ordinate Method
i1+i2+…+in
Iave =
n

 Analytical Method
T
∫0 Area of the Base
Iave = Base

Iave = (2Im)/π
Vave = (2Vm)/π

Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Value of a Sinusoidal Quantity

 Mid-ordinate Method
v12 + v22 +⋯+ vn2
IRMS = √ n

 Analytical Method
T 2
∫ i dѲ
IRMS = √ 0
T

IRMS = Im/(√2)
VRMS = Vm/(√2)

Form Factor (kf) of an AC waveform – ratio of effective value to average value

For sine wave: kf = IRMS/Iave = VRMS/Vave = 1.11

Peak Factor (ka) of an AC waveform – Also known as, amplitude or crest factor. The ratio of maximum
value to effective value. The crest factor is a measure of how high the waveform peaks, relative to its
RMS value. The higher the crest factor, the more difficult it is to make an accurate AC measurement.
For sine wave: ka = Im/IRMS = Vm/VRMS = 1.414
Two measurement challenges are associated with high crest factors:
a. The first involves input range. Imagine a pulse train with a very low duty cycle but relatively
high peak amplitude. Signals like this force the meter to simultaneously measure a high peak
value and a much lower rms value, possibly creating overload problems on the high end and
resolution problems on the low end.
b. The amount of higher-frequency energy in the signal. In general, high crest factors indicate
more harmonics, which can cause trouble for all meters. Peak- and average-responding
meters that are trying to measure rms have a particularly hard time.
EE 324 Electric Circuits II 2014-2015; 2nd Semester
AC Fundamentals
Engr. Justiniano B. Menes Jr.

Examples:
1. A wire has a current i(t) = 3cos314t A. What is the average current over 6 seconds?
2. A sinusoidal voltage wave has an rms value of 70.71V and a frequency of 60Hz. Determine the
value of the voltage 0.0014secs after the wave crosses the ωt axis.
3. The maximum value of a sine wave AC voltage which will produce heat in a resistor at the same
average rate as 115V of direct current is ____.
4. What is the wavelength of a carrier wave with frequency of 100megahertz? (3m)
5. A chat speed of recording instrument is 25mm/s. One cycle of the signal being recorded extends
over 5mm. What is the frequency of the signal? (5cps)
6. A 240V, 25Hz sinusoidal generator is connected to a 20Ω resistor. Determine the instantaneous
current when elapsed time is 0.01second. (16.97A)
7. A wire carries a current, i = 3cos314t amperes. What is the average current over 6 seconds? (-
0.0013 = 0A)

AC Phase
By phase of an alternating current or voltage is meant fraction of time period of that alternating
quantity which has elapsed since the current or voltage last passed through the zero position or
reference. In-phase is when two alternating quantities reach its maximum (or zero) value at the same
time while out-of-phase quantities reach its maximum (or zero) value at a different instants.
The shift between these two waveforms is about 45 degrees, the “A” wave being ahead of the
“B” wave. Assuming the waves are drawn having the same frequency, they will be out of step by the
same angular amount at every point in time.
For this reason, we can express
phase shift for two or more waveforms
of the same frequency as a constant
quantity for the entire wave, and not
just an expression of shift between any
two particular points along the waves.
That is, it is safe to say something like,
“voltage ’A’ is 45 degrees out of phase
with voltage ’B’.” Whichever waveform
is ahead in its evolution or one whish
reaches its maximum (or zero) value
earlier than the other quantity is said to
be leading alternating quantity and the one behind or one which reaches its maximum (or zero) value
later compared to the other quantity is said to be lagging alternating quantity.
Phase shift is where two or more waveforms are out of step with each other and expressed in
terms of degrees. It is always a measurement relative between two things. There’s really no such thing
as a waveform with an absolute phase measurement because there’s no known universal reference for
phase.
Sample illustrations:

Calculations for AC circuit analysis must take into consideration both amplitude and phase shift
of voltage and current waveforms to be completely accurate. This requires the use of a mathematical
system called complex numbers.
EE 324 Electric Circuits II 2014-2015; 2nd Semester
AC Fundamentals
Engr. Justiniano B. Menes Jr.

