Abstract

In this Project, we implement Arduino-based Face recognition system with neural

network which can be on the platform of face color, sharp, background using a

special camera sensor which is based or tracking the position and face closer

through a format RBG module sensor. This system was designed on the algorithms

to control the open and close of a relay as an output when it matches the face

captured with the one present in the memory. We propose a Behavioral Algorithm

that is implemented on our devices in order to supply a proof-of-concept of the

effectiveness of a Detection task. Specifically, we implement the ”Object

Detection” and ”Face Recognition” techniques based on neutral net and we detail

the modifications necessary for interfacing the camera sensor with arduino uno.

We show the effectiveness of the controlled mobility concept in order to

accomplish a task, both in a centralized way (i.e. driven by a central computer that

assign the task) and in a totally distributed fashion, in cooperation with other

Rovers. We also highlight the limitations of similar devices required to accomplish

specific tasks and their potentiality.

Table of content

Title Page

Certification Page

Approval Page

Dedication

Acknowledgment

Abstract

Table of Contents

List of Figures

List of Tables

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.0 introduction

1.1 statement of the problem

1.2 objectives

1.3 significance of the project

Chapter2: Literature Review

2.0 Introduction

2.1 theoretical background

2.2 review of related literature

Chapter3: System Analysis and Design

3.0 Introduction

3.1 describe the existing system

3.2 analysis of the proposed system

3.3 design of the proposed system

Chapter 4: System Implementation

4.0 introduction

4.1 choice of development environment

4.2 implementation architecture

4.3 software testing

4.4 documentation

4.4.1 user manual

4.4.2 source code listing

Chpater5: Summary and Conclusion

5.0 summary

5.1 conclusion

5.2 recommendation

Reference

Appendices
Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Background study

Face detection is a computer technology being used in a variety of applications

that identifies human faces in digital images. [1] Face detection also refers to

the psychological process by which humans locate and attend to faces in a visual

scene. [2]

Fig1.1 Automatic face detection with camera

Face detection can be regarded as a specific case of object-class detection. In

object-class detection, the task is to find the locations and sizes of all objects in an

image that belong to a given class. Examples include upper torsos, pedestrians, and

cars.

Face-detection algorithms focus on the detection of frontal human faces. It is

analogous to image detection in which the image of a person is matched bit by bit.
Image matches with the image stores in database. Any facial feature changes in the

database will invalidate the matching process.

A reliable face-detection approach based on the genetic algorithm and the eigen-

face [3] technique: [4]

Firstly, the possible human eye regions are detected by testing all the valley regions

in the gray-level image. Then the genetic algorithm is used to generate all the

possible face regions which include the eyebrows, the iris, the nostril and the

mouth corners.

Each possible face candidate is normalized to reduce both the lightning effect,

which is caused by uneven illumination; and the shirring effect, which is due to

head movement. The fitness value of each candidate is measured based on its

projection on the eigen-faces. After a number of iterations, all the face candidates

with a high fitness value are selected for further verification. At this stage, the face

symmetry is measured and the existence of the different facial features is verified

for each face candidate.

 RGB camera sensor

This is a camera sensor based on color of the object to be captured alongside

with its background matching, cloth matching and facial compilation which it

will scan in a matrix three stage model and save the data in is memory map.

When save and each motion detection the capture option will be activated to

scan the object present, then it will be compelled with the existing records if

match is found it will not trigger the relay given access to the object captured.

After some sections time it will automatically lock up.

1.2 statement of the problem

Research in recent face recognition technologies seem to suggest that it is

challenging to fake the identity of the person even after a facial surgery (though,

we find that hard to believe) because they make use of something called as ‘nodes’

(around 600 nodes for every face) of the facial structure, which these techniques

claim, remains unique to each person – dead or alive.

Face recognition has its distinct advantage of being non-contact in nature

compared to the other well-known bio metrics. A distant webcam/ video recorder

and off latelysmart phones, are capturing details required for bio metric systems
that use Face Recognition, without any extra effort required by the people whose

biometrics are being captured. Coming to think of it, this is in itself is a revolution

in terms of the technological advancements that have taken place to enable such a

seamless biometric operation to take place.

We have seen that face recognition technology backed products are becoming part

of the mainstream. Here are a few use cases of face recognition technology being

used to impact societies across different geographies:

1.3 Aim and objectives

The aim of this project includes:

a. It explains the use of face ID in detecting uses

b. It exposes use on how to design and implement a face recognition system

c. It show different step on how to interface a arduino to an RGB camera

module.

1.4 significance of the project

a. No More Time Fraud - One of the big benefits of using facial biometric

systems in your company is that you won’t have to worry about time fraud.
 It will be impossible for buddy punching to occur, since everyone has to have

go thru face scanning biometrics devices to clock in.

b. Better Security - You’ll also enjoy better security with a face biometrics

system. Not only can you track employees thru biometrics time attendance

tracking, but any visitors can be added to the system and tracked throughout

the area too. Anyone that is not in the system will not be given access.

Benefit #3 - Automated Facial System - Many companies like the fact that

biometric imaging systems are automated. You won’t have to worry about

having someone there to monitor the system 24 hours a day.

Benefit #4 - Easy Integration - Integrated Biometric facial systems are also

easy to program into your companies computer system. Usually they will

work with existing software that you have in place.

