Beaufort scale

The Beaufort scale /ˈboʊfərt/ is an empirical measure that relates wind

speed to observed conditions at sea or on land. Its full name is the Beaufort
wind force scale.

Contents
History
Modern scale
See also
References Force 12 at sea
External links

History
The scale was devised in 1805 by the Irish hydrographer Francis Beaufort (later Rear Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort), a Royal Navy officer,
while serving on HMS Woolwich. The scale that carries Beaufort's name had a long and complex evolution from the previous work of others
(including Daniel Defoe the century before) to when Beaufort was Hydrographer of the Navy in the 1830s when it was adoptedficially
of and
first used during the voyage of HMS Beagle under Captain Robert FitzRoy, later to set up the first Meteorological Office (Met Office) in
Britain giving regular weather forecasts.[1] In the early 19th century, naval officers made regular weather observations, but there was no
standard scale and so they could be very subjective – one man's "stiff breeze" might be another's "soft breeze". Beaufort succeeded in
standardising the scale.

The initial scale of thirteen classes (zero to twelve) did not reference wind speed numbers
but related qualitative wind conditions to effects on the sails of a frigate, then the main ship
of the Royal Navy, from "just sufficient to give steerage" to "that which no canvas sails
could withstand".[2]

The scale was made a standard for ship's log entries on Royal Navy vessels in the late 1830s
and was adapted to non-naval use from the 1850s, with scale numbers corresponding to cup
anemometer rotations. In 1916, to accommodate the growth of steam power, the
descriptions were changed to how the sea, not the sails, behaved and extended to land
observations. Rotations to scale numbers were standardized only in 1923. George Simpson,
C.B.E. (later Sir George Simpson), director of the UK Meteorological Office, was
responsible for this and for the addition of the land-based descriptors.[1] The measure was
slightly altered some decades later to improve its utility for meteorologists. Today, many
countries have abandoned the scale and use the metric system based units, m/s or km/h,
instead, but the severe weather warnings given to the public are still approximately the same Sir Francis Beaufort
as when using the Beaufort scale.

The Beaufort scale was extended in 1946, when forces 13 to 17 were added.[3] However, forces 13 to 17 were intended to apply only to
special cases, such as tropical cyclones. Nowadays, the extended scale is only used in Taiwan and mainland China, which are often affected
by typhoons. Internationally, WMO Manual on Marine Meteorological Services (2012 edition) defined the Beaufort Scale only up to force
[4]
12 and there was no recommendation on the use of the extended scale.

Wind speed on the 1946 Beaufort scale is based on theempirical relationship:[5]

v = 0.836 B3/2 m/s

Where v is the equivalent wind speed at 10 metres above the sea surface and B is Beaufort scale number. For example, B = 9.5 is related to
24.5 m/s which is equal to the lower limit of "10 Beaufort". Using this formula the highest winds in hurricanes would be 23 in the scale.

Today, hurricane-force winds are sometimes described as Beaufort scale 12 through 16, very roughly related to the respective category
speeds of the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale, by which actual hurricanes are measured, where Category 1 is equivalent to Beaufort 12.
However, the extended Beaufort numbers above 13 do not match the Saffir–Simpson scale. Category 1 tornadoes on the Fujita and TORRO
scales also begin roughly at the end of level 12 of the Beaufort scale, but are independent scales – although the TORRO scale wind values
[6]
are based on the 3/2 power law relating wind velocity to Beaufort force.

Wave heights in the scale are for conditions in the open ocean, not along the shore.

