Detailed Individual Report - Derui Zhu (Final Version)

DESIGN PROJECT INDIVIDUAL
REPORT KG1
Node 4
Name: Derui Zhu
ID: 1381993
Group: KG1
Node: 4
Deadline: 14.03.2017
Module: Design Project
Word Count: 28931 words
MARCH 14, 2017

THE UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM
ID: 1381993 Derui Zhu Detailed Individual Design Report
Contents
Executive Summary................................................................................................................................. 5
Nomenclature ......................................................................................................................................... 5
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 6
1.1. Background ............................................................................................................................. 6
1.2. Aims and Objectives ................................................................................................................ 7
2. Overall Processes ............................................................................................................................ 7
2.1. Storages and silos.................................................................................................................... 8
2.2. Ingredient Batching and Transportation ................................................................................. 8
2.3. Crumpet manufacturing processes ......................................................................................... 8
2.3.1. Crumpet Mixing .............................................................................................................. 8
2.3.2. Crumpet Proofing and depositing ................................................................................... 9
2.3.3. Crumpet Baking process ................................................................................................. 9
2.3.4. Crumpet Cooling process and packing process .............................................................. 9
2.4. Teacake manufacturing process ............................................................................................. 9
2.4.1. Teacake mixing process .................................................................................................. 9
2.4.2. Teacake divider, intermediate proofer and moulder ..................................................... 9
2.4.3. Teacake final proofer .................................................................................................... 10
2.4.4. Teacake Baking Process ................................................................................................ 10
2.4.5. Teacake Cooling process and packing process ............................................................. 10
2.5. Waste Treatment .................................................................................................................. 10
3. Revised Mass and Energy balance ................................................................................................ 11
3.1. Crumpet Hotplate Oven ........................................................................................................ 11
3.1.1. Mass balance................................................................................................................. 11
3.1.2. Energy balance by specific heat capacity ...................................................................... 11
3.2. Teacake Convection Oven ..................................................................................................... 12
3.2.1. Mass balance................................................................................................................. 12
3.2.2. Energy balance with specific heat capacity .................................................................. 13
3.3. Coolers .................................................................................................................................. 13
3.3.1. Mass Balance................................................................................................................. 13
3.4. Packaging Unit....................................................................................................................... 15
4. Main Design: Coolers .................................................................................................................... 15
4.1. Belt Conveyor ........................................................................................................................ 15
4.1.1. Conveyor belt ................................................................................................................ 15
4.1.2. Conveyor pulley ............................................................................................................ 17
4.2. Cooling fan ............................................................................................................................ 25
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4.2.1. Determination of wind speed ....................................................................................... 25

4.2.2. Determination of material for cooling fans .................................................................. 26
4.2.3. Position of the cooling fans........................................................................................... 26
4.3. Determination of the cooling time ....................................................................................... 26
4.3.1. Crumpet cooler ............................................................................................................. 26
4.3.2. Teacake cooler .............................................................................................................. 28
4.3.3. Effects of variations in the ambient temperature on the cooling times ...................... 29
4.4. Air Filtration .......................................................................................................................... 30
4.4.1. Types of filtration system.............................................................................................. 30
4.4.2. Material selection for the filtration system .................................................................. 31
4.4.3. Sizing of the filtration system ....................................................................................... 32
4.5. Insulation .............................................................................................................................. 32
4.5.1. Wall thickness ............................................................................................................... 32
4.6. Support for coolers ............................................................................................................... 33
5. Specifications for other units ........................................................................................................ 34
5.1. Hotplate Oven O401 ............................................................................................................. 34
5.1.1. Determination of the oven dimensions ........................................................................ 34
5.1.2. The selection of material for the hotplates .................................................................. 35
5.1.3. Conductive Heat Transfer ............................................................................................. 35
5.1.4. Heat loss from the hot plates........................................................................................ 36
5.1.5. Heating element for the hotplate ................................................................................. 37
5.1.6. Insulation....................................................................................................................... 38
5.1.7. Ventilation..................................................................................................................... 38
5.2. Jet impingement Oven .......................................................................................................... 39
5.2.1. Heat transfer by jet impingement oven........................................................................ 39
5.2.2. Dimensions of the convection oven.............................................................................. 41
5.2.3. The pressure required for the jet stream ..................................................................... 41
5.2.4. Energy requirement for heating air for jet impingement ............................................. 43
5.2.5. Burner for providing the hot air .................................................................................... 43
5.2.6. The selection of materials for orifices and the conveyor belt ...................................... 44
5.2.7. Insulation....................................................................................................................... 44
5.2.8. Ventilation for the jet impingement oven .................................................................... 45
5.3. Packaging Unit....................................................................................................................... 45
6. Pipeline Design .............................................................................................................................. 46
6.1. Pipeline Design for the stream S-157 from node 1 ............................................................... 46
7. Design of pump ............................................................................................................................. 48
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7.1. Design of the water pump for S-157 ..................................................................................... 48

7.2. Specifications for the air pump PU401, PU402 – PU409 ...................................................... 49
7.3. Consideration of the cavitation ............................................................................................ 49
8. Design of Control Valve................................................................................................................. 51
9. Cleaning procedures ..................................................................................................................... 52
10. Process Control System............................................................................................................. 53
10.1. Start-up and Shut-down procedures ................................................................................ 53
10.1.1. Hotplate oven ............................................................................................................... 53
10.1.2. Jet-impingement oven .................................................................................................. 54
10.1.3. Crumpet Cooler and Teacake Cooler ............................................................................ 54
10.2. Process Control System Philosophy .................................................................................. 54
10.3. Process Control Hierarchy ................................................................................................. 56
10.4. P&ID Implementation ....................................................................................................... 57
10.4.1. Hotplate Oven ............................................................................................................... 57
10.4.2. Convection Oven ........................................................................................................... 57
10.4.3. Heating vessel ............................................................................................................... 58
10.4.4. Crumpet Cooler and Teacake Cooler ............................................................................ 58
10.4.5. Crumpet Packaging Unit and Teacake Packaging Unit.................................................. 58
9. Cost Economics ............................................................................................................................. 58
9.1. Purchase Cost of Major Equipment ...................................................................................... 58
9.2. Fixed Capital Costs ................................................................................................................ 60
9.3. Running Costs........................................................................................................................ 61
10. Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 62
11. References ................................................................................................................................ 63
125. Appendices ................................................................................................................................ 75
125.1. Specification Sheets .......................................................................................................... 75
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Executive Summary
In the last 10 years, the increasing demand of the baked product has made one of the largest company
of baked products, Warburtons, undertake a new bakery plan in order to meet the increasing market
demand. Birmingham Food Consultancy has been tasked to build a bakery where can produce
320million crumpets and 69million teacakes a year by using an innovative method to realise the cost
efficient and high-quality production. By employed the electric hotplate oven and the jet impingement
oven, with the sophisticated process control system implemented in the process, the bakery could be
built with a minimal cost and successfully maintaining the safe working environment for the operators,
while producing the high-quality products.
This report is especially related to the design of cooling, baking and packing process with the detailed
designs of the crumpet cooler and the teacake cooler.
The moulded crumpet batters go into the hotplate oven heated up to 210°C, with this condition, the
baking time of crumpet could be 3 minutes. The flue gas generated during the baking process would
contain a high concentration of ethanol, this is going to be condensed with the condenser and will be
sent to the waste treatment centre built in the plant. Therefore, the environmental impacts by this
bakery can be minimised. The baked crumpets, then cooled from 80°C to 20°C by using the ambient
forced convection cooler, with the wind speed of 5ms-1. As a result, the cooling time for the crumpets
has been estimated as 5.56minutes. Packs of 4 crumpets are packed with the horizontal packaging
machine with the injection of nitrogen gas and carbon dioxide to enhance the shelf life of the products.
The dough pieces are conveyed to the jet impingement oven after the proofing process. The oven
sprays high velocity hot air at the temperature of 220°C by orifice nozzles onto the dough to
successfully increase the heat transfer coefficient up to 109.6Wm-2K-1, which realised the shorter
baking time of 3.06 minutes compared with the conventional convection oven. The baked teacakes
will then be moved to the teacake cooler, which uses 3ms-1 of wind speed to get 2.87minutes of the
cooling time. This enabled the bakery to produce 9664 teacakes per hour which can perfectly achieve
the required annual production rate of teacake.
The cost estimation conducted by Birmingham Food Consultancy, shows that the fixed capital cost of
this node is likely to be £6603652.2 and the total operating cost will be £2343752.5. Since the heat
integration across the plant has not been considered yet, which implies that the operating cost can be
reduced by a certain amount.
In conclusion, the design of this plant has been considered and has successfully achieved the high food
quality, the safety of the operation, the economic viability and the minimal environmental impacts.
The cost economic of this process can be massively improved by considering the solutions for heat
integration in the further studies.
Nomenclature
m: the mass of substance [kg]
Cp: the specific heat capacity[kJ/kgK]
ΔH: the latent heat[kJ/kg]
Fc: the total load on the conveyor belt [lbs]
σt: the maximum tube stress[psi]
FD: the diameter of the pulley[inch]
CD: the core diameter of the pulley [inch]
Ff: friction force [N]
µf: friction factor
g: gravity [9.81m/s2]
ρ: density[kg/m3]
vw: wind speed [ms-1]
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Aw: surface area of wind force interferes [m2]

Q(conv.): rate of convective heat transfer [W]
Q(rad.): rate of radiative heat transfer[W]
Q(cond.): rate of conductive heat transfer[W]
ΔT: the temperature difference [K]
h: the heat transfer coefficient [W/m2K]
T∞: the ambient temperature [K]
µ: dynamic viscosity [Pas]
k: thermal conductivity [W/mK]
Pr: Prandtl number
Re: Reynolds number
Ra Rayleigh number
ε: emissivity
ν: kinematic viscosity [m2/s]
Xr: thermal resistance [K/W]
U: U-value [W/m2K]
s: the thickness of the wall [m]
L: characteristic length [m]
Qi: rate of heat loss by insulation[W]
Hj: the distance between the nozzle and the surface of heat transfer [cm]
Dj: the diameter of nozzle exit [cm]
r: radius of the radial location [cm]
vj: jet velocity [m/s]
P: pressure[Pa]
ff: the friction factor
Δhp: the pressure head loss [m]
Pp: power of pump[W]
Pfs: the pressure at free surface [Pa]
Pv: vapour pressure [Pa]
η: the pump efficiency
Cv: the flow coefficient [gpm]
Cvr: the actual flow coefficient [gpm]
1. Introduction
1.1. Background
Baked products such as crumpets and teacakes have been important commodities for breakfast meal.
The report by Mintel group Ltd. (2014) shows that the UK retail value sales index of baked products is
Figure 1 UK retail value sales index of selected products. (Mintel group Ltd., 2014)
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clearly growing over the recent decade. This implies that the demand of the baked products will
increase as the customers become more confident in purchasing the baked goods.
Birmingham Food Consultancy (BFC) proposes a new bakery located in the brownfield site near
Lemington, with annual production rates of 320 million crumpets and 69 million teacakes. This bakery
will use innovative and efficient technology to produce the high-quality products with less capital and
running costs. Lowest environmental impacts and high standards of labour safety will be included in
the design of the bakery.
1.2. Aims and Objectives

Detailed designs of all units in the process, including piping, pumps, valves and fittings, are required
for construction of the bakery. Carefully consider the choice of material, sizing, heating and cooling
methods can maximise the efficiency of the bakery. This report will demonstrate the detailed designs
of the cooling process along with detailed specifications of baking process, packaging process, pumps,
valves, and pipings. These processes have great potential for affecting the product quality, thus, the
sophisticated design of a control system has to be presented in this report. Therefore, this report will
aim for presenting following points,
 Revised overall processes for the bakery, with brief description of each unit.
 Revised mass and energy balance on the selected node.
 Detailed design of the cooler in the cooling process.
 Specifications of all the units in the selected node, including pumps, valves and piping.
 The choice of materials used for the units in the selected node.
 The detailed description of the control system adapted in the selected node, with P&ID.
 Financial analysis of the units in the selected node.
 Summary of the processes in the node and future perspective based on the feasibility
evaluation.
2. Overall Processes
The diagram for the overall processes is shown on the next page. The whole process is designed aiming
for the required annual production rate of 320 million crumpets and 69 million teacakes. The brief
description of each unit will be presented on the next page.
The location chosen for this bakery is a brownfield near Leminton next to the River Tyne. It has good
transport link with the A1 road connection, also tax relief and financial incentives can be applied to
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the plant built on the brownfield. (HM Treasury, 2007) In the following subsections, the process at
each stage will be briefly described.
Figure 2 Simplified process flow diagram proposed by B.F.C.