Benefit #5 - High Success Rate - Facial biometrics technology today has a

high success rate, especially with the emergence of 3d face recognition

technologies. It is extremely difficult to fool the system, so you can feel

 secure knowing that your biometrics computer security system will be

successful at tracking time and attendance while providing better security.

1.5 List of important terms

A. RGB camera sensor

B. C++ Programming language

C. OpenCV window app for module test

D. Arduino Uno

E. Power supply

F.

1.6 Project report organization

Chapter one carries the introduction, aim and objective, scope of study, limitation

of the work, significance and the project report organization of the work. Chapter

two carries the literature review of the work along with other reviews of the

project. Chapter three carries the project design methodology and steps which lead
to the construction of the project. Chapter four testing the project design,

observation and Bill of engineering. Chapter five carries summary and conclusion.
Chapter2: Literature Review

2.1 Theoretical Background

In the past few decades, robots, video surveillance system and automatic action

recognition have attached increasingly attention. Human detection is a

fundamental step for these systems. Indoor environments increase the difficulty of

this task due to the illumination change and the cluttered background. Recently

popular RGB-D sensors provide depth information in a scene that is robust to

illumination change. Hence, indoor human detection based on RGB-D images has

attracted much attention.

Recently, RGB-D sensors such as Kinect and Xtion have received considerable

attention since they provide depth image that is robust to light variation in the

environment. They are mainly used for human computer interaction, surveillance

and so on. In this paper, we concentrate on indoor human detection using RGB-D

images. Some RGB image based features such as histogram of oriented gradient

(HOG) and local binary pattern (LBP) are first briefly introduced. Then, a new depth

feature that describes the self-similarity of an image is proposed. Finally,

combination of them is utilized to detect the people. This scheme can efficiently
describe the humans in the indoor environment. Extensive experiments

demonstrate that the proposed scheme can achieve a respective promising

detection accuracy of 99.28%, 95.48% and 99.91% on three different collected

RGB-D data sets

Color vision is the ability of an organism or machine to distinguish objects based on

the wavelengths (or frequencies) of the light they reflect, emit,

or transmit. Colors can be measured and quantified in various ways; indeed, a

person's perception of colors is a subjective process whereby the brain responds to

the stimuli that are produced when incoming light reacts with the several types

of cone cells in the eye. In essence, different people see the same illuminated

object or light source in different ways.

In this paper, we describe a system for detecting and tracking people from image

and depth sensors on board a door controls. To cope with the challenges of indoor

mobile perception, our system combines an ensemble of detectors in a unified

framework, is efficient, and has the potential to incorporate multiple sensor inputs.

The performance of our algorithm surpasses other approaches on two challenging

data sets, including a new image-based data set.

2.2 Review of Related Literature

There is a long history of approaches to person detection and tracking in the

computer vision and robotics literature. Many of these techniques (such as [11, 12,

9, 10]) have been shown to be successful in outdoor scenarios or when scoped to

the scenarios for which they were designed. They have been less successful,

however, for indoor environments. In outdoor scenes, people are mostly observed

in an up-right ‘pedestrian’ position, whereas in indoor scenes people are often seen

in more variable configurations (e.g. sitting on chairs, truncated by the image

boundary, or occluded.) Methods have been proposed to track targets by learning

a person specific appearance model given an initial position [4, 8]. These methods

work relatively well when the background is not cluttered, but often suffer from

the problem of track drift [18] and require manual selection of initial target

positions. The improvement in people detection algorithms made it possible to

design robust tracking-by detection algorithms [26, 27, 5, 7, 6, 15]. Wu et al. [27]

integrated an image based detection algorithm into a tracking framework.

Breitenstein et al. [5] proposed to use the detector confidence value together with

the detection output to generate a robust tracking algorithm. Whereas Khan et al.

[15] proposed an MCMC particle filtering method to track multiple interacting

targets and employed it to analyze the behavior of ants. Similar to [15], Choi et al.
[7] proposed an algorithm for simultaneously tracking multiple targets as well as

estimating camera parameters. To make tracking more robust, Wojek et al. [26]

explicitly reasoned about the targets’ occlusions. Recently, [6] proposed a novel

procedure based on maximum weight independent sets to solve the

correspondence problem among targets. In order to improve robustness and

accuracy, multiple approaches explore the idea of injecting knowledge about 3D

structure of the scene into the tracking process [11, 20, 17]. [11, 20] proposed a

system which combines depth information obtained from stereo cameras (or laser

scans) and detection responses obtained from an RGB camera. In [3], a 2D lidar

scanner is employed to detect and track people by identifying the legs’ cylinder

shape
Chapter3: System Analysis and Design

3.1 Project Specification

Many neural network system has been designed to base on sensing facial

components with some special sensing component’s which makes it very

expensive to design, this made it fragile as it based on different levels of

algorithms that are very expensive.

In this project, we are to design a face recognition system using neural

network algorithm base on RBG sensing system to detect image and save

then in it local memory for future use; this system is interfaced with arduino

board which makes the work easy and more efficient to be interfaced with a

dc motor which during operations compiles memory with captured image

and then give access to the user or buzz alarm telling the user that the

memory is locked.

3.2 Describe the Existing System

A face recognition system is a computer application capable

of identifying or verifying a person from a digital image or a frame from

a video source. One of the ways to do this is by comparing selected facial

features from the image and a face database.