Modern scale
Beaufort Wind Wave Sea Land Associated
Description Sea state photo
number speed height conditions conditions warning flag

< 1 km/h
0m
< 1 mph
Sea like a Smoke rises
0 Calm
mirror vertically.
< 1 knot
0 ft
< 0.3 m/s

1–5 km/h 0–0.2

m Ripples with
1–3 mph Direction
appearance
shown by
of scales are
1 Light air 1–3
formed,
smoke drift
knots but not by
0–1 ft without foam
wind vanes.
0.3– crests
1.5 m/s

6– Small
11 km/h 0.2– wavelets still
0.5 m short but
Wind felt on
4–7 mph more
face; leaves
pronounced;
2 Light breeze 4–6 crests have
rustle; wind
knots vane moved
a glassy
1–2 ft by wind.
appearance
1.6– but do not
3.3 m/s break
12– Large
19 km/h 0.5–1 wavelets;
m crests begin Leaves and
8– to break; small twigs in
Gentle 12 mph foam of constant
3 breeze glassy motion; light
7–10
knots appearance; flags
2– perhaps extended.
3.4– 3.5 ft scattered
5.5 m/s white horses

20–
28 km/h
1–2 m
13– Small waves Raises dust
18 mph becoming and loose
Moderate
4 breeze
longer; fairly paper; small
11–16 frequent branches
knots 3.5– white horses moved.
5.5– 6 ft
7.9 m/s
29– Moderate
38 km/h waves taking
2–3 m a more Small trees in
19– pronounced leaf begin to
24 mph long form; sway; crested
5 Fresh breeze
many white wavelets form
17–21
knots horses are on inland
6–9 ft formed; waters.
8– chance of
10.7 m/s some spray

6 Strong 39– Large waves Large

breeze 49 km/h begin to branches in
3–4 m form; the motion;
25– white foam whistling
31 mph
crests are heard in
22–27 9– more telegraph
knots 13 ft extensive wires;
everywhere; umbrellas
 everywhere; umbrellas
10.8– probably used with
13.8 m/s some spray difficulty.

Sea heaps
50–
up and white
61 km/h
4–5.5 foam from
m breaking
Whole trees in
32– waves
motion;
High wind, 38 mph begins to be
inconvenience
moderate blown in
7 gale, streaks
felt when
28–33 walking
near gale along the
knots against the
direction of
13– wind.
the wind;
19 ft spindrift
13.9–
begins to be
17.1 m/s
seen
Moderately
62–
high waves
74 km/h
5.5– of greater
7.5 m length;
39– edges of
Twigs break
46 mph crests break
off trees;
Gale, into spindrift;
8 fresh gale foam is
generally
34–40 impedes
blown in
knots progress.
well-marked
18– streaks
25 ft along the
17.2–
direction of
20.7 m/s
the wind
75– High waves;
88 km/h 7–10 dense
m streaks of Slight
47– foam along structural
Strong/severe 54 mph the direction damage
9 gale of the wind; (chimney pots
41–47
knots sea begins and slates
23– to roll; spray removed).
20.8– 32 ft affects
24.4 m/s visibility

Very high
waves with
89– long
102 km/h overhanging
crests;
9– resulting
12.5 foam in great
m patches is
blown in
55– dense white
63 mph streaks Seldom
along the experienced
direction of inland; trees
Storm,[7]
10 whole gale
the wind; on uprooted;
the whole considerable
the surface structural
48–55 of the sea damage.
knots takes on a
white
29– appearance;
41 ft
rolling of the
sea
24.5– becomes
28.4 m/s heavy;
visibility
affected
 11 Violent storm 103– 11.5– Exceptionally Very rarely
117 km/h 16 m high waves; experienced;
64– small- and accompanied
72 mph medium- by widespread
sized ships damage.
56–63 might be for
knots a long time
lost to view
behind the
waves; sea
is covered
with long
white
37– patches of
28.5– 52 ft foam;
32.6 m/s everywhere
the edges of
the wave
crests are
blown into
foam;
visibility
affected

≥
118 km/h The air is
≥ 14 filled with
m foam and
≥ spray; sea is
73 mph completely
Hurricane
12 force [7]
white with Devastation.
≥ 64 driving
knots spray;
visibility very
≥ 46 ft seriously
≥ affected
32.7 m/s

References: Met Office,[8] Royal Meteorological Society,[9] Encyclopædia Britannica[10]

The wind speeds in different units are not mathematically equivalent; e.g. 12–19 km/h is not equivalent to 8–12 mph, and both are not
equivalent to 7–10 knots. The reason is that the Beaufort scale is not an exact nor an objective scale. It was based on visual and subjective
observation of a ship and of the sea. The corresponding integral wind speeds were determined later, but the values in different units were
never made equivalent.