2.1. Storages and silos
The solid raw material will be transported by lorry, sugar and salt will be conveyed to their silos
through the pneumatic conveying system. These ingredients do not need initial treatment before
the usage. Flour will be delivered daily and sugar, salt will be delivered weekly. Each flour delivery
will contain 33 tonnes, 9.4 tonnes for sugar and 3.4toones for salt. Ascorbic acid and calcium
propionate will be stored in the silo, which will be refilled by a bag dump., dusted raisons with flour
should be purchased to prevent sticking together. Fluid ingredients will also be delivered by lorry,
they are stored in storage tanks. Two storage tanks for yeast, one tank is for emulsifiers and another
tank is for vegetable oil. The yeast tank will be cooled and agitated in order to ensure no spoilage
will occur and the yeast will be pumped into the mixer, when it is demanded. The chemicals for CIP
process will be stored in tanks which have corrosion resistance.
2.2. Ingredient Batching and Transportation

The pneumatic conveying system will be used for transporting flour, salt and sugar into the mixer. A
cyclone system will be used for the solid-gas separation, the flour will enter one of two bins to be
dispensed by a screw feeder into the tweedy or planetary mixer. Flour will be conveyed by nitrogen
gas, this is used for avoid dust explosion. The nitrogen gas then will be recycled, cooled and filtered
to protect air pumps. Sugar and salt will be conveyed together with air. The separation of air and
solid will be done by the gravitational separator. A screw feeder will be used for conveying ascorbic
acid and calcium propionate into mixer. Metering conveyor belt will be used for conveying dried fruit
and feed into the mixer. The liquid ingredients will be fed into the mixer by metering pumps. The
local ventilation is installed around the area of the mixer, it is used for controlling the dust level and
prevents dust explosion. PLCs are used for the weighing and transporting throughout this process.s
2.3. Crumpet manufacturing processes

2.3.1. Crumpet Mixing
The ingredients from the silos will be fed into the planetary mixer through the pipe. Then, they will be
mixed for 5minutes at the temperature of 31°C. The pressure inside of the mixer will be 1bar. The
mixed batter then will be discharged from the mixer by the ball valve directly into the fermentation
tanks.
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2.3.2. Crumpet Proofing and depositing

In the fermentation process, the batter will be allowed to ferment for 30 minutes with gentle stirring.
This will allow the temperature in the mixer distributed more evenly. Since there would be a high
demand for the crumpet batter in order to meet the annual production rate, 8 fermentation tanks will
be used for this process. The batter inside of the tank should be kept at 35°C and 1 bar. The fermented
batter will then be carried onto the storage tank, where temporarily store the batter.
The batter in the storage tank will be discharged by the depositors into the moulders. Moulded batters
will then be moved onto the baking process.
2.3.3. Crumpet Baking process

After the crumpet batters are moulded, a row of 12 crumpet batters will be sent to the hotplate oven
for baking. The hotplate oven is powered by electricity, the heating element for the oven is specified
as nichrome. The surface temperature of the hotplates is kept at 210°C, which would heat the batter
up to 80°C during the baking. The nickel alloy called hastelloy C22 has been chosen for the material of
the hot plates, because it is widely accepted by the food industry and it has good resistances of high
temperature and the corrosion. The baking time for the crumpet is determined as 3 minutes. To meet
the production rate, the oven should have the capacity of 2241 crumpets. Baked crumpets will then
be moved onto the next cooling stage.
2.3.4. Crumpet Cooling process and packing process

Crumpets should be cooled down in this section, before moves to the packing process. The
temperature of the baked crumpet is 80°C and by blowing the ambient air onto the products with
cooling fans, the crumpets can be cooled down to 20°C in 5.85 minutes. The wind speed is set as 5ms-
1
.
The cooled crumpet products will be packed with the vertical packaging machine. In order to inhabit
the yeast inside of the product, nitrogen and carbon dioxide should be injected into the packs. The
material of the pack, therefore, should have a good gas barrier to prevent gases escaping from the
packs. The appropriate material for packing the crumpet is then determined as EVOH laminated
polyethylene. The packing unit for crumpets would need to have the packing speed of 187 packsmin-
1
.
2.4. Teacake manufacturing process

2.4.1. Teacake mixing process
The ingredients from the silos and storages will be fed into the tweedy mixer, and they will be mixed
forcefully for a duration of 3 minutes. The temperature inside of the mixer should be 31°C and the
pressure is at 1bar. Since the dough is extremely viscous, which is impossible to be piped, thus, the
mixer will be tilted and drop the dough into the divider.
2.4.2. Teacake divider, intermediate proofer and moulder

The dough dropped from the tweedy mixer will be divided by the divide drum into 9664 pieces per
hour. The flour will be dusted at same time to reduce the stickiness of the dough. Then, the doughs
will be discharged into a row of 4 on the conveyor belt. The weight checker is installed for controlling
the weight of one piece of dough at 71.8g and a mechanical sweep arm can reject the doughs do not
meet the required conditions.
The divided doughs will then move onto the intermediate proofer, where the doughs will allow to
rest for 5 minutes at 31°C with the relative humidity of 85%. The resting time can prevent the
doughs from overworking, which will make dough sticky and affect the final product quality. This
intermediate proofer has 202 racks and can hold a row of 4 dough pieces. The racks will be conveyed
up and down the proofer before discharged out.
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The proofed dough will travelled to the moulder where the dough will be moulded in rows of 4.
2.4.3. Teacake final proofer

The final proofing process of the dough will allow it to be heated from 31°C to 35°C by the heated air
to promote the fermentation of the yeast. The relative humidity is maintained at 85% and the
temperature should be at 37.5°C. This chamber consists of a double spiral conveyor, which will hold
the dough for 30 minutes with the conveyor speed of 0.1ms-1. The air will be heated by the electric
plates and the humidity will be increased by the ultrasound humidifier.
The water used for the ultrasound humidifier should be demineralised, the reverse osmosis unit will
be used for this process. In total, 95.5kg of demineralised water can be produced. The demineralised
water then will be stored in a 500 litres polyethylene tank, and the water will be discharged when it
is needed.
2.4.4. Teacake Baking Process

A row of four teacake doughs will be sent to the jet impingement oven, once the doughs are proofed.
Baking the doughs will use the hot air at 220°C sprayed with the orifice nozzles installed onto the jet
impingement oven. During the baking process, the temperature of the dough can reach up to 80°C.
There are 484 orifice nozzles in the oven to provide even heat distribution. The hot air is supplied by
the gas heater installed in the heating vessel. The hot air will be sprayed at 10ms-1 in the oven. This jet
impingement oven can make the heat transfer coefficient higher than the conventional convection
oven, which can reduce the baking time of teacake down to 3.06minutes. From the baking time, the
capacity of the jet impingement oven is determined 493 teacakes.
2.4.5. Teacake Cooling process and packing process

Baked teacakes will be sent to the cooling process, the process will cool the teacakes from 80°C to
20°C. The cooler for the teacakes will be using the polyester conveyor belt with 116 fans installed.
This will allow to use ambient air for the cooling process, the ambient temperature in this room is
assumed at 20°C and the default wind speed is set at 3ms-1. Conducting the calculations of heat
transfer, the cooling time for the teacakes is estimated as 2.58 minutes.
The cooled products will then be packed by the horizontal packing machine with the injections of
nitrogen and carbon dioxide, in order to inhabit the yeast to increase the shelf life of the product.
Therefore, the same material as crumpet pack is used for the teacake packs. The packing machine will
produce packs of 4 teacakes, so that the machine should pack 41 packsmin-1.
2.5. Waste Treatment

The final section in the bakery is the waste treatment centre. The section has different units so that
the treated water can be used for moistening the crops on the ground. The first stage of the waste
treatment is the flow stabilisation. The neutralisation vessel will ensure that the flowrate of the
effluent is constant. The flowrate leaving the vessel is 0.046m3s-1 and once the effluent leaves the
vessel, the flow will be neutralised to pH 7-7.5 by using the caustic soda. After the neutralised stage,
the effluent will go to the pre-treatment where the flow will be passed through the fine filters that
could remove the chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD) and the total
suspended solids (TSS) from the stream. After this process, the effluent flows to the anaerobic
digester, this will use COD to produce biogas, which can be used for electricity generation. The
primary sedimentation vessel is followed by the anaerobic digester. In this section, 58% of the TSS
will be removed from the waste and effluent will move into the secondary treatment unit. This unit
is membrane bioreactor (MBR). It uses aerobic bacteria to break down the organic matter to let the
waste filtered out by the ultrafiltration. The temperature in the MBR is at 25°C, since it is the
10
optimum temperature for mesophilic bacteria. The final stage in the waste treatment is using the
chlorine to kill the bacteria in the water, which will leave a 0.5mgL-1 of chlorine in the water. Once
this process is done, the water can be released to the environment.
3. Revised Mass and Energy balance

3.1. Crumpet Hotplate Oven
3.1.1. Mass balance
In the baking process, mass transfer would be occurred, such as water evaporation, ethanol
evaporation and CO2 diffusion. It is driven by the high temperature, which leads water vapour, and
other gases to be transferred through pores in the batter to the further environment outside of the
batter. (Gülüm, 2008)
The water loss during the 3 minutes baking process will be estimated by using the ratio of 3.7g of
water loss per 100g of batter for 180 seconds baking time, which is stated on the report by Pyle
(2005), who measured the actual fraction of water loss through the experiment.
Kulp and Lorenz (2003) state that the 80% of CO2 retained in the batter will evaporate during the
baking process. Since the temperature of the product can reach 80°C (Cauvain and Young, 2007) which
is beyond the boiling point of ethanol, 78.2°C, all of it will evaporate from the batter after the baking
process.
Therefore, the refined and revised mass balance of hotplate oven is shown below,
Table 1 Revised Mass Balance of Hotplate Oven
Stream 12 13 14
Temperature (°C) 35 80 80
Ingredient Mass (kg) Composition (wt%) Mass (kg) Composition (wt%) Mass (kg) Composition (wt%)
Yeast 0 0 0 0 0 0
Water 0 0 0 0 100.2 75%
Salt 0 0 0 0 0 0
Flour 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sugar 0 0 0 0 0 0
Batter 2709 99% 0 0 0 0
Crumpet 0 0 2612.4 100% 0 0
Waste 0 0 0 0 0 0
Carbon dioxide 18 1% 0 0 14.4 11%
Ethanol 19 1% 0 0 19 14%
Ascorbic acid 0 0 0 0 0 0
Calcium Propionate 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 2746 100% 2612.4 100% 133.6 100%
Mass in 2746
Mass out 2746
3.1.2. Energy balance by specific heat capacity
The specific heat capacity for each ingredient is assumed constant with temperature changes. The
crumpet batter will be poured into moulders and transferred to the oven at 35°C, since the proofing
process will heat the batter to the optimum temperature for the activity of yeast. According to Cauvain
and Young (2007), the temperature of the product in the baking oven can reach 80°C. Therefore, the
energy balance will be conducted with this assumption.
The specific heat capacity for each component is shown below,
Table 2 Specific heat capacity for crumpet ingredients