It is typically used in security systems and can be compared to

other biometrics such as fingerprint or eye iris recognition systems.[1]Recently, it

has also become popular as a commercial identification and marketing tool.[2]

Some face recognition algorithms identify facial features by extracting landmarks,

or features, from an image of the subject's face. For example, an algorithm may

analyze the relative position, size, and/or shape of the eyes, nose, cheekbones, and

jaw.[3] These features are then used to search for other images with matching

features.[4] Other algorithms normalize a gallery of face images and then compress

the face data, only saving the data in the image that is useful for face recognition.

A probe image is then compared with the face data.[5] One of the earliest

successful systems[6] is based on template matching techniques[7] applied to a set

of salient facial features, providing a sort of compressed face representation.

Recognition algorithms can be divided into two main approaches, geometric, which

looks at distinguishing features, or photometric, which is a statistical approach that

distills an image into values and compares the values with templates to eliminate

variances.
Popular recognition algorithms include principal component analysis using eigen

faces, linear discriminant analysis, elastic bunch graph matching using the Fisher

face algorithm, the hidden Markov model, the multiline subspace learning using

tensor representation, and the neuronal motivated dynamic link matching.

3.4 Design pattern

This includes the stages passed for the design and construction of this project.

Below is the block diagram of the project:

 3.4.1 Information Gathering

The link which enhanced my knowledge to the design and construction of this

project was as a result my curiosity, some which was gotten from the internet

research I did, some from the school environment, from the already existing

product which was the main source of my knowledge on how to go about the

project then others was from my teacher and supervisor etc. all this information I

gathered for the design and construction of this project.

3.5 Design pattern

In the designation of this project, we employed different design pattern to run a

test of this design to checkout for its perfection when fully designed. From the

origin of the design, from the list of the circuit symbol, the way they operate help

me to have a better design of this project were employed different strategies to

run the test operation for each component for clarifications and better

understanding of them.

3.6 Design procedure

Before the design we first of all have our design designed using some simulation

software like the professional schematic designer, eagle, livewire and proteuslite
 which they all gave use the same out analysis of the circuit. Then I made my circuit

diagram (complete schematic of my design) and debugged the complete design

which gave me a full highlight and hint of the physical operation of the design.

3.7 Design processes

The procedures that lead to the complete designs of this project followed gradual

processes first:

3.7.1 Choice of component

The choice of component depends on the design circuit requirement, were the

components to be used depends on circuit connections and operation

requirement. The arduino board is use for effectively easy and makes the work for

faster and neat.

3.7.2 Component layout

Component layout is the layout for each component according to the location of

the component symbol. This helps to allocate components to fit the operation of

the circuit which is dependent on the circuit diagram.

3.7.3 Component mounting

Component mounting or placing is the art or process of placing the components in

the required fittings to enable lead soldering of the components to the circuit

printed or Vero boards before inter connecting the components depending on the

circuit connections.

3.7.4 Soldering and clearing

Soldering of the components is very essential to electronic circuit design as it helps

to hard hold the component leads from falling off from the circuit which can cause

permanent damage to the component circuitry.

Clearing always cause before comes after soldering, as it is the process of removing

tiny segmented leads which could cause bridges to the circuit network leading to

burnt and fire outbreak from the circuit.

3.7.5 Running cross check

Running check after any circuit design is required as it gives no room for errors after

design. This also helps to correct the network errors and enhance operation as

required after design.

3.7.6 Project testing

Project testing is the art of placing the design in a running mode for test and

operation analysis, this helps to show the designer that how accurate his/her work

is and encourage upgrading the present design when dealing with that type of

design.

Packaging is the art of covering the inner structure of design using some natural

inspirational art and copies of an already existing design in other to convince the

viewer for recommended comment. Packaging involves the covering of the inner

nature of a design which only through its look sends a message to anybody who

gaze at it what it really is. The appearance of any design one made is a thing to be

consider important as it is the only way which a product sells itself without human

recommendations, in this project packaging is one of the vital part of this design

because the design which is considered here is a prototype of an Face recognition

system using neural network.

Chapter 4: System Implementation

4.1 Component analysis and design

In this chapter the component used and there various functions are

discussed, how they were chose and there various pin out instructions

4.2 Component listing

The component used in this design includes:

a. Arduino Raspberry /uno

b. LM7805 voltage regulator

c. C1815 bipolar transistor

d. 10uf,100uf,1nf capacitor

e. Led

f. Resistors

g. Vero board

h. Soldering iron

i. Soldering lead

j. Connecting copper wire

 k. Transistors (Mosfet irfz44n)

l. RGB Image Sensor

4.3 Component descriptions

a) Arduino Raspberry /uno

Fig 4.0 Arduino designs

Raspberry Pi is a series of small single-board computers developed in the United

Kingdom by the Raspberry Pi Foundation to promote the teaching of

basic computer science in schools and in developing countries.[4][5][6] The original

model became far more popular than anticipated,[7] selling outside of its target

market for uses such as robotics. Peripherals (including keyboards, mice and cases)

are not included with the Raspberry Pi. Some accessories however have been

included in several official and unofficial bundles.[7]

According to the Raspberry Pi Foundation, over 5 million Raspberry Pis have been

sold before February 2015, making it the best-selling British computer.[8] By

November 2016 they had sold 11 million units.[9][10]

Fig 4.2 Raspberry Pi

Hardware

The Raspberry Pi hardware has evolved through several versions that feature

variations in memory capacity and peripheral-device support.