The scale is used in the Shipping Forecasts broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in the United Kingdom, and in the Sea Area Forecast from Met
Éireann, the Irish Meteorological Service. Met Éireann issues a "Small Craft Warning" if winds of Beaufort force 6 (mean wind speed
exceeding 22 knots) are expected up to 10 nautical miles offshore. Other warnings are issued by Met Éireann for Irish coastal waters, which
are regarded as extending 30 miles out from the coastline, and the Irish Sea or part thereof: "Gale Warnings" are issued if winds of Beaufort
force 8 are expected; "Strong Gale Warnings" are issued if winds of Beaufort force 9 or frequent gusts of at least 52 knots are expected.;
"Storm Force Warnings" are issued if Beaufort force 10 or frequent gusts of at least 61 knots are expected; "Violent Storm Force Warnings"
are issued if Beaufort force 11 or frequent gusts of at least 69 knots are expected; "Hurricane Force Warnings" are issued if winds of greater
than 64 knots are expected.

This scale is also widely used in the Netherlands, Germany,[11] Greece, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malta and Macau, although with some
differences between them. Taiwan uses the Beaufort scale with the extension to 17 noted above. China also switched to this extended version
without prior notice on the morning of 15 May 2006,[12] and the extended scale was immediately put to use for Typhoon Chanchu. Hong
Kong and Macau retain force 12 as the maximum.

In the United States, winds of force 6 or 7 result in the issuance of a small craft advisory, with force 8 or 9 winds bringing about a gale
warning, force 10 or 11 a storm warning ("a tropical storm warning" being issued instead of the latter two if the winds relate to a tropical
cyclone), and force 12 a hurricane-force wind warning (or hurricane warning if related to a tropical cyclone). A set of red warning flags
(daylight) and red warning lights (night time) is displayed at shore establishments which coincide with the various levels of warning.
In Canada, maritime winds forecast to be in the range of 6 to 7 are designated as "strong"; 8 to 9 "gale force"; 10 to 11 "storm force"; 12
"hurricane force". Appropriate wind warnings are issued by Environment Canada's Meteorological Service of Canada: strong wind warning,
gale (force wind) warning, storm (force wind) warning and hurricane-force wind warning. These designations were standardized nationally
in 2008, whereas "light wind" can refer to 0 to 12 or 0 to 15 knots and "moderate wind" 12 to 19 or 16 to 19 knots, depending on regional
custom, definition or practice. Prior to 2008, a "strong wind warning" would have been referred to as a "small craft warning" by
Environment Canada, similar to US terminology
. (Canada and the USA have the Great Lakes in common.)

Beaufort Wind Scale

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Light Light Gentle Moderate Fresh Strong Near Strong Violent Hurricane
Calm Gale Storm
Air Breeze Breeze Breeze Breeze Breeze Gale Gale Storm Force

Hurricane-
Light Winds High Winds Gale-force Storm-force
force

1– 4– 8– 13– 18– 25– 31– 39– 47- 55– 64–

<1 mph 3 mph 7 mph 12 mph 18 mph 24 mph 31 mph 38 mph 46 mph 54 mph 63 mph 72 mph
≥73 mph
<1 knot 1–3 4–6 7–10 11–16 17–21 22–27 28–33 34–40 41–47 48–55 56–63
≥63 knots
<0.3 knots knots knots knots knots knots knots knots knots knots knots
≥32.7 m/s
m/s 0.3– 1.6– 3.4– 5.5– 8.0– 10.8– 13.9– 17.2– 20.8– 24.5– 28.5–
1.5 m/s 3.3 m/s 5.5 m/s 7.9 m/s 10.7 m/s 13.8 m/s 17.1 m/s 20.7 m/s 24.4 m/s 28.4 m/s 32.6 m/s

See also
Bowditch's American Practical Navigator
CLIWOC
Enhanced Fujita Scale
Douglas Sea Scale
Fujita scale
Saffir–Simpson scale
Sea state
Squall
TORRO scale
Tropical cyclone