Ingredient Specific heat capacity (kJkg-1K-1)
Crumpet Batter 3.65 (Pyle, 2005)
Carbon Dioxide 0.871 (The Engineering ToolBox, 2017)
Ethanol (liquid) 2.72 (The Engineering ToolBox, 2017)
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Ethanol (vapour) 1.54 (Global Digital Central, 2010)

Since the water and ethanol will evaporate, the latent heat for both substances has to be included.
Ingredient Latent Heat of Evaporation (kJkg-1)
Water 2257 (The Engineering ToolBox, 2017)
Ethanol 846 (The Engineering ToolBox, 2017)
The heat required for baking crumpets is calculated by the equations below,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 = 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 + 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 … … (1)
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 ×𝐶𝑝 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 ×(80°𝐶 − 35°𝐶) + 𝑚𝐶𝑂2 ×𝐶𝑝𝐶𝑂2 ×(80°𝐶 − 35°𝐶)
+ 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 ×𝐶𝑝 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 ×(78.2°𝐶 − 35°𝐶) + 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 ×𝐶𝑝 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 ×(80°𝐶
𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟
− 78.2°𝐶)
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 ×∆𝐻𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 + 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 ×∆𝐻𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡
Ingredient Temperature Change Sensible Heat (kJ)
Crumpet Batter 35°C – 80°C 444953
Carbon Dioxide 35°C – 80°C 705.51
Ethanol 35°C – 80°C 2285.2
Ingredient Latent Heat of Evaporation (kJ)
Water 226151.4
Ethanol 16074
Total Heat (MJ) 690.2
Therefore, the total energy required for producing the required production rate of the crumpet is
690.2MJ per hour. This means that 4.28W of power output is required for baking one crumpet.
3.2. Teacake Convection Oven

3.2.1. Mass balance
According to Cauvain and Young (2007), the mass of water equivalent to 6.8% of mass of dough will
evaporate during the baking process, and 39% of CO2 will escape from the dough. The temperature of
the dough is at 35°C when entering the oven, assuming that there is no heat loss from the doughs
when they are conveyed from the proofer. Then the dough will be heated up to 80°C during the baking
process. (Cauvain and Young, 2007) All the ethanol is assumed to be evaporated in the baking process.
12
The revised mass balance across the convection oven for teacakes will be shown below,
Table 3 The mass balance of the teacake oven
Dough in stream Teacake out stream Exhaust Stream
Stream 32 33 34
Yeast 0 0 0 0 0 0
Water 0 0 0 0 46.3 84%
Salt 0 0 0 0 0 0
Flour 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sugar 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dried Fruit 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dough 681.4 98% 0 0 0 0
Teacake 0 0 638.8752 100% 0 0
Waste 0 0 0 0 0 0
Carbon dioxide 6.3017 1% 0 0 2.457663 4%
Ethanol 6.5881 1% 0 0 6.5881 12%
Ascorbic acid 0 0 0 0 0 0
Calcium Propionate 0 0 0 0 0 0
Vegetable Oil 0 0 0 0 0 0
Emulsifier 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 694.2537 100% 638.8752 100% 55.37851 100%
Mass in 694.2537
Mass out 694.2537
3.2.2. Energy balance with specific heat capacity
The energy required for baking 678.3kgh-1 of the teacake dough is calculated with the same method
as the energy balance of hotplate oven.
For the specific heat capacity of teacake dough is assumed to be 2.73kJkg-1K-1. (Matuda et al., 2006)
Based on the information presented in the section 3.1.2, the sensible heat and the latent heat can be
calculated.
Ingredient Temperature Change Sensible Heat (kJ)

Teacake Dough 35°C – 80°C 83329.2
Carbon Dioxide 35°C – 80°C 235.2
Ethanol 35°C – 80°C 841.9
Ingredient Latent Heat of Evaporation (kJ)
Water 104047.7
Ethanol 5922
Total Heat (MJ) 194.4
Thus, the total energy required for baking the teacakes is 194.4MJ per hour. This means that 20.11kJ
of energy is needed for baking one teacake. The baking time of teacake will be affected by the choice
of baking methods. The jet impingement oven is introduced to the process, because the baking time
can be much shorter than the ordinary convection oven. The calculations of baking time and the
dimensions of oven would be mentioned in detail in later section.
3.3. Coolers
3.3.1. Mass Balance
The revised and refined mass balance of the cooler is conducted based on the assumption that all the
energy released from crumpet in the cooling process is used for evaporation of moisture content.
3.3.1.1. Crumpet Cooler

By calculating the mass balance of the crumpet cooler, the specific heat capacity of crumpet has been
assumed slightly higher than the specific capacity of bread dough, 2.12kJkg-1K-1. (Rahman, 2009)
13
The crumpets will be cooled from 80°C to 20°C, which means that 294.7MJhr-1 of heat will be used for
evaporating water. Therefore, total water loss in the cooling process is 130.6kghr-1.
Table 4 Revised Mass Balance for the crumpet cooler
Cooler input Cooler output Exhaust Stream
Stream 13 15 16
Yeast 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Water 0 0% 0 0% 130.6 100%
Salt 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Flour 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Sugar 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Batter 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Crumpet 2612.4 100% 2481.8 100% 0 0%
Waste 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Carbon dioxide 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Ethanol 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Ascorbic acid 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Calcium Propionate 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Total 2612.4 100% 2481.8 100% 130.6 100%
Mass in 2612.4
Mass out 2612.4
In order to meet the required production rate, 44818 crumpets have to be manufactured in an hour.
From the total mass of the crumpets, the weight of each crumpet is calculated to be 55g. This is the
same weight as Warburtons crumpet, so that it can be said that the quality of the crumpet is good
enough.
3.3.1.2. Teacake Cooler

Same as the crumpet cooler, assuming all the energy released by the cooling process is used for
evaporating the moisture content, and for the specific heat capacity of teacakes is used the same value
as the bread dough, 1.88kJkg-1K-1. (Rahman, 2009) As the table below shows that 31.5kghr-1 of water
is lost during the cooling process, which is evaporated with 71.2MJhr-1 of heat.
Table 5 The mass balance of the teacake cooler
Teacakes in stream Teacakes out stream Exhaust Stream
Stream 32 33 34
Yeast 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Water 0 0% 0 0% 31.9 100%
Salt 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Flour 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Sugar 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Dried Fruit 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Dough 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Teacake 638.9 100% 606.9 100% 0 0%
Waste 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Carbon dioxide 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Ethanol 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Ascorbic acid 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Calcium Propionate 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Vegetable Oil 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Emulsifier 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Total 638.9 100% 606.9 100% 31.9 100%
Mass in 638.9
Mass out 638.9
9664 teacakes should be manufactured in an hour to meet the required production rate. Therefore,
from the total mass of the teacakes, the weight of each teacake can be determined as 62.8g. The
14
weight of Warburtons teacake has 62.5g, which is very similar to the weight of the teacakes produced
in this bakery. Therefore, the required food quality is achieved.
3.4. Packaging Unit

The composition of gas used for packaging unit is 40% of nitrogen and 60% of carbon dioxide. (Paine,
1993) The volume of gas has to be at least 1.5 times the volume of the packaging bag. (BOSCH, 2014)
With 2cm height, 8cm of diameter for each crumpet, given extra volume, the volume of the packaging
bag for 4 crumpets is determined to be 0.765 litres. Teacakes has 6cm of height and 10cm of diameter,
with the extra volume, the volume of the packaging bag is decided to be 1.43 litres.
Table 6 Revised mass balance for teacake packaging Table 7 Revised mass balance for crumpet packaging
Stream 15 40 Stream 15 40
Temperature (°C) 80 20 Temperature (°C) 80 20
Ingredient Mass (kg) Composition (wt%) Mass (kg) Composition (wt%) Ingredient Mass (kg) Composition (wt%) Mass (kg) Composition (wt%)
Teacake 606.9 100% 0 0% Crumpet 2465.0 100% 0 0%
Nitrogen 0 0% 2.609714 30% Nitrogen 0 0% 6.428602 30%
Carbon dioxide 0 0% 6.151469 70% Carbon dioxide 0 0% 15.15313 70%
Total 606.9 100% 8.761184 100% Total 2465.0 100% 21.58173 100%
4. Main Design: Coolers

Both products, crumpets and teacakes will be cooled by the ambient air coolers. They are consisting
of two main parts, a straight conveyor and fans, these fans are installed on the one side of the cooler
to provide a horizontal airflow causing the forced convection heat transfer on the products to cool
them down. Following sections would demonstrate the methods of determination of the
specifications of the coolers.
4.1. Belt Conveyor

4.1.1. Conveyor belt
4.1.1.1. Determination of material
By choosing the materials for conveyor belt, the characteristics listed below should be carefully
considered. (US Food and Drug Administration, 2015)
 Safe
 Durable and non-absorbent
 Able to withstand the repeated process
 Surface is smooth enough for ease cleaning
 Have a resistant with various damages.
Under these conditions, the material chosen for the conveyor belt is polyester. The polyester
conveyor belt has a wide range of working temperature, +150°C to -75°C, (Techbelt, 2015) while
having a good durability in the wet environment. (Techbelt, 2015) Polyester also has very good
resistances against various corrosive substances, such as alkaline, acids and ozone. (Partington and
Moerman, 2014) Moreover, the cleaning process for this kind of polyester would be easy because of
the smooth belt surface. (MISUMI, 2017) The polyester conveyor is also much lighter than other
materials, such as steel.
Meshed belt should be more suitable for the cooler since the cooling process involves evaporative
cooling which generates an amount of steam, which could likely condensate. By using the meshed
belt, this condensate can be easily drained
4.1.1.2. Dimension and speed of the conveyor belt in the crumpet cooler
The crumpets entering the cooler from the oven with the number of 12 crumpets in one row. This
number is coming from the number of nozzles on the depositor. From the number of crumpets
15
produced in the same time length of the cooling time, the capacity of the cooler can be estimated. It
can be calculated by the equation below,
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 44818 ÷ 60×5.55 = 4145.7 … … (2)
By rounding up, the total number should fit in the cooler is 4146. From this number, the total
number of columns in the cooler can be estimated, since 12 crumpets are aligned in one row.
Therefore, the number of columns in the cooler should be 346. The diameter of the crumpet is 8cm,
and there should be gaps amongst crumpets, which is assumed 3cm. From these figures, the total
length of the conveyor belt is 38.1m, and the width of the belt is 1.35m. From the length of the
cooler and the cooling time, the speed of the belt can also be determined by using the equation
below,
𝐵𝑒𝑙𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑦𝑜𝑟 ÷ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 … … (3)

The belt speed for the crumpet cooler is 0.1ms-1. The determination of the cooling time will be
explained in detailed in the section 4.3.
4.1.1.3. Dimension and speed of the conveyor belt in the teacake cooler
The teacakes entering the cooler from oven should be consisted of a row of four. In order to let the
number of teacakes produced in the same length of time as the cooling time fit in the cooler, the
number of teacakes in the cooler can be calculated from the production rate of teacakes.
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 9664 ÷ 60×2.87 = 462.3 … … (4)
Rounding up the answer obtained from the equation (4), the capacity of the cooler of 463 teacakes
is determined. Since 4 teacakes are aligned per row in the cooler, the total number of columns can
be decided. The number of columns in the cooler is 116.
Due to the volume expansion on the teacakes during the baking process, the gaps between the two
teacakes on the cooler should be shorter than when they are in the oven, which is 5cm. The
diameter of the teacake is assumed 10cm, and then the length and the width of the conveyor belt in
the teacake cooler can be obtained. The total length of the conveyor belt is 17.45m, and the width
of the conveyor belt is 0.65m. The belt speed is determined from the cooling time and the length of
belt, which is 0.1ms-1, using the same calculation as the equation (3) above. The cooling time will be
discussed in detail in the section 4.3.
4.1.1.4. The power requirement for conveyors of the crumpet cooler and the teacake cooler
The power consumption of the conveyor can be calculated by the equation provided by RULMECA
(2017). The equation will be shown below,
𝐶𝑓𝑟 𝑓𝐿
Pcb = ×(3.6×𝐺𝑚 ×𝑣 + 𝑄𝑡 ) … … (5)(𝑅𝑈𝐿𝑀𝐸𝐶𝐴, 2017)
367
The 𝑓 is determined in the document by RULMECA, which is 0.025. The friction resistance in belts
and bearing can be estimated by the distance between the conveyor pulleys.
16
For the crumpet cooler, the Cfr is 2.4 and for the teacake cooler, the Cfr is 3.6. (RULMECA,2017) Gm is
determined by the belt width, thus the Gm for the crumpet cooler is 85 and Gm for the teacake cooler
is 40. Substituting the given parameters into the equation (5), the power requirement for the
conveyor of the crumpet cooler is 0.21kW and the power for the teacake cooler conveyor is
0.064kW.
Table 9 Table for determining the friction resistance, C (RULMECA, 2017)
4.1.2. Conveyor pulley