This block diagram depicts Models A, B, A+, and B+. Model A, A+, and the Pi Zero

lack the Ethernet and USB hub components. The Ethernet adapter is internally

connected to an additional USB port. In Model A, A+, and the Pi Zero, the USB port

is connected directly to the system on a chip (SoC). On the Pi 1 Model B+ and later

models the USB/Ethernet chip contains a five-point USB hub, of which four ports

are available, while the Pi 1 Model B only provides two. On the Pi Zero, the USB

port is also connected directly to the SoC, but it uses a micro USB (OTG) port

Processor

The Raspberry Pi 2 uses a 32-bit 900 MHz quad-core ARM Cortex-A7processor.

The Broadcom BCM2835 SoC used in the first generation Raspberry Pi is somewhat

equivalent to the chip used in first modern generationsmartphones (its CPU is an

older ARMv6 architecture),[19] which includes a 700 MHz ARM1176JZF-S

processor, VideoCore IV graphics processing unit (GPU),[20] and RAM. It has a level

1 (L1) cache of 16 KB and a level 2 (L2) cache of 128 KB. The level 2 cache is used

primarily by the GPU. The SoC is stacked underneath the RAM chip, so only its edge

is visible.

The earlier models of Raspberry Pi 2 use a Broadcom BCM2836 SoC with a 900 MHz

32-bit quad-core ARM Cortex-A7 processor, with 256 KB shared L2 cache.[21]. The

Raspberry Pi 2 V1.2 was upgraded to a Broadcom BCM2837 SoC with a 1.2 GHz 64-

bit quad-core ARM Cortex-A53 processor[22], the same SoC which is used on the

Raspberry Pi 3.

The Raspberry Pi 3 uses a Broadcom BCM2837 SoC with a 1.2 GHz 64-bit quad-core

ARM Cortex-A53 processor, with 512 KB shared L2 cache.[23]

Performance[edit]

The Raspberry Pi 3, with a quad-core Cortex-A53 processor, is described as 10 times

the performance of a Raspberry Pi 1.[23] This was suggested to be highly dependent

upon task threading and instruction set use. Benchmarks showed the Raspberry

Pi 3 to be approximately 80% faster than the Raspberry Pi 2 in parallelized tasks.[24]

Raspberry Pi 2 includes a quad-core Cortex-A7 CPU running at 900 MHz and 1 GB

RAM. It is described as 4–6 times more powerful than its predecessor. The GPU is

identical to the original.[21] In parallelized benchmarks, the Raspberry Pi 2 could be

up to 14 times faster than a Raspberry Pi 1 Model B+.[25]

While operating at 700 MHz by default, the first generation Raspberry Pi provided

a real-world performance roughly equivalent to 0.041 GFLOPS.[26][27] On

the CPU level the performance is similar to a 300 MHz Pentium II of 1997–99. The

GPU provides 1 Gpixel/s or 1.5 Gtexel/s of graphics processing or 24 GFLOPS of

general purpose computing performance. The graphical capabilities of the

Raspberry Pi are roughly equivalent to the performance of the Xbox of 2001.

The LINPACK single node compute benchmark results in a mean single precision

performance of 0.065 GFLOPS and a mean double precision performance of

0.041 GFLOPS for one Raspberry Pi Model-B board.[28] A cluster of 64 Raspberry Pi

Model B computers, labeled "Iridis-pi", achieved a LINPACK HPL suite result of

1.14 GFLOPS (n=10240) at 216 watts for c. US$4000.[28]

b) LM7805 voltage regulator

c)

d) Fig 4.2 a sample circuit of a power supply using 7805 voltage regulator

e) A regulated power supply is very much essential for several electronic

devices due to the semiconductor material employed in them have a fixed

rate of current as well as voltage. The device may get damaged if there is any

deviation from the fixed rate. The AC power supply gets converted into

constant DC by this circuit. By the help of a voltage regulator DC, unregulated

output will be fixed to a constant voltage. The circuit is made up of linear

voltage regulator 7805 along with capacitors and resistors with bridge

rectifier made up from diodes. From giving an unchanging voltage supply to

building confident that output reaches uninterrupted to the appliance, the

diodes along with capacitors handle elevated efficient signal conveyal.

f) Description:

g) As we have previously talked about that regulated power supply is a device

that mechanized on DC voltages and also it can uphold its output accurately
 at a fixed voltage all the time although if there is a significant alteration in

the DC input voltage.

h) ICs regulator is mainly used in the circuit to maintain the exact voltage which

is followed by the power supply. A regulator is mainly employed with the

capacitor connected in parallel to the input terminal and the output terminal

of the IC regulator. For the checking of gigantic alterations in the input as

well as in the output filter, capacitors are used. While the bypass capacitors

are used to check the small period spikes on the input and output level.

Bypass capacitors are mainly of small values that are used to bypass the small

period pulses straightly into the Earth.

i) A circuit diagram having regulator IC and all the above discussed components

arrangement revealed in the figure below.

j)

k) Fig 4.3 Regulated Power Supply Circuit

C1815 an NPN bipolar Transistors

Fig 4.5 Bipolar Transistor Basics

In the Diode tutorials we saw that simple diodes are made up from two pieces of

semiconductor material, either silicon or germanium to form a simple PN-junction

and we also learnt about their properties and characteristics. If we now join

together two individual signal diodes back-to-back, this will give us two PN-

junctions connected together in series that share a common P or N terminal. The

fusion of these two diodes produces a three layer, two junction, three terminal

device forming the basis of a Bipolar Junction Transistor, or BJT for short.

Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different semiconductor

materials that can act as either an insulator or a conductor by the application of a

small signal voltage. The transistor’s ability to change between these two states

enables it to have two basic functions: “switching” (digital electronics) or

“amplification” (analogue electronics). Then bipolar transistors have the ability to

operate within three different regions:

 Active Region – the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic = β.Ib

 Saturation – the transistor is “Fully-ON” operating as a switch and

Ic = I(saturation)

 Cut-off – the transistor is “Fully-OFF” operating as a switch and Ic = 0

Fig 4.6 A Typical Bipolar Transistor

The word Transistor is an acronym, and is a combination of the words Transfer

Varistor used to describe their mode of operation way back in their early days of

development. There are two basic types of bipolar transistor construction, PNP and

NPN, which basically describes the physical arrangement of the P-type and N-type

semiconductor materials from which they are made.

The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing

three connecting terminals with each terminal being given a name to identify it

from the other two. These three terminals are known and labelled as the Emitter (

E ), the Base ( B ) and the Collector ( C ) respectively.

Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of

current flowing through them in proportion to the amount of biasing voltage

applied to their base terminal acting like a current-controlled switch. The principle

of operation of the two transistor types PNP and NPN, is exactly the same the only

difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power supply for each type.
Bipolar Transistor Construction

The construction and circuit symbols for both the PNP and NPN bipolar transistor

are given above with the arrow in the circuit symbol always showing the direction

of “conventional current flow” between the base terminal and its emitter terminal.

The direction of the arrow always points from the positive P-type region to the
negative N-type region for both transistor types, exactly the same as for the

standard diode symbol.

Bipolar Transistor Configurations

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three

possible ways to connect it within an electronic circuit with one terminal being

common to both the input and output. Each method of connection responding

differently to its input signal within a circuit as the static characteristics of the

transistor vary with each circuit arrangement.

 Common Base Configuration – has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

 Common Emitter Configuration – has both Current and Voltage Gain.

 Common Collector Configuration – has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

The Common Base (CB) Configuration

As its name suggests, in the Common Base or grounded base configuration, the

BASE connection is common to both the input signal AND the output signal with

the input signal being applied between the base and the emitter terminals. The

corresponding output signal is taken from between the base and the collector
terminals as shown with the base terminal grounded or connected to a fixed

reference voltage point.

The input current flowing into the emitter is quite large as its the sum of both the

base current and collector current respectively therefore, the collector current

output is less than the emitter current input resulting in a current gain for this type

of circuit of “1” (unity) or less, in other words the common base configuration

“attenuates” the input signal.

The Common Base Transistor Circuit

This type of amplifier configuration is a non-inverting voltage amplifier circuit, in

that the signal voltages Vin and Vout are “in-phase”. This type of transistor

arrangement is not very common due to its unusually high voltage gain
characteristics. Its input characteristics represent that of a forward biased diode

while the output characteristics represent that of an illuminated photo-diode.

Also this type of bipolar transistor configuration has a high ratio of output to input

resistance or more importantly “load” resistance ( RL ) to “input” resistance ( Rin )

giving it a value of “Resistance Gain”. Then the voltage gain (Av) for a common base

configuration is therefore given as:

Common Base Voltage Gain

Where: Ic/Ie is the current gain, alpha (α) and RL/Rin is the resistance gain.

The common base circuit is generally only used in single stage amplifier circuits

such as microphone pre-amplifier or radio frequency (Rf) amplifiers due to its very

good high frequency response.

The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

In the Common Emitter or grounded emitter configuration, the input signal is

applied between the base and the emitter, while the output is taken from between
the collector and the emitter as shown. This type of configuration is the most

commonly used circuit for transistor based amplifiers and which represents the

“normal” method of bipolar transistor connection.

The common emitter amplifier configuration produces the highest current and

power gain of all the three bipolar transistor configurations. This is mainly because

the input impedance is LOW as it is connected to a forward biased PN-junction,

while the output impedance is HIGH as it is taken from a reverse biased PN-

junction.

The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

In this type of configuration, the current flowing out of the transistor must be equal

to the currents flowing into the transistor as the emitter current is given as

Ie = Ic + Ib.
As the load resistance (RL) is connected in series with the collector, the current gain

of the common emitter transistor configuration is quite large as it is the ratio of

Ic/Ib. A transistors current gain is given the Greek symbol of Beta, (β).

As the emitter current for a common emitter configuration is defined as Ie = Ic + Ib,

the ratio of Ic/Ie is called Alpha, given the Greek symbol of α. Note: that the value

of Alpha will always be less than unity.

Since the electrical relationship between these three currents, Ib, Ic and Ie is

determined by the physical construction of the transistor itself, any small change

in the base current ( Ib ), will result in a much larger change in the collector current

( Ic ).

Then, small changes in current flowing in the base will thus control the current in

the emitter-collector circuit. Typically, Beta has a value between 20 and 200 for

most general purpose transistors. So if a transistor has a Beta value of say 100, then

one electron will flow from the base terminal for every 100 electrons flowing

between the emitter-collector terminals.