References
Huler, Scott (2004). Defining the Wind: The Beaufort Scale, and How a 19th-Century Admiral urned
T Science into Poetry.
Crown. ISBN 1-4000-4884-2.
1. "National Meteorological Library and Archive Fact sheet 6 — The Beaufort Scale"
(https://web.archive.org/web/2012100213
4429/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/media/pdf/4/4/Fact_Sheet_No._6_-_Beaufort_Scale.pdf)(PDF). Met Office. Archived from
the original (http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/media/pdf/4/4/Fact_Sheet_No._6_-_Beaufort_Scale.pdf)(PDF) on 2 October 2012.
Retrieved 13 May 2011.
2. Oliver, John E. (2005). Encyclopedia of world climatology. Springer.
3. Walter J. Saucier (1955).Principles of Meteorological Analysis.(https://books.google.com/books?id=CM99-uKpR00C&pg=
PA407&lpg=PA407&dq=daily+swan+island+rainfall+data&source=web&ots=OvGwgh67t9 &sig=lwTKWaNSmgGqjFEC6rTIzf
ynYco&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=8&ct=result#PP A415,M1) Retrieved on 2009-01-09.
4. http://library.wmo.int/pmb_ged/wmo_558_en-v1.pdf
5. Tom Beer (1997). Environmental Oceanography(https://books.google.com/books?id=pgZtaB-qOmYC&pg=P
A224&dq=%22
Beaufort+Scale%22+0.836). CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-8425-7.
6. Maiden, Terence. "T-Scale: Origins and Scientific Basis"(https://web.archive.org/web/20120205020044/http://www
.torro.or
g.uk/TORRO/severeweather/Tscaleorigin.php). TORRO. Archived fromthe original (http://www.torro.org.uk/TORRO/severe
weather/Tscaleorigin.php) on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2012.
7. The names "storm" and "hurricane" on the Beaufort scale refer only to wind strength, and do not necessarily mean that
other severe weather (for instance, athunderstorm or tropical cyclone) is present. To avoid confusion, strong windwarnings
will often speak of e.g. "hurricane-force winds".
 8. "Beaufort wind force scale"(http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/guide/weather/marine/beaufort-scale). Met Office. Retrieved
November 27, 2015.
9. "Beaufort Scale" (http://www.rmets.org/weather-and-climate/observing/beaufort-scale). Royal Meteorological Society.
Retrieved November 27, 2015.
10. "Beaufort Scale" (http://www.britannica.com/science/Beaufort-scale). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved November 27,
2015.
11. "Wetterlexikon - Beaufort-Skala"(https://web.archive.org/web/20131212205023/http://www
.deutscher-wetterdienst.de/lexiko
n/index.htm?ID=B&DAT=Beaufort-Skala) (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Archived from the original (http://www.deuts
cher-wetterdienst.de/lexikon/index.htm?ID=B&DA T=Beaufort-Skala) on 12 December 2013. Retrieved 2014-02-14.
12. "昨日实行新标准"珍珠"属强台风_新闻中心_新浪网" (http://news.sina.com.cn/o/2006-05-16/06518935033s.shtml)
.
news.sina.com.cn.

External links
National Meteorological Library and Archivefact sheet on the history of the Beaufort Scale, inluding various scales and
photographic depictions of the sea state.
Film of Wind Scale
Historical Wind Speed Equivalents Of The Beaufort Scale
Howtoons Poster showing effects on land/sea effects at each step.
Introduction to Physical Oceanography, Open Source Textbook, oceanworld.tamu.edu, cites the original definition formula
in chapter 4. Possibly available from University of Colorado[1].
Ireland's Beaufort was Windscale Inventor—by Dr John de Courcy Ireland
OceanWeather.com gives current graphics for wind, waves and temperature.
Online calculator: Beaufort scale
The Weather Legacy of Francis Beaufort—The history of the Beaufort Scale
Radio interview with Scott Huler
Beaufort wind force scale. Met Office
US Economic Costs of High Windsat NOAA Economics

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