Table 8 Table for determining the Gm (RULMECA, 2017)
Figure 3 The explanations of the terms used in the conveyor pulley section (ProCal Inc., 2014)
Choosing an appropriate conveyor pulley is crucial for the belt conveyor, because it can ensure that
the belt conveyor has a proper power to transport food in the bakery. According to the guideline
provided by ProCal Inc. (2014), in order to choose an appropriate pulley, the face length (width) of
the pulley has to be determined firstly. The terminologies appear in the following sections will be
explained in the figure above.
17
4.1.2.1. The face length of the conveyor pulley

The face length of the conveyor pulley is decided by the width of the conveyor belt. It is said on the
guideline of the conveyor pulley that the width of the pulley has to be greater than that of conveyor
belt by at least 5cm (2inch). (ProCal Inc., 2014) From this condition, the width of the conveyor pulley
for crumpet cooler can be determined to be 1.4m and the face length of the conveyor pulley for
teacake cooler should be 0.7m.
4.1.2.2. Expected belt tension

The overall weight load of the products on the conveyor belt is one of the major resistant force for
the forward motion of the belt. Additional belt tension force is produced from the load on the
conveyor belt. The amount of the tension on the belt is depending on the dimensions and weight of
the products conveyed. The conditions on the variation of the friction coefficients is also necessary.
There is also a belt tension produced by the load of the conveyor belt in the returning section of the
belt conveyor, which is called “Catenary Load”. The intensity of the belt tension is depending on the
level of belt sag existing in the returning section. Therefore, the return rollers have to be placed in
the returning section to support the belt from excessive sagging to reduce the amount of belt
tension caused by catenary load. The return rollers should be spaced by a certain interval so that no
excessive sagging would occur between each roller. (ProCal Inc., 2014) The following figure shows
the catenary load and the return rollers to support it.
Figure 4 Catenary load and the return rollers (ProCal Inc, 2014)
4.1.2.3. Finish diameter of the pulley and the diameter of the shaft
Choosing a wrong size of the pulley and the shaft would increase the potential for one of the most
common failures on the belt conveyor, “the shaft deflection”. This failure is mainly cause by the
improper selection of the shaft diameter and used an undersized shaft for the demanded load. The
excessive shaft deflection would then be a main contributor for the failure of the pulley, end disk
fatigue.
Figure 5 The excessive shaft deflection caused by an undersized shaft. (ProCal Inc., 2014)
Because of the reasons stated above, use an appropriately sized shaft is vital in the belt conveyor
design. However, using a material with stronger characteristics would not essentially solve the
deflection problem for the shaft. This is because the tendency of the deflection of a material is
determined by the modulus of elasticity, and this property does not change across the steel with
different grades. Therefore, increase the diameter of the shaft would be a solution for deforming the
18
shaft. The Conveyor Equipment Manufacturer Association (2016) claims that the shaft of the
conveyor pulley needs to be designed with a maximum bending stress of 55.16MPa.
The maximum allowance of load on the belt conveyor, based on the maximum shaft stress of
8000psi (55.16MPa), can be calculated by using the equation below,
1000𝜋𝐷𝑠3
𝐹c = … … (6)(𝑃𝑟𝑜𝐶𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑐. , 2014)
(𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ) + 4𝐷𝑠 − (𝐻𝑢𝑏 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒)
From the equation (6), the diameter of the shaft can be estimated, where the hub centre is assumed
as same as the width of the belt.
The equation (6) is based on the imperial unit, the following calculations is in imperial units, but the
results will be converted to metric units.
For the crumpet cooler, the total load of the products will be estimated based on the production
rate and the cooling time. The total load of the conveyed products for crumpet cooler would be
240kg, 529.1lbs. The face length is calculated in the earlier section, which is 1.4m, 55.12inch. Hub
centre has already been assumed as the width of conveyor belt, 1.35m, 53.15inch. The diameter of
the pulley shaft for the crumpet cooler can be estimated 1.002inch, which is 2.55cm.
For the teacake cooler, the total load of the conveyed products based on the production rate with
the cooling time is 29kg, 63.9lbs. The face length of the teacake conveyor belt is 0.7m, 27.56inch.
Same as the previous section, the hub centre is assumed the same length of the conveyor belt,
0.65m, 25.59inch. Therefore, by using the equation (6), the diameter for the shaft of the teacake
cooler can be decided. The diameter of the pulley shaft for the teacake cooler belt conveyor is
0.42inch, 1.07cm.
For the finish diameter of the pulley, it can be calculated from the point load. The equation is shown
below,
8×𝐹𝐷×𝐹×(𝐻𝑢𝑏 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒)
𝜎𝑡 = … … (7)(𝑃𝑟𝑜𝐶𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑐. , 2014)
𝜋(𝐹𝐷 4 − 𝐶𝐷 4 )
Where σt is the maximum tube stress, which is designed to withstand 68.95MPa (10000 psi) of stress
for a drum conveyor pulley, recommended by the Conveyor Equipment Manufacturers Association
(2016) The core diameter is the diameter without the length of twice as much as the wall width.
Since the wall thickness has to be measured from the experimental attempts, it is assumed from a
real conveyor pulley product, which is 8mm for the crumpet cooler and 4mm for the teacake
cooler. (Canning Conveyor, 2006) Then, the finish diameter of the conveyor pulleys for crumpet
cooler and teacake cooler can be estimated. For the crumpet cooler, the total load is 529.1lbs and
the hub centre is 51.18inch. Then is the core diameter can be described as ((finish diameter)-0.628)
inch. Using the parameters obtained and the equation (7), the finish diameter of the pulley for
crumpet cooler is 2.116inch, 5.37cm.
The total load for the teacake cooler is 59.3lbs and the hub centre for the pulley is 41.7inch, so that
the finish diameter is 0.862inch, 2.19cm.
4.1.2.4. Choice of the hub connection

Hub is the place where the pulley attaches to the shaft, holding the shaft to be able to drive the belt.
There are many different types of hub connection; each type has its positive aspects and negative
aspects. Considerations have to be taken into the hub connection method, when designing a
conveyor system. In this section, the factors that have to be taken into account when choosing the
proper hub connection mechanism will be introduced. The explanations of advantages and
disadvantages of each type will be covered in the following section.
19
By choosing the appropriate hub connection, following variables have to be carefully discussed,
System Load – Evaluate how much products loaded on the conveyor and choose a suitable hub
design for its load.
Ease of maintenance – Think about the design of the hub connection to evaluate the ease of
maintenance, as some of the hub connection types would have mechanisms to make parts difficult
to be replaced, which might result in the increase of the maintenance costs.
The location of pulley – Depending where the pulley will be placed, the load will be much different,
thus, the hub connection will need to change, in order to get the optimum performance and cost
estimations.
Cost – It is clear that each hub connection has different structures, which would have a variation of
cost for the hub connections.
Effects of pre-stress – When the compression style hub is installed on the shaft, a certain amount of
stress will be applied onto the shaft as the bolts are tightened. This amount of stress is usually
absorbed by the shaft with a proper installation. However, the pre-stressing might exceed the
acceptable range for the shaft, and leads to the deflection or deformation of the shaft and end up
moving the end disk outwards. This will result in failures on the shaft and the pulley, with the worst
case the shaft would not be able to move within the bushing. Therefore, choosing a suitable shaft
with an appropriate hub connection would be necessary for avoiding overly pre-stressed shaft.
The advantages and disadvantages of each type of hub connection will be explained with following
table.
Figure 6 Effects of pre-stress on the end disk (ProCal Inc., 2014)

Table 10 The advantages and disadvantages of each hub connection styles (ProCal Inc., 2014)
Type Advantages Disadvantages Actual figure

Fixed Bore End Plates This type is the cheapest Only acceptable to use
and easy to install. for light weight load.
The shaft is difficult to
replace.
Fixed Stub Shafts Ideal for the small Parts are not
diameter pulleys. replaceable. (High
(shorter than 30cm) maintenance costs)
Good tolerance for Relatively expensive.
fatigue with minimal
shaft deformation.
Easy installation.
Removable Stub Shafts All the advantages of Relatively expensive. N/A
fixed stub shafts.
20
Shaft is replaceable,
which makes
maintenance costs much
lower.
Keyed Hub with Set The second cheapest Only usable for light
Screw option for hub duty applications.
connection types. Possible wear and
Shaft is replaceable. tear will occur if
overloaded.
ER – Internal Bearings Shaft and bearings are It is not suitable for

replaceable. being a drive pulley.
Suitable for limited Not for heavy
space for external products applications.
bearing.
Weld-On Hubs & Shaft and bearings are Pre-stressing would

Compression Bushings replaceable. possibly occur.
Cheaper than the More expensive.
keyless devices
Good tolerance for
fatigue than fixed bore
and keyed hubs.
Keyless Locking Devices No pre-stressing would The most expensive
occur. option for hub
Shaft and locking connection.
devices are replaceable. Complicated
No need for keyways installation process.
and no stress related
with keyways.
Flat End Disk with No stress caused by the More expensive for N/A
Integral Hub geometric changes in the smaller diameters
welded hubs.
Contoured End Disk The contoured design More expensive for
with Integral Hub would provide more the smaller diameters
evenly distributed stress
across the end disk.
All the advantage of the
Flat End Disk with
Integral Hub.
Dead Shaft Assembly Shaft and bearings are Not suitable for being
replaceable. a drive pulley.
No risk for the failures More expensive than
by end disk fatigue. live shafts.
Better shaft capacity
than live shaft designs
and reductions in costs
and space requirement.
From the table above, considering all the pros and cons of all styles of hub connections, the
appropriate design of hub for each conveyor pulley can be selected.
21
For the crumpet cooler, since the total load of the products for the conveyor pulley is not light
enough, the fixed bore end plates, Keyed Hub with Set Screw, and ER Style Internal Bearings are not
suitable. Moreover, the styles cannot be drive pulleys need to be excluded for this selection. With
the consideration of the balance of the performance and costs, the proper hub connection style for
the belt conveyor of the crumpet cooler is Contoured End Disk with Integral Hub.
This is because the design will eliminate the stress caused by the geometric changes in welded hub,
while providing the even distribution of the stress across the end disk. Therefore, the management
of stress would be better by using this type of hub connection. The cost of this hub connection
would not be expensive even though the smaller diameter would be more expensive.
On the other hand, the total load on the teacake cooler is relatively light, thus, the styles which are
only suitable for usage of light duty can be used for this belt conveyor. Eliminating the styles which is
not for drive pulley, the most appropriate hub connection style for the teacake cooler is Keyed Hub
with Set Screw.
The reason for choosing this design for teacake cooler is that the keyed hub with set screw can
provide the less maintenance costs by enabling the replacement of shaft. Also, the hub design can
handle the light duty with the second cheapest cost for the options of hub connection.
4.1.2.5. Determination of the pulley configuration

There are mainly four pulley configurations in the industry, each pulley has different features that
has to be selected with the considerations of load requirements, type of material being conveyed,
and the intensity of the pulley system. (ProCal Inc., 2014)
Drum Style Pulleys
This configuration is the simplest configuration, a cylindrical shaped tube with a

smooth surface providing the continuous fully contactable surface. This type is
the most common pulley found in the conveyor system, since the most
materials preferred a larger contact surface of the pulley. (ProCal Inc., 2014)
Wing Style Pulleys
This type of pulley has a non-continuous contact surface, consists of multiple

fins. This will result in the voids in the pulley, which is suitable for conveying
loose materials. (ProCal Inc., 2014) Because of this feature, it is commonly used
in the position of tail pulley for the handling system for loose materials, which
have a great possibility to reside on the conveyor belt, damaging components. (ProCal Inc., 2014)
Spiral Style Pulleys
This pulley consists of metal strips contracted in a spiral pattern around the
drum or tube. As a result, unlike the wind style pulley, the pulley keeps the
continuous contact surface with the ability of material removal. This spiral
style pulley is mainly used for bulk handling systems that concerns the build-
up of the material through the process. (ProCal Inc., 2014)
22
Angled Wing Pulleys
The structure is similar to the wind style pulleys, but the fins forming the tube or
drum shape have a certain angle towards to the edge of the drum. This
modification of angle achieves the continuity of the contact surface with
enhanced pulley surface. This pulley is used for bulk handling process where the
materials tend to build-up and need to be cleaned out during the process.
(ProCal Inc., 2014)
Since the products conveyed in the bakery are not loose materials and they would not cause build
up, it is possible to use the normal drum style pulleys for both belt conveyors. Moreover, the
crumpets and teacakes require a flat surface for conveying, thus, the face profile for the pulley
should be the flat face.
4.1.2.6. Determination of material

Various materials are acceptable for constructing the conveyor pulley. The choice of material for the
conveyor pulley can significantly determine the level of performance that the pulley can achieve
throughout the process.
Following list is provided to show the differences amongst the materials, and selecting appropriate
materials for the conveyor pulleys used in the cooling process.
Mild Steel
This material is the most commonly used for the conveyor pulley, but because of the low resistance
to corrosion, it is not usable in some environments with highly corrosive substances.
Stainless Steel
The pulleys constructed with stainless steel are usually used in the environments where involves a
variety of corrosive compounds. Moreover, its high resistance to corrosives, which makes cleaning
processes much easier. Thus, the places where require cleanliness would have to adopt stainless
steel for its conveyor pulleys. There are also additional standards for food handling equipment,
which is established by FDA. These standards will be mentioned in the later sections.
Aluminium
Aluminium is a material with multiple features that very suitable for conveyor pulley, such as good
resistance to corrosion, light weight, and less costly. However, aluminium does not have a proper
strength for the conveyor pulley construction. Therefore, the applications which can use aluminium
are limited to the light load duty on the conveyor belt.
Plastic and other non-metallic
Plastic or other non-metallic also can be used for the construction of pulleys. It has positive features,
for example, the light weight and high resistance to corrosion. However, the significant reduction in
the strength would dramatically limit the usage of non-metallic materials in the conveying process.
Its life span is likely to be shorter than the other materials, which means more frequent maintenance
process would be needed that can vastly increase the maintenance costs. The reasons listed above
determined that the usage of this material is limited to where only light duty is needed, and
electrical conductivity is a great safety factor.
The discussions above imply that the stainless steel would be the best material for the use in the
cooling process, as the it would involve an amount of moisture that can condensate on the
23
equipment and being corrosive, also the corrosive chemicals will be used in the cleaning process.
The criteria of the material selection can also be applied to the material used for the cooling fans,
which will be covered in later sections.
Standards for stainless steel selection for food applications
Stainless steels are preferably used for food applications because of its high corrosive resistance and
good durability. However, not the all stainless steels can be applied to the food preparation
processes because the regulations of its composition. The 300 series stainless steels by the American
Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) are usually recommended for food applications. The regulations for the
usage of stainless steel in food industry set by AISI says that the stainless steel with the composition
of the steel is 18% of Chromium and 8-9% of Nickel can only be used for food processing. (Schmidt
and Erickson, 2017) A different standard set by the 3A Sanitary requires only 304 and 316 AISI
stainless steels to be used for food contact surfaces. (ISSF, 2011) Considering the two regulations of
the stainless steel for food processing, the AISI 316 Stainless steel will be used for the coolers, since
AISI 304 stainless steel has a weak resistance on the sodium hypochlorite and salt, which is usually
contained by food with high concentration. The study by Moerman and Partington (2014) also claims
that the use of AISI 304 stainless steel should be limited and not to use it for food contacting parts of
the food processing units.
4.1.2.7. The selection of the contact surface

Modifying the contact surface of the conveyor pulley is a common method to enhance the traction
capability of the pulley and enabling the pulley to eliminate the water or debris generated during the
process. There are two main types of the contact surface modification, “Grooved Lagging” and
“Knurling”. In this section, each type of modification will be described and selections will be made
for both conveyor pulleys.
Grooved Lagging
Figure 7 The illustrated patterns of grooved lagging. (ProCal Inc., 2014)
The grooved lagging can be classified into three kinds, herringbone, chevron and diamond. (ProCal
Inc., 2014) This pattern would enhance the belt traction by eliminating the moisture content and the
dust or debris from the centre of the pulley. Herringbone and chevron would be used for the
conveyor which would be operated in only one direction. The pattern of diamond can be used for
the conveyor pulley with unknown operational directions.
Knurling
24
This method is to modify the surface of the pulley into a knurled pattern, which usually is a diamond
pattern. This pattern gives the pulley a perfect traction capability, but because of the surface is
processed into a knurled pattern, it will increase the damage to the belt by wear and tear. As a
result, the durability of the conveyor belt would be shorter, which will increase the maintenance
costs. The specification of the knurled pattern is described in Teeth per inch (TPI). (ProCal Inc., 2014)
In general, the lower TPI would provide the deeper groove, which will be rougher surface, meaning
more traction capability.
Figure 8 The illustrated knurled pattern by different TPIs. (ProCal Inc., 2014)
Considering the two patterns, the grooved lagging would be the appropriate option for the both
cooler. This is because the direction of the belt is fixed, meaning there will be no change in the
direction. Furthermore, the grooved lagging has the lower damage to the belt, which means low
frequent maintenance and refurbishment is needed that can reduce the maintenance costs.
4.2. Cooling fan

4.2.1. Determination of wind speed
Wind speed in the cooler should not exceed a certain range otherwise the wind load might move the
products. This would result in dropping the products onto the floor. In this section, the maximum
wind load that the products can withstand is going to be calculated.
The maximum wind load is calculated from the friction force occurring between the products and
the conveyor belt. It can be calculated from the equation below,
𝐹𝑓 = 𝜇𝑓 𝑚𝑔 … … (8)(𝑟𝑒𝑓)
As mentioned in the section above, the material adopted for the conveyor belt in the cooling process
is polyester. The coefficient of friction for polyester is 0.25, according to DOTMAR (2017). Assuming
the friction factor remains same for both products, crumpets and teacakes. Based on this
assumption, the following calculations are executed.
4.2.1.1. Maximum wind load and wind speed on crumpets

By calculating the friction force on crumpets, the mass of the product is taken as 55g per crumpet.
Therefore, the friction force should be 0.142N per crumpet. The maximum wind load should be
smaller than this figure; otherwise, the crumpets would be blown away. The wind load can be
calculated using the equation below,
1
𝐹𝑤 = 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝐴𝑤 𝑣𝑤2 … … (9)(𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑙𝐵𝑜𝑥, 2017)
2
The ambient air will be used in the cooler, and the ambient temperature is assumed as 20°C. The air
density at 20°C is 1.204kg/m3. (The Engineering ToolBox, 2017) The surface area is taken as half of
the side area of the crumpet, which is 0.002513m2 as the wind would probably only to interfere by
that area. From the calculation, the maximum wind speed for the crumpet cooler is 8.96ms-1.
25
4.2.1.2. Maximum wind load and wind speed on teacakes

The mass of one teacake is taken as 0.0628kg. The effective surface area for the wind load is also
considered as half of the side area of the teacake, which is 0.00785m2. Same calculations are
executed, and the friction force for the teacake is 0.161N. Based on this friction force, the maximum
wind speed can be applied to the teacake cooler is 5.39ms-1.
4.2.2. Determination of material for cooling fans

As it is mentioned in the previous section, the material for the cooler
can be selected by the same selection criteria. Although the fans are
only used for blowing air to the products, it is unavoidable to get
moisture content on the fans. Furthermore, the highly corrosive
substances will be involved in the cleaning process. Therefore, the
material for cooling fans has to have a good corrosive resistance.
However, unlike the conveyor pulley, fans do not have heavy duty to Figure 9 The fan for cooler
support, thus, stiffness would not be a factor for the considerations on (Axair Fans UK, 2017)
the material selection for fans. Hence, the suitable material for fans would be non-metallic, such as
plastic. Amongst the wide variety of plastics, there are several materials can be applied for the use of
fan blades, including acetals, nylon, polyvinylchloride (PVC), phenolics, polycarbonates, polyesters,
polypropylenes, and epoxies. (Somaiya et al., 2008) The polycarbonate is one of the suitable
materials for constructing the fans, considering from several aspects, such as density, tensile
strength and the price per unit kg. However, considering the cleaning aspect, polycarbonate has very
poor tolerance on alkaline. This would negatively affect the effectiveness of the cleaning process.
PVC is the material has relatively strong tensile strength of 90MPa (Vinidex, 2016) and also has good
corrosive resistances. (Moerman and Partington, 2014) In terms of unit price of both material, the
average price of the PVC is €0.45 per kg, (New Media Publisher GmbH, 2017) comparing with the
average price of polycarbonate €0.8 per kg, (New Media Publisher GmbH, 2017) it can be said that
PVC is much cheaper than polycarbonate, with much better corrosive resistance. Therefore, it can
be said that PVC is an appropriate material for cooler fans.
4.2.3. Position of the cooling fans

The optimum position of the cooling fans installed on the cooler should be determined by the
airflow analysis with the sophisticated wind simulation. Unfortunately, it is very complicated and it is
impossible to predict the airflow, thus, for the even distribution of airflow, it is assumed to install
15cm diameter fans on one side of the cooler with the same gaps as the products to provide
consistent wind velocity. The number of fan is depending on the cooler length. For the crumpet
cooler, 254 fans will be installed with 3cm of gaps between them. For the teacake cooler, 116 fans
will be installed 5cm of gaps between them.
4.3. Determination of the cooling time

4.3.1. Crumpet cooler
Cooling time is one of the most time-intensive processes across the whole process; it is very
desirable to have a time-efficient cooler installed in the bakery to meet the required production rate
and to increase the flexibility of the production line. In this section, the determination of the cooling
time will be discussed.
As it is mentioned in the section of revised mass balance of the cooler, it is assumed that all the energy
released from the hot products being cooled from 80°C to 20°C during the cooling process is applied
to the evaporation of moisture content in the product. The heat is released from products by two
26
different heat transfer mechanisms, convective heat transfer and radiative heat transfer. The amount
of energy needs to be cooled can be calculated by the equation below,
Total Energy to be cooled = mcrumpet 𝐶𝑝 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑡 ∆𝑇 … … (10)
By assuming the specific heat capacity of the crumpet is 2.12kJkg-1K-1, the heat has to be cooled can
be estimated. The heat required to be cooled is 332.6MJhr-1. The cooling time can be estimated after
obtaining the rate of heat loss by convective heat transfer and radiative heat transfer, which can be
shown below,
{𝑄(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣. ) + 𝑄(𝑟𝑎𝑑. )}×𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑠) = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑑 … … (11)
Several calculations of the cooling time with different cooling fan speed will be demonstrated below.
Ciobanu (1976) suggests that the minimum speed of the fan installed onto the food spiral cooler is
usually 3ms-1; but because of the large number of crumpets produced, the default wind speed is set
to be 5ms-1. At the faster wind speed, the cooling time could be shorter, which is likely to make the
equipment smaller.
Since the cooler is fan-assisted, it implies that the forced convection is going to happen during the
cooling process.
The equation of forced convective heat transfer is derived from the Newton’s Law of cooling, which is
shown below,
Q = hA(T − T∞ ) … … (12)( Incropera et al. , 2006)
By calculating the heat rate, Q, it is necessary to calculate the heat transfer coefficient of the cooling
fluid. In this case, the products are cooled by air so that the heat transfer coefficient of air has to be
obtained firstly.
Nusselt number is used for estimating the heat transfer coefficient, which can be stated below,
hL
Nu = … … (13)(Incropera et al. , 2006)
𝑘
There are correlations for calculating the Nusselt number, and the correlation has to be chosen
according to the geometry in the situation. In the cooler, the wind will be horizontally blown to the
products, thus, the geometry for the heat transfer is cylinder. Therefore, the correlation for cylinder
has to be used,
1
̅̅̅̅̅̅
NuD = 𝑐𝑅𝑒𝐷𝑚 𝑃𝑟 3 … … (14) (Cairo University, 2006)
Table 11 Constants for the Nusselts correlation
The coefficient of c and m will be determined by the value of the Reynolds number.
At the wind speed of 3 ms-1, the Reynolds number of air at 20°C can be calculated by the equation
below,
𝑈𝐿
ReD = … … (15)
𝜈
Where the air velocity is 3ms-1, the characteristic length is 0.08m, and the kinematic viscosity of air at
20°C is 1.568e-5m2s-1. (The Engineering ToolBox, 2017) The Reynolds number under these conditions
27
is 25500. Therefore, c and m used in the equation (14) can be determined as 0.193 and 0.618,
respectively.
Prandtl number can be calculated by the equation below,
Cp 𝜇
Pr = … … (16)(𝑟𝑒𝑓)
𝑘
Where the specific heat capacity of air at 20°C is 1.0049kJkg-1K-1, the dynamic viscosity is 1.821e-5
kgm-1s-1, and the thermal conductivity is 2.57e-5kWm-1K-1. (The Engineering ToolBox, 2017) Prandtl
number is estimated to be 0.712.
Then, the Nusselt number can be calculated with Reynolds number and Prandtl number, which is 93.3.
Substituting the required parameters into the equation (13), the heat transfer coefficient is 29.96Wm-
2 -1
K .
The surface area of where the heat transfer would happen on the crumpet is assumed the top of the
crumpet plus the side area of the crumpet. The surface area related to the heat transfer would be
0.01m2 per crumpet. Therefore, by cooling down the crumpets from 80°C to 20°C, the total rate of
heat released by convection, based on hourly production rate of crumpet, is,
Q(conv. ) = 29.82×0.01×44818×(353 − 293) = 584874.9W = 𝟖𝟎𝟗. 𝟖𝟗𝐤𝐖 … … (17)
The radiation is also a part of the overall heat transfer during the cooling process, because the effects
of radiation cannot be negligible as the emissivity of the crumpet is assumed as same as that of bread
which is 0.9. (Khater, 2014)
The amount of heat transferred from radiative heat transfer mechanism can be calculated by the
equation below,
Q = εσA(T 4 − T∞ 4)
… … (18)(Incropera et al. , 2006)
Assuming the surface area involves the radiation is as same as the area involves the convection heat
transfer. By using the equation (18), the rate of radiative heat transfer in the crumpet cooling process,
based on hourly production rate of crumpet is 187.82kW.
In total, the rate of heat transfer by cooling the crumpet is 997.71kW. After getting the total rate of
heat loss, the cooling time can be calculated by the equation below,
Cooling time = The total energy loss in the cooling process ÷ the total rate of heat loss … … (19)
The cooling time for wind speed of 5ms-1 is 5.56 minutes, by using the equation above.
If the wind speed at 3ms-1, the cooling time will be much longer, 7.05 minutes. This significant
difference in the cooling time will make the equipment larger, which would increase more capital costs,
comparing with the costs of extra electricity required to increase the fan speed. Thus, the wind speed
for the crumpet cooler is set at 5ms-1.
4.3.2. Teacake cooler

The heat transfer mechanisms occurring on the teacakes are also considered two heat transfers,
forced convection and radiation. These will be calculated in the same manner as in the last section.
The temperature of the cooling air is also at 20°C, and all the calculations are conducted based on
the thermal properties of air at 20°C which were mentioned in the last section. The shape of the
teacakes is assumed to be a cylindrical shape, the diameter and the height of the teacakes is 10cm
and 6cm, respectively.
Assumed that the specific heat capacity of the teacake is 1.88kJkg-1K-1, which is a little smaller than
the specific heat capacity. It is because the crumpet is assumed to have more moisture than the
teacake does by a little amount, which could make the specific heat capacity of crumpets a little
higher than the teacakes. It is given that the teacakes are going to be cooled from 80°C to 20°C,
therefore, the total energy needed for cooling teacakes can be calculated as below,
28
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 = 𝑚teacake 𝐶𝑝 𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑘𝑒 ∆𝑇 = 638.9×1.88×(358 − 293)

= 𝟕𝟐. 𝟏𝐌𝐉𝐡𝐫 −𝟏 … … (𝟐𝟎)
At first, the convective heat transfer will be calculated, the wind speed for cooling teacake is
assumed to be 3ms-1. (Ciobanu, 1976) Therefore, the Nusselt number needs to be figured out at first.
The characteristic length in this convective heat transfer should be the diameter of the teacakes.
After determining the wind speed and the characteristic length, it is possible to calculate the
Reynolds number for deciding the correlation for the Nusselt number. The Reynolds number is
calculated as below,
𝑈𝐿 3×0.1
Re = = = 𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟓𝟒
𝜈 1.511×10−5
The Prandtl number is also necessary for the calculation for the Nusselt number, which will be
calculated as,
𝐶𝑝 𝜇 1.88×1.821×10−5
Pr = = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟐
𝑘 2.57×10−5
The Reynolds number can determine the coefficients used in the equation (14) from Table (11).
Substituting all the parameters into the equation (14), the Nusselt number can be calculated.
1 1
̅̅̅̅̅̅
NuD = 0.193𝑅𝑒𝐷0.618 𝑃𝑟 3 = 0.193×198540.618 ×0.7123 = 𝟕𝟖. 𝟎𝟔
Once the Nusselt number is obtained, the heat transfer coefficient can be obtained by the equation
(13), therefore, the heat transfer coefficient is 20.06Wm-2K-1.
Once the heat transfer coefficient is determined, the surface area will be needed for the calculation
of the convective heat transfer. The surface area for the heat transfer should be including the top
and the side area of the teacake, where the wind would contact with. Thus, from the given
dimensions of the teacake, the surface area is 2.67e-2 m2. Hence, the heat would be transferred by
the forced convection is calculated by the equation (12), which is shown below.
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 20.06×2.67×10−2 ×(358 − 293) = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟏𝟓𝑾 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒂𝒌𝒆

Since 9664 teacakes will be produced in an hour, the total heat would be transferred is 310.7kW.
Not only the convection but the radiation is also happening in the cooling process. The emissivity of
the teacake is also assumed as same as bread, which is 0.9. (Khater, 2014) Then, the total heat
transferred by the radiation can be calculated by using the equation (18), which is 107.6kW. In total,
the overall rate of heat transfer for the teacakes is 418.3kW.
Using the total energy needed for cooling, the cooling time can be determined as 2.87 minutes.
The calculations show that at wind speed of 3ms-1, the cooling time for the teacake is 2.87 minutes.
If the wind speed is increased to 5ms-1, the cooling time would be reduced to 2.25 minutes. This
difference in the cooling time is probably too small to have the increased wind speed, thus, the
default wind speed is set at 3ms-1.
4.3.3. Effects of variations in the ambient temperature on the cooling times

Although the average temperature in the location where the bakery should be built, is around 20°C,
(Norwegian Meteorological Institute, 2017) the additional considerations have to be made for the
abnormal situations when the ambient temperature is higher than 20°C. In this section, the solution
for the cooling process at higher ambient temperature will be explained.
29
The higher ambient temperature is assumed 25°C for the calculations in this section, since the
average ambient temperature in the location where the bakery would be built is around 16°C to
20°C. (Norwegian Meteorological Institute, 2017)
At this temperature, the same calculations are conducted based on the thermal properties of air at
25°C. (The Engineering ToolBox, 2017) The cooling time for the crumpet cooler is extended from
5.56 minutes to 5.58 minutes when the wind speed is 5ms-1. For the teacake cooler, the cooling
time is extended from 2.87 minutes to 2.88 minutes. It is obvious to say that the fluctuations in the
ambient temperature would hardly affect the cooling times.
4.4. Air Filtration

The cooling process for both products uses the ambient air as the cooling agent. The environmental
air contains wide range of dust, microorganisms and other particles that would affect the quality of
food products and might ruin the company reputation. Therefore, ambient air has to be treated with
a food industry standard filter before it is used for the cooling process. In this section, how the air
filters are controlling the quality of air and the selection of air filter for the cooling process is
mentioned.
4.4.1. Types of filtration system

The air filters installed in the food industry are usually the barrier type, which will capture the
pollutants, such as dust particles and microorganisms, before the air goes into the food factory.
(EHEDG, 2006) In general, the air filtration system can be divide into three categories; the primary
filters, the second-stage filters and the final stage filters.
Primary filters are designed to capture the majority of the containments in the air, sizing from 5 to
10µm. This kind of filters usually equipped with a high dust-holding capacity, and shaped in a dry
panel type. It is also capable of working in an environment with high air velocity. (Sutherland et al.,
2008) Air filtered with the primary filter will then go through the second-stage filter.
The second-stage filters have a material to capture the finer particles in the air which have not
retained by the first filter. The normal size of the particles can be trapped in this filter is from 0.5 to
5µm. According to Sutherland et al. (2008), the particles in these size range have the largest
potential of damaging the equipment in the room. For example, the staining on the doors, and
negative effects on the machineries, especially the pumps. This type of filter should in a panel shape
or a bag shape. The maximum allowed air velocity for this filter is 0.12ms-1, because of the extended
depth of the filter. (Sutherland et al., 2008)
The last filter in the air quality controlling system is the ultra-fine filter. This filter has the efficiency
of 99.95% or more, which can capture sub-micron sized particles enabled by using the high density
medium made of synthetic spun fibres. These filters are generally called the high efficiency
Figure 10 The multi-stage filtration system (Sutherland et al., 2008)
30
particulate air filter (HEPA) and the ultra-low penetration air filter (ULPA). This filters exist in a form
of closed pleated packs, the air velocity needs to be slower than 0.03ms-1. (Sutherland et al., 2008)
Filtration classification is a useful measure for choosing an adequate filtration standard for food
processing. The air filters are classified with their filtration efficiency, and the cleanliness of the air
filtered. There are several classifications established by different institutions, in the European
countries, the CEN (Comité Européen des Normalisations) classification or the EUROVENT (European
Committee of Air Handling & Refrigerating Equipment Manufacturers) classification is more
accepted. The CEN/EUROVENT classification is shown below,
According to the KS Klima-Service (2002), the EU12 standard is the most suitable level for food
processing. From table 12, the EU12 classification has the efficiency of 99.5%, which can filter the
Table 12The CEN/EUROVENT classification
particles down to 0.01µm. (Sutherland et al., 2008) It can be determined that HEPA filter should be
used for the bakery.
4.4.2. Material selection for the filtration system

The material used for the air filter should be determined by the expected performance of the
filtration system, in terms of the particle size and the allowance of the maximum pressure drop
caused by the amount of the airflow that is needed to be treated. (Sutherland et al., 2008)
The International Organization for Standardization has established the standard for the food grade in
the ISO 8573-1 that the contamination in the air needs to be limited within the range given in the
table below,
Table 13 The air purity class for particles (International Organisation for Standardisation, 2010)
From the table given above, it can be said that the filter with the capture capability of particle size of
down to 0.1µm would be needed for the use in the food industry. Moreover, the number of the
particle is limited within 20000, thus, this condition would also have to be taken into account when
selecting the material of the filter.
31
The material that meets the condition listed above is glass fibre, which can be used for filtering the
diameter of particles below 1µm. The advantage of this material is that the properties, such as filter
capability, can be adjusted and graduated in the manufacturing process. (Sutherland et al., 2008)
Although mineral wools are more suitable for constructing the filters because its filtering capability is
down to 0.1µm, the material such as asbestos, would cause a serious health hazard. Therefore, glass
fibre is chosen for the material of the filter. The application of glass fibre is stated as the filter pads
or blankets for air filters, and even for HEPA filters, which is one of the ultra-fine filters. (Sutherland
et al., 2008)
4.4.3. Sizing of the filtration system

The sizing of the filter needs to be designed carefully, if the improper filter sizing is installed which
will cause the excessive pressure drop. This will increase the overall air flowrate, for this reason the
high-pressure drop will increase the running cost. Furthermore, the overly-increased air flow rate
would reduce the life span of the filter. (Dickenson and Dickenson, 1997) In most of cases, the
standard filter size will be adapted by the building.
According to NIOSH (2003), the standard size of HEPA filter is 0.61m by 0.61m, which has the
pressure drop of 325Pa. The power of the fan installed on the filter is related to the required
pressure. In most case, the pressure drop should be boosted by 40% by using the fan. (NIOSH, 2003)
4.5. Insulation
In order to maintain the cooling efficiency, the room temperature must be kept constant. One of the
main factors for the temperature fluctuations is the heat from other sectors such as the oven room,
the proofer room. To minimise the effects from these factors, insulations have to be installed inside
of the walls. In this section, the materials chosen for the insulations, and the calculations for the
heat transfer on the insulations will be mentioned. The coolers are assumed to be placed in the
room next to the oven room. The room temperature of the cooler room is aimed to keep at 20°C,
and the temperature of the oven room will be assumed to be 35°C. The reason of the higher room
temperature in the oven room is that there is still heat losses from the ovens that warm up the
room. Therefore, the room temperature is assumed a little higher than the environmental
temperature.
4.5.1. Wall thickness

The room insulation has been measured by the value called U-value, which indicates the rate of heat
loss. It can be calculated by the equation listed below,
1
𝑈= … … (21)(𝑀𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟, 1993)
𝑋𝑟
𝑠
𝑋𝑟 = … … (22)(𝑀𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟, 1993)
𝑘
The Xr is the thermal resistance coefficient and if the wall has multiple layer, the coefficient can be
𝑋𝑟 = 𝑋𝑟1 + 𝑋𝑟2 + ⋯ … … (23)(𝑀𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟, 1993)
According to Kingspan Insulation (2017), the required U-value for the non-domestic wall is 0.22Wm-
2 -1
K . The thickness of the insulation material will be calculated to achieve the U-value.
The wall for the cooler room consists of three layers, the insulation material will be placed between
two layers. The wall is part of the whole bakery building, the material used for the wall should be
strong enough to withstand the heavy load of the building. Therefore, the material of the wall has
32
been determined as high strength concrete. The thickness of the concrete wall is assumed to be 5cm
for the both concrete layer of the wall. (The Engineering ToolBox, 2017) The thermal conductivity of
the concrete is 0.16Wm-1K-1. (Leeds Beckett University, 2017)
Rock wool is used for the insulation material because of its ease of handling, fire resistance and
water resistance. The thermal conductivity of the rock wool is 0.04Wm-1K-1 (The Engineering
ToolBox, 2017). Therefore, the thermal resistance of the concrete layer can be figured out as below,
0.1
X rconcrete = = 0.625 … … (24)
0.16
The thermal resistance coefficient for the rock wool can be stated as below,
𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑙
X rrockwool = … … (25)
0.04
Therefore, the U-value can be shown as below,
1
U= … … (26)
X rconcrete + X rrockwool
Through the equations given above, the thickness of the rock wool is 0.157m. Hence, the total
thickness of the wall is 0.257m.
4.6. Support for coolers

The mechanical support is one of the vital factor when designing the coolers, since the support is the
part where ensure the stability of the operations of the machines. In order to estimate the
parameters for the support, the total mass of the cooler has to be calculated at first. The coolers
consist of five main components: the conveyor belt, the convey pulleys, the motor for pulleys, the
cooling fans and the metal table that placed between the pulleys, which also used for supporting the
load on the belt. The support needs to be strong enough to withstand the load by these components
as well as the load by the products on the belt. According to McGuire (2010), the support of the belt
conveyor should have at least plus or minus 75mm of adjustable height margin, which will allow the
conveyor to stand on the uneven floor.
The total load of the coolers will be estimated below. In order to estimate the total load of the
cooler, the total volume of the metallic part in the coolers has to be estimated at first.
Crumpet cooler
The predetermined dimensions of pulley are going to be used for this calculation. The face length of
the conveyor pulley is 1.4m with the thickness of 8mm. The diameter of the pulley is 5.37cm and the
shaft diameter is 2.55cm. The volume of the drum can be estimated from these information, which
is 0.0352m3. The volume of the shaft is 1.05e-3m3. Thus, the total volume of one pulley is 0.0362m3,
since one belt conveyor has two pulleys the volume of two pulleys will be 0.0725m3.
The height of the metal table should be same as the diameter of the drum, which is 5.37cm, and the
length would be the length of the cooler minus two pulley diameters, which is 38m. The thickness of
the metal used for the table is assumed 5mm. Considering inside of the table is hollow, the volume of
the box is 0.38m3. Thus, the total volume of the metallic part of the conveyor can be calculated as
0.4525m3. The material for these part is predetermined as the stainless steel AISI 316, so the weight
of these parts can be estimated as 3620kg by using the density of the material, 8000kgm-3. (AZoM,
2017) Since the belt is made of polyester, the weight of the belt could be very light, which can be
33
considered negligible. Then, by assuming the weight of one cooling fans is 150g, the total weight of
fans will be 51.9kg. The weight of the conveyor motor is assumed to be 300kg, thus, the total weight
of the crumpet cooler should be 3937.3kg. The support also must withstand the weight of the products,
which is 228kg. The total weight of the cooler would be 4289.2kg. Hence, using the following equation,
the total vertical load of the cooler can be calculated.
Fload = 𝑚𝑔 … … (27)
The total vertical load of the crumpet cooler is 42.07kN. Assuming there is a leg attached to each side
of the cooler with 1m interval, thus, in total 76 legs would be installed on the cooler. This means that
0.554kN will be loaded on each leg. The cross-sectional shape of the leg is assumed to be 5cm by 5cm
square, then the total pressure applied to one leg can be calculated as 221.5kPa. The yield strength of
the material adapted for the legs is 205MPa. (AZoM, 2017) It can be said that the legs can support the
cooler. The height of the support can be altered by the customer’s preference.
Teacake cooler
The dimensions of the support of the tea cooler can be determined with the same calculation manners
as the crumpet cooler. The total mass of the teacake cooler can be calculated by knowing the volume
of metallic part of the cooler. The pulley has the diameter of 2.05cm with the thickness of 4mm, and
the diameter of the shaft is 1.04cm with the length of 1.35m. Thus, the volume of the pulley drum and
the shaft is 2.3e-4m3. The metal plate between the pulleys has the height is 2.05cm and the length of
the metal table is 17.4m. Assuming the thickness of the metal used for the table is 5mm and the
structure of the metal table is a hollow box, the volume of the metal volume of the table is 0.174m3.
By assuming that the material for the metal part is the AISI 316 stainless, the weight of the pulleys and
the metal plate is 1394kg. The weight of one fan is considered as 200g, then the total weight of the
fans will be 23.2kg. The weight of the motor used for the teacake cooler is assumed 200kg. With the
weight of the products which is intended to load on the cooler, 29.1kg, the total weight of the cooler
can be considered as 1646.3kg. Therefore, the total load is 16.15kN. If the legs is installed with the
same manner as the crumpet cooler, the number of legs for the teacake cooler would be 34. Thus,
0.475kN of load would be applied to each leg. The leg would be the same dimensions as the crumpet
cooler, so the pressure on each leg can be calculated as 190kPa. From the yield strength of the material,
the legs are strong enough to support the cooler.
5. Specifications for other units

5.1. Hotplate Oven O401
5.1.1. Determination of the oven dimensions
As the crumpets are entering the hotplate oven from the depositor, they come with 12 crumpets a
row, since there are 12 orifice nozzles in a row on the depositor. In order to avoid batters sticking
together by the accidental batter leakage from the bottom of the moulder, the gap between the
crumpet batters is kept at 3cm. Moreover, there should be a 3cm margin on the both edges of the
hotplate to prevent batters from falling off. The dimeter of one crumpet batter should follow the
Warburton’s dimensions, thus, it should be 8cm. Therefore, the width of the conveyor belt installed
in the hotplate oven can be determined as 1.35m.
The length can be determined by the baking time and the production rate. In order to meet the
desired annual production quantity, 44818 crumpets have to be made in an hour. Since the baking
time for the crumpet is determined as 3 minutes, the oven should have enough space to fit the
number of crumpets produced in 3 minutes. Therefore, the oven should have the capability to bake
2241 crumpets. In total, there should be 187 columns of crumpets in the oven. Assuming the gap
34
between the columns is 3cm, the length of conveyor belt in the oven should be 20.6m. Giving extra
length to the oven by rounding up the calculated length of the oven for the transition area, such as
from the moulder to the oven and from the oven to the cooler, thus, the final length of oven should
be 21m.
From the length of the conveyor belt and the baking time, the conveyor speed can be estimated,
which is 0.117ms-1.
5.1.2. The selection of material for the hotplates

Same as the standards about the materials directly contact food published by FDA, Europe Union has
legislated several restrictions to indicate the usage of the materials used in the food processing. In
the regulation of Contact with Food Directive 89/109/EEC, it states that materials used for food
contacting part in a machine should not contain the components that might endanger health state,
affect the composition of food with overrated changes, and deteriorate the organoleptic
characteristics. (The European Union, 2004)
Following these limitations, the stainless steel AISI 304 seems suitable for the material for hotplates.
However, the AISI 304 has a high sensitivity to sodium hypochlorite, which is a chemical usually
exists in food with high concentration, therefore, the use of the AISI 304 as a food contacting
material needs to be avoided. (Moerman and Partington, 2014) The other stainless steel can be used
in the food processing is AISI 316, but it has a poor resistance for chemicals. As the temperature is
close to 150°C, the AISI 316 might be suffering from cracking by stress-corrosion by applying the high
concentration of chloride. This factor would be a problem when the cleaning process taken place
with high concentration of corrosive substances. Hence, the other material has to be used for the
hotplates.
Nickel alloys, which is the metal contains a high composition of nickel, has a great corrosive
resistance and a great temperature tolerance. (Moerman and Partington, 2014) Hastelloy C22 is a
material which has a great resistance with various corrosive substances including mild acid, strong
alkaline and high temperature. This material is widely used for food processing, so it is already
proven that the food contacts by this material is safe. (High Performance Alloys, 2014) There are
minority of population, approximately 10%, have allergy to nickel, the allergy is triggered by
continuous or repeated exposure to the metal. (American Osteopathic College of Dermatology,
2016) In the baking process, nickel would hardly contaminate in the crumpets, thus, the use of nickel
alloy would not affect the food safety. Because of these characteristics, the hotplate used in the
crumpet process should be made of hastelloy C22.
5.1.3. Conductive Heat Transfer

Crumpets are cooked by hotplate oven that involves conductive heat transfer mechanism. The heat
transferred via conduction can be estimated by the equation given from Fourier’s Law as shown below,
𝑑𝑇
𝑞 = 𝑘𝐴 … … (28)
𝑥
The thermal conductivity is the property of the crumpet batter, and it is very sensitive with the
composition of the material. This report will assume 0.4Wm-1K-1 as the thermal conductivity of the
crumpet batter. (Pyle, 2005) It is also assumed that the thermal conductivity will not be changed by
temperature. The surface area of the crumpet involving conductive heat transfer is where the surface
contacts the hotplate, so that it is 0.005m2 per crumpet since the diameter is 8cm. The height of the
crumpet is measured to be 2cm.
35
The temperature of the hotplate is assumed to be 210°C, and the temperature at the top of the
crumpet is 35°C. The crumpet is assumed to be heated up to 80°C, (Cauvain, 2007) so that the total
required power output for heat the batter from 35°C to 80°C can be calculated by using the equation
(28),
80 − 35
q = 0.4×0.005× … … (29)
0.02
This equation will give the result of 4.5W of power that has to be transferred to each crumpet batter
for baking process. This figure is slightly different from the power output requirement in the section
3.1.1, it is because the calculation in the section is not including the effects of conductive heat transfer,
such as the thermal conductivity of crumpet batter. Therefore,10.1kW of power is needed for the
oven to bake the crumpets.
5.1.4. Heat loss from the hot plates

Not only the surface where contacts the batter, but the hot plate oven has extra surfaces that are
not contacting the batter. These surfaces will cause heat losses by the convective and radiative heat
transfer. It is difficult to estimate the precise area of extra surface, but in order to get an
approximate heat loss, the area can be estimated as follows.
Figure 11 Illustration of how the crumpets are

aligned on the hot plate.
The figure 12 is showing how the crumpets are aligned, the areas in black are not contacting with
batters. On the basis of one row, the area can be calculated as below,
0.082 𝜋
1.35×0.11 − 12× = 0.088𝑚2 … … (30)
4
0.088m2 of unfilled area exists in one row, so the total area of unfilled space will be 16.49m2. The
temperature inside of the hotplate oven is assumed 80°C, the same temperature as the products,
and the surface temperature of the hotplate should be 210°C. With this conditions, the convective
heat transfer would be caused, but because there is little wind speed in the oven the natural
convection would likely take place.
The heat loss by the natural convection can be calculated by the equation (12). However, it would
have to use a different method to figure out the heat transfer coefficient. The heat transfer
coefficient of natural convection can be estimated using the Nesselt number and the correlations of
the Nesselt number consisting of the Rayleigh number and the Prandtl number, which is shown
below,
hL
Nu = = 𝐶𝑅𝑎𝑛 … … (31)(Bahrami, 2009)
𝑘
𝑔𝛽(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )𝐿3
𝑅𝑎 = 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃𝑟 … … (32)(Bahrami, 2009)
𝜈2
For Isothermal Horizontal Plate, the characteristic length would be (surface area)/(the perimeter of
the surface area). In this case, it can be calculated as,
36
0.082 𝜋
(0.08×1.35 − ×12) ×187
4
𝐿= = 0.0158 … … (33)
0.08𝜋×12×187
1
Nu = 0.54Ra4 (104 < 𝑅𝑎 < 107 ) … … (34)(Bahrami, 2009)
1
Nu = 0.15Ra3 (107 < 𝑅𝑎 < 1011 ) … … (35)(Bahrami, 2009)
Where β is calculated with the film temperature,

1
β= … … (36)
Tf
𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇∞
Tf = … … (37)
2
In this oven, the surface temperature of the hotplate is set at 210°C and the environmental
temperature is assumed 80°C. At 80°C, the kinematic viscosity of air is 20.94e-6 m2s-1, the Prandtl
number is 0.708 and the thermal conductivity is 0.0299 Wm-1K-1. (The Engineering ToolBox, 2017)
Therefore, the Rayleigh number under this condition would be 27444.4. Thus, the equation (34) is
applicable for calculating the Nusselt number, which is 6.95. By using the equation (13), the heat
transfer coefficient can be estimated. Thus, the heat transfer coefficient for natural convection in
the hotplate oven is 13.15Wm-2K-1. According to The Engineering ToolBox (2017), the coefficient for
natural convection should be in the range of 0.1 – 1000 Wm-2K-1, so the coefficient obtained seems
reasonable. Hence, the heat loss from the hotplate oven by natural convection should be 15.2kW,
0.082 𝜋
Q c = 13.15× (0.08×1.35 − ×12) ×187×(210 − 80) = 15242.6𝑊 … … (38)
4
The heat loss by radiative heat transfer is also happening during the baking process. In order to
calculate the amount of the heat loss, it is necessary to find the emissivity for the hotplate. The
emissivity of hastelloy is 0.21, assuming the emissivity is independent with temperature, the
radiative heat loss is calculated from the equation (18),
0.082 𝜋
Q R = 0.21×5.6703×10−8 × (0.08×1.35 − 4
×12) ×187×(4834 − 3534 ) = 4134𝑊…(39)
From the equation (38), the total heat loss by the radiative heat transfer is 4.134kW.
Therefore, the total power required for the hotplate oven is 29.4kW, including the heat losses.
5.1.5. Heating element for the hotplate

The hotplate used in the oven will be heated by the heating element which attached to the metal
plate. The resistance heating alloys are commonly employed as the element for electrical heating in
various commercial occasions, the nichrome is one of the most common material amongst the
heating elements. The nichrome wire has the very high specific resistance of 108e-8Ωm. (Gambhir,
1993) This means that the larger amount of heat can be generated with the shorter wire, compared
to other low resistance materials. It not only can reduce the weight of the resistance material, but
reduce the budget on the wire, which can reduce the economic burden. Another reason of wide
usage of nichrome is that the material is a very stable even in the high temperatures. This is because
the high temperature would trigger the oxidation reaction on the surface of the nichrome and form
a thin film of chromium oxide coating the whole metal, which can protect the metal from further
oxidation. (Sureshkumar and Anilkumar, 2015)
37
5.1.6. Insulation
The insulation is one of the most important parts across the oven. It can reserve the heat generated
by the oven and minimise the heat losses from the oven. This can significantly increase the efficiency
so as to reduce the electricity consumptions. In this section, the thickness of insulation wall is going
to be estimated.
The oven consists of hotplates conveyor surrounded by a chamber, the chamber has multiple-
layered wall, which works as an insulation. Rockwool is usually used as a material for insulation
layer, because of its low thermal conductivity with high fire resistance, (ROCKWOOL, 2017) the rock
wool is also a light-weight material with density of up to 120kgm-3. (BNBM GROUP, 2012) Rock wool
is commonly placed inside of the wall between the internal wall and the external wall.
The material for the internal and external wall of the oven should be AISI 316 stainless steel,
because the material of the internal wall would have to withstand extreme environments, such as
high temperature and corrosions. Assuming the thickness of the stainless steel layer is 1.2 cm for
both internal and external wall, (The Engineering ToolBox, 2017) the thickness of the mineral wool
layer can be estimated by the equation below,
𝑇𝑜𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜𝑜
Qi = 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 … … (40)(𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑙𝐵𝑜𝑥, 2017)
1
+ 2 + 3
𝑘1 𝐴𝑠 𝑘2 𝐴𝑠 𝑘3 𝐴𝑠
Surface area of the wall is the parameter needed for the calculation of the insulation. Therefore, the
dimensions of the chamber is needed.
From the height of the crumpet, 2cm, the height of the oven tunnel is assumed 5cm. For the width
of the oven, it is estimated 1.4m, because of the width of the conveyor pulley adopted in the oven
should be wider by 5cm than the width of the conveyor belt. The area involving the insulation
calculation can be calculated, which is 31.5m2. According to Rahman et al. (2012), the heat loss from
the insulation wall has to be limited below 5% of the total power output of the oven, thus, the
maximum allowed heat loss is 1470W. The thermal conductivity of the AISI 316 stainless steel is
16.4Wm-1K-1, (ASM Material, 2017) and that of rock wool is 0.04Wm-1K-1. (The Engineering ToolBox,
2017) The internal temperature of the oven is, as mentioned in the previous section, assumed 80°C.
The ambient temperature of the room for hotplate oven is assumed 35°C. Then, the thickness of the
insulation layer is calculated as below,
353 − 308
1470 = … … (41)
0.024 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑙
+
16.4×31.5 0.04×31.5
From the equation above, the thickness of rock wool layer is determined 3.85cm. Including the
thickness of the internal and external layers of stainless steel, the total wall thickness is 6.25cm.
5.1.7. Ventilation
As it can be seen from the mass balance section that there is water vapour, carbon dioxide and
ethanol vapour escaping from the crumpet batter during the baking process. These flue gases have
to be extracted from the oven by the ventilation system installed on the oven.
The vent duct can be sized by knowing the volume of flue gases need to be extracted from the oven.
According to the mass balance, 100.2kg of water vapour, 14.4kg of CO2 and 19kg of ethanol vapour
would be vented as flue gases. Based on the density of each component, the volume of the flue gas
can be calculated. Therefore, the volume of the flue gas should be 21.21m3 per hour or 0.0059m3
per second. Since the flue gases contains high concentration of ethanol, it is necessary to treat it
before release it to the atmosphere. An exhaust fan is needed for extracting the flue gas from the
oven to the vent. The minimum velocity of exhaust air is limited to 2.54ms-1 by NFPA (2017) and the
diameter of the vent duct will be 5.4cm.
38
Due to the high concentration of ethanol in the flue gas, it is not suitable to release it without the
treatment. Therefore, the flue gas would be condensed by a double pipe heat exchanger for making
it easier to be disposed in the waste treatment process, where the condensed flue gas will be sent
to.
5.2. Jet impingement Oven

The jet impingement oven uses jet air streams to generate
forced convection to bake products. Usually the orifice
nozzles are installed on the ceiling and the bottom of the
oven as shown in the figure below, so that the jet streams
can be access to the whole surface of the breads, which can
provide an even heat distribution and shorten the baking
time. In section, the calculations of heat transfer and the Figure 12 The jet impingement oven
(Arakawa Co Ltd., 2017)
determination of oven dimensions are going to be
performed.
5.2.1. Heat transfer by jet impingement oven

Jet impingement is a tool to use orifice nozzles to make jet streams, the streams will be blown onto
the product surfaces where the heat transfer would occur. The flow of the jet impingement is
illustrated in the figure14 below. There
are several flow regions can be defined,
the first region is the free jet region,
where the air is just below the orifice
nozzle. This region would not have
much effect on the heating surface.
There is a region called potential core
within the free jet region, where the
turbulence intensity is relatively low. Figure 13 Simplified diagram of jet impingement system showing
The stagnation region is where the different regions. (O’Donovan, 2005)
stream is firstly spread into two parts, which become the wall regions. The centre point of the
stagnation region is called the stagnation point; the mean velocity of the air flow is zero at this point.
(O’Donovan, 2005)
The heat transfer at the stagnation point has been widely studied, and the study by Goldstein et al.
(1986) shows that the maximum local Nusselt number at the stagnation point occurs when the ratio
of the distance to the heating surface (Hj) to the diameter of the orifice nozzle (Dj) reaches 8.
However, Lee et al. (1995) claims that the maximum Nusselt number would appear when Hj/Dj is 6.
The small difference between these study is probably caused by the difference of the potential core
length. (O’Donovan, 2005)
Once the jet flow reaches the stagnation point, the different Nusselt numbers would be distributed
at the different points across the radial location in the stagnation region and the wall jet region. The
study by O’Donovan (2005) shows that for the same Reynolds number, the lower Hj/Dj would give
the lower Nusselt numbers, which implies the lower heat transfer coefficients. However, the
maximum Nusselt number at the stagnation point does not mean have a good distribution of the
39
Nusselt number. The figure below shows that the

distribution of the Nusselt number at the different
radical locations with various Hj/Dj values under the
same Reynolds number. As it can be seen that the
Hj/Dj of 0.5 has the best distribution, but the low Hj/Dj
would probably increase the force load by the jet
stream on the dough, which might change the shape
of the dough. To avoid the change of the dough shape,
the second best distribution should be chosen with a
bigger Hj/Dj value of 2.
Figure 14 The Nusselt number distributions with
From the figure 15, the secondary peak of the Nusselt different H/D. (O’Donovan, 2005)
number appears where the ratio of