By combining the expressions for both Alpha, α and Beta, β the mathematical

relationship between these parameters and therefore the current gain of the

transistor can be given as:

Where: “Ic” is the current flowing into the collector terminal, “Ib” is the current

flowing into the base terminal and “Ie” is the current flowing out of the emitter

terminal.

Then to summarize a little. This type of bipolar transistor configuration has a

greater input impedance, current and power gain than that of the common base

configuration but its voltage gain is much lower. The common emitter configuration

is an inverting amplifier circuit. This means that the resulting output signal is 180o

“out-of-phase” with the input voltage signal.

The Common Collector (CC) Configuration

In the Common Collector or grounded collector configuration, the collector is now

common through the supply. The input signal is connected directly to the base,

while the output is taken from the emitter load as shown. This type of configuration

is commonly known as a Voltage Follower or Emitter Follower circuit.

The common collector, or emitter follower configuration is very useful for

impedance matching applications because of the very high input impedance, in the

region of hundreds of thousands of Ohms while having a relatively low output

impedance.

The Common Collector Transistor Circuit

The common emitter configuration has a current gain approximately equal to the

β value of the transistor itself. In the common collector configuration the load

resistance is situated in series with the emitter so its current is equal to that of the

emitter current.

As the emitter current is the combination of the collector AND the base current

combined, the load resistance in this type of transistor configuration also has both

the collector current and the input current of the base flowing through it. Then the

current gain of the circuit is given as:

The Common Collector Current Gain

This type of bipolar transistor configuration is a non-inverting circuit in that the

signal voltages of Vin and Vout are “in-phase”. It has a voltage gain that is always
less than “1” (unity). The load resistance of the common collector transistor

receives both the base and collector currents giving a large current gain (as with

the common emitter configuration) therefore, providing good current

amplification with very little voltage gain.

We can now summarize the various relationships between the transistors

individual DC currents flowing through each leg and its DC current gains given

above in the following table.

Relationship between DC Currents and Gains

a. 10uf,100uf,1nf capacitor
Type Passive

Invented Ewald Georg von Kleist

Electronic symbol

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store electrical energy temporarily in an electric field. The

forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical

conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e. an insulator that can store energy

by becoming polarized). The conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of

metal or conductive electrolyte, etc. The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase

the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics include

glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum, paper, mica, and oxide layers. Capacitors

are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.

Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor

stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.

When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor

is attached across a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing

positive charge +Q to collect on one plate and negative charge −Q to collect on the

other plate. If a battery has been attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of

time, no current can flow through the capacitor. However, if a time-varying voltage

is applied across the leads of the capacitor, a displacement current can flow.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, its capacitance.

Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to

the potential difference V between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F),

which is equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range

from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to about 1 mF (10−3 F).

The larger the surface area of the "plates" (conductors) and the narrower the gap

between them, the greater the capacitance is. In practice, the dielectric between

the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field
strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads

introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while

allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the

output of power supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular

frequencies. In electric power transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and

power flow.[1]

b. Led

 Blue, green, and red LEDs in 5 mm

diffused case

Working principle Electroluminescence

 Oleg Losev (1927)[1]

Invented James R. Biard (1961)[2]

Nick Holonyak (1962)[3]

First production October 1962

Pin configuration Anode and cathode

Electronic symbol

Parts of an LED. Although unlabeled, the flat bottom surfaces of the anvil and post

embedded inside the epoxy act as anchors, to prevent the conductors from being

forcefully pulled out via mechanical strain or vibration.

A bulb-shaped modern retrofit LED lamp with aluminum heat sink, a light diffusing

dome and E27 screw base, using a built-in power supply working on mains voltage

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n

junction diode, which emits light when activated.[4]

When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine

with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This

effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to

the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the

semiconductor.

An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components

may be used to shape its radiation pattern.[5]

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962,[6] the earliest LEDs emitted

low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting
elements in remote-control circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide

variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low

intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across the visible,

ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small

incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form

of seven-segment displays, and were commonly seen in digital clocks.

Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task

lighting. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including

lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller

size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as

diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting,

traffic signals, camera flashes and lighted wallpaper. As of 2015, LEDs powerful

enough for room lighting remain somewhat more expensive, and require more

precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of

comparable output.

LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while

their high switching rates are also used in advanced communications technology.
e. Resistors

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements

electrical resistance as a circuit element. Resistors may be used to reduce

current flow, and, at the same time, may act to lower voltage levels within

circuits. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust

signal levels, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines among

other uses. High-power resistors, that can dissipate many watts of electrical

power as heat, may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution

systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that

only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable

resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a

lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical

activity.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits

and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete

components can be composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are

also implemented within integrated circuits.

 The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common

commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders

of magnitude. The nominal value of the resistance falls within the

manufacturing tolerance, indicated on the component.

A typical axial-lead resistor

Type Passive

Working principle Electric resistance

Electronic symbol

Two common schematic symbols

Axial-lead resistors on tape. The component is cut from the tape during

assembly and the part is inserted into the board.

Series and parallel resistors

The total resistance of resistors connected in series is the sum of their individual

resistance values.

The total resistance of resistors connected in parallel is the reciprocal of the sum

of the reciprocals of the individual resistors.

For example, a 10 ohm resistor connected in parallel with a 5 ohm resistor and

a 15 ohm resistor produces 1/1/10 + 1/5 + 1/15 ohms of resistance, or 30/11 =

2.727 ohms.

A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can

be broken up into smaller parts that are either one or the other. Some complex

networks of resistors cannot be resolved in this manner, requiring more

sophisticated circuit analysis. Generally, the Y-Δ transform, or matrix methods

can be used to solve such problems.[2][3][4]

Power dissipation

At any instant, the power P (watts) consumed by a resistor of resistance R

(ohms) is calculated as: where V (volts) is the voltage across the resistor and
 I (amps) is the current flowing through it. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms

can be derived. This power is converted into heat which must be dissipated by

the resistor's package before its temperature rises excessively.

Resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation. Discrete

resistors in solid-state electronic systems are typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4

watt. They usually absorb much less than a watt of electrical power and require

little attention to their power rating.

f. Vero board

Vero board is a brand of strip board, a pre-formed circuit board material of copper

strips on an insulating board which was originated and developed in the early 1960s

by the Electronics Department of Vero Precision Engineering Ltd (VPE). It was

introduced as a general-purpose material for use in constructing electronic circuits

- differing from purpose-designed printed circuit boards (PCBs) in that a variety of

electronic circuits may be constructed using a standard wiring board.

The first single-size Vero board product was the forerunner of the numerous types

of prototype wiring board which, with world-wide use over five decades, have

become known as Strip board.

The generic terms 'Vero board' and 'strip board' are now taken to be synonymous.

Vero board piece

Product Electronic component

Inventor Terry Fitzpatrick

Company Vero Electronics Ltd

Country UK

Availability 1960 - present

Current suppliers

Vero Technologies Ltd

http://www.verotl.com/

Pixel Print Ltd (N. America)

http://www.veroboard.com/

h. Soldering iron

A soldering iron is a hand tool used in soldering. It supplies heat to melt solder so

that it can flow into the joint between two work pieces.

A soldering iron is composed of a heated metal tip and an insulated handle. Heating

is often achieved electrically, by passing an electric current (supplied through an

electrical cord or battery cables) through a resistive heating element. Cordless irons

can be heated by combustion of gas stored in a small tank, often using a catalytic

heater rather than a flame. Simple irons less commonly used than in the past were

simply a large copper bit on a handle, heated in a flame.

Soldering irons are most often used for installation, repairs, and limited production

work in electronics assembly. High-volume production lines use other soldering

methods.[1] Large irons may be used for soldering joints in sheet metal objects. Less

common uses include pyrography (burning designs into wood) and plastic welding.

i. Soldering lead

Lead solder

Sn60Pb40 solder
Tin-lead (Sn-Pb) solders, also called soft solders, are commercially available with tin

concentrations between 5% and 70% by weight. The greater the tin concentration,

the greater the solder’s tensile and shear strengths. Alloys commonly used for

electrical soldering are 60/40 Sn-Pb, which melts at 188 °C (370 °F),[6] and 63/37 Sn-

Pb used principally in electrical/electronic work. 63/37 is a eutectic alloy of these

metals, which:

1. has the lowest melting point (183 °C or 361 °F) of all the tin-lead alloys; and

2. The melting point is truly a point — not a range.

In plumbing, a higher proportion of lead was used, commonly 50/50. This had the

advantage of making the alloy solidify more slowly. With the pipes being physically

fitted together before soldering, the solder could be wiped over the joint to ensure

water tightness. Although lead water pipes were displaced by copper when the

significance of lead poisoning began to be fully appreciated, lead solder was still

used until the 1980s because it was thought that the amount of lead that could

leach into water from the solder was negligible from a properly soldered joint. The

electrochemical couple of copper and lead promotes corrosion of the lead and tin.

Tin, however, is protected by insoluble oxide. Since even small amounts of lead

have been found detrimental to health,[7] lead in plumbing solder was replaced by
silver (food-grade applications) or antimony, with copper often added, and the

proportion of tin was increased (see Lead-free solder.)

The addition of tin—more expensive than lead—improves wetting properties of the

alloy; lead itself has poor wetting characteristics. High-tin tin-lead alloys have

limited use as the workability range can be provided by a cheaper high-lead alloy.[8]

In electronics, components on printed circuit boards (PCBs) are connected to the

printed circuit, and hence to other components, by soldered joints. For

miniaturized PCB joints with surface mount components, solder paste has largely

replaced solid solder.

Lead-tin solders readily dissolve gold plating and form brittle intermetallics.[9]

60/40 Sn-Pb solder oxidizes on the surface, forming a complex 4-layer structure:

tin(IV) oxide on the surface, below it a layer of tin(II) oxide with finely dispersed

lead, followed by a layer of tin(II) oxide with finely dispersed tin and lead, and the

solder alloy itself underneath.[10]

Lead, and to some degree tin, as used in solder contains small but significant

amounts of radioisotope impurities. Radioisotopes undergoing alpha decay are a

concern due to their tendency to cause soft errors. Polonium-210 is especially

problematic; lead-210 beta decays to bismuth-210 which then beta decays to

polonium-210, an intense emitter of alpha particles. Uranium-238 and thorium-232

are other significant contaminants of alloys of lead.[11][12]

h. Connecting copper wire

The definition of connecting wire is a piece of wire used to attach two circuits or

components together. The gauge or size of the wire must be large enough to

support the amount of current flow.

l) Transistors (Mosfet irfz44n)

MOSFET (metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor, pronounced MAWS-

fet) is a special type of field-effect transistor ( FET ) that works by electronically

varying the width of a channel along which charge carriers ( electron s or hole s)

flow. The wider the channel, the better the device conducts. The charge carriers

enter the channel at the source, and exit via the drain. The width of the channel is

controlled by the voltage on an electrode called the gate, which is located

physically between the source and the drain and is insulated from the channel by

an extremely thin layer of metal oxide.

There are two ways in which a MOSFET can function. The first is known as depletion

mode . When there is no voltage on the gate, the channel exhibits its maximum

conductance . As the voltage on the gate increases (either positively or negatively,

depending on whether the channel is made of P-type or N-type semiconductor

material), the channel conductivity decreases. The second way in which a MOSFET

can operate is called enhancement mode . When there is no voltage on the gate,

there is in effect no channel, and the device does not conduct. A channel is

produced by the application of a voltage to the gate. The greater the gate voltage,

the better the device conducts.

The MOSFET has certain advantages over the conventional junction FET, or JFET.

Because the gate is insulated electrically from the channel, no current flows

between the gate and the channel, no matter what the gate voltage (as long as it

does not become so great that it causes physical breakdown of the metallic oxide

layer). Thus, the MOSFET has practically infinite impedance . This makes MOSFETs

useful for power amplifiers. The devices are also well suited to high-speed

switching applications. Some integrated circuits (IC s) contain tiny MOSFETs and are

used in computers.
Because the oxide layer is so thin, the MOSFET is susceptible to permanent damage

by electrostatic charges. Even a small electrostatic buildup can destroy a MOSFET

permanently. In weak-signal radio-frequency (RF) work, MOSFET devices do not

generally perform as well as other types of FET.

IRFZ44N

The IRFZ44N is an n-channel enhancement mode power MOSFET manufactured by

International Rectifier Corporation, in a TO-220 package. It has a continuous drain

current of 49 A at 25 °C, and 35 A at 100 °C, making it an ideal component for

switched mode power supplies, and general switching applications. This MOSFET

has an operating temperature of 175 °C and therefore a heat sink is vital.

Pinout
The pin configuration is very simple as the package conforms to JEDEC TO-220AB

outline. The center pin is drain, the left pin is gate, the right pin is source, and the

metal tab is drain.

4.4 Circuit diagram of the project

4.5 Design test and error corrections

After the packaging some errors was discovered due to wrong packaging which

affected the voltage transmission to the receiver which but was corrected by

packing the panels to different location inside the adoptable box.

4.6 Final test

The final test was undergone for proper function and design usage.

CHAPTER FIVCE: SUMMARY

5.1 Summary of the project

The project is aimed to design and implement an over speed monitoring

system with alarms. After doing different tests and programming different

codes, eventually the obliged outcome is put forward. It is a fast and efficient

approach to control the devices. This equipment works anywhere with a great

gathering odd sign. At last the obliged result is attained

After the complete design of the system, the deviation between the expected result

and the actual result was very close. The performance and efficiency was beyond

expectation and from every ramification, the design of the project was a success.

5.2 recommendation

a. Avoid water spillage on the circuit diagram

b. Protect from dust particles

c. Provide a regulated power supply to avoid damaging the gsm

5.3 Problem encounter

During the course of the design of this system, there were series of problems which

came in the way of achieving the design goals of this project, most of them where

over come via share troubleshooting, in some cases some parts require redesigning

and the software debugging also created a bit of a problem.

One major setback of this project is the availability of components required to build

the hardware of the system. In most cases I had to look through electrical catalogs

to obtain replacements of some of the components which are not available in the

market.

The final packaging of the design was also another trouble, as this actually caused

problems on the circuit board. Such problems include partial contact within the

circuit board, between components and also with the wiring. This was actually one

of the most challenging aspects of the circuit implementation phase. Due to this

fact, there was a lot of soldering and de-soldering to ensure that the circuit was

well implemented.

5.4 Conclusion
Going through the planning, flow process, design and software implementation the

system had really been a tough one; but on the whole it has been a chance to show

case a little bit of craftsmanship.

Reference

1. Itseez leads the development of the renowned computer vision library

OpenCV.http://itseez.com

2. Jump up^ Pulli, Kari; Baksheev, Anatoly; Kornyakov, Kirill; Eruhimov, Victor (1

April 2012)."Realtime Computer Vision with OpenCV". Queue. pp. 40:40–

40:56.doi:10.1145/2181796.2206309.

3. Jump up^ https://github.com/opencv/opencv/wiki/Deep-Learning-in-

OpenCV

4. Jump up^ Adrian Kaehler; Gary Bradski (14 December 2016). Learning

OpenCV 3: Computer Vision in C++ with the OpenCV Library. O'Reilly Media.

pp. 26–. ISBN 978-1-4919-3800-3.

5. Jump up^ Bradski, Gary; Kaehler, Adrian (2008). Learning OpenCV: Computer

vision with the OpenCV library. O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 6.

6. Jump up^ OpenCV change

logs: http://code.opencv.org/projects/opencv/wiki/ChangeLog

7. Jump up^ OpenCV Developer Site: http://code.opencv.org

8. Jump up^ OpenCV User Site: http://opencv.org/

Appendices