Phase Difference of Sinusoidal Waveform

The generalised mathematical
expression to define these two sinusoidal
quantities will be written as:
v(t) = Vm sin(ωt) V
i(t) = Imsin(ωt-Φ) A
The current, i is lagging the voltage,
v by angle Φ and in our example above this
is 30°. So the difference between the two
phasors representing the two sinusoidal quantities is angle Φ and the resulting phasor diagram will be.

The phasor diagram is drawn corresponding to time zero ( t = 0 ) on the horizontal axis. The
lengths of the phasors are proportional to the values of the voltage, ( V ) and the current, ( I ) at the
instant in time that the phasor diagram is drawn. The current phasor lags the voltage phasor by the
angle, Φ, as the two phasors rotate in an anticlockwise direction as stated earlier, therefore the angle, Φ
is also measured in the same anticlockwise direction.
The two diagrams shown both shows the current lagging the voltage by angle Φ. The only
difference is that the left figure uses voltage as reference while the other one uses current as reference.
The first figure is constructed at time where Φ = 0° while the other one is at time where Φ = 30°.
Another notation that can be drawn from the second figure is that at Φ = 30°, the voltage is now leading
current by angle Φ. Either way, one phasor is designated as the reference phasor and all the other
phasors will be either leading or lagging with respect to this reference.

Phasor Addition
1. Two alternating waves
a. In-phase
I1 I2 IT
IT = I1 + I2

b. Out-of-phase by 90°

I2 IT
IT = √(I12 + I22)
I1

c. Out-of-phase by an acute angle Ѳ

I2
IT
IT = √[(I12) + (I22)-2I1 I2cos(180-Ѳ)]
Ѳ

I1

2. More than two out-of-phase alternating waves

I3 ΣIX = I1cosѲ1 + I2cosѲ2 + I3cosѲ3
IT
ΣIY = I1cosѲ1 - I2cosѲ2 + I3cosѲ3
Ѳ3
I1
Ѳ1 ΣIY
Ѳ
Ѳ2 I2 ΣIX IT = √(ΣIX2 + ΣIY2)
Ѳ = tan-1 (ΣIY/ ΣIX)
NOTE: Standard vector sign conventions are used.
Conversion of cosine to sine: sin(ωt) = cos(ωt – π/2) = cos(ωt + π/2)
EE 324 Electric Circuits II 2014-2015; 2nd Semester
AC Fundamentals
Engr. Justiniano B. Menes Jr.

Examples:
1. Two current sources deliver current to a common load. The first source delivers a current whose
equation is 25sin100πt amperes while the second delivers current whose equation is
15cos100πt amperes. What is the rms value of the current in the load? (20.6A)
2. Two alternators A and B deliver 100 and 150A, respectively to a load. If these currents are out-
of-phase by 30 electrical degrees, determine the total current drawn by the load. (241.8A)
3. Three loads, units A, B and C are connected in parallel and take currents that are respectively 12,
10 and 15A. Assuming IA to be the reference phasor. IB leads IA by 30° and IC lags behind IA by
65°. Calculate the resultant current. (28.33A)
4. The voltage drops across two series connected units A and B are 60V and 90V, respectively.
Assuming EA to be the reference phasor, calculate the resultant voltage and the angle it makes
with reference axis,
a. If EB lags behind EA by 90° (ER = 108.17∟-56.31°)
b. If EB leads EA by 60° (ER = 130.77∟36.59°)
5. Two currents i1 = 12sin(2π60t) and i2 = 9cos(2π60t) flow in a wire. Determine the equation of
the resultant current iR and the angle between resultant and i1. Determine the rms value of the
resultant current. (iR = 15sin(2π60t + 36.87) A, 10.61A)
6. Three alternating currents are given by i1 = 141sin(ωt + 45)A, i2 = 30sin(ωt + 90)A and i3 =
20cos(ωt-120) A. Find the equation of the resultant current. (iR = 167.40∟45.65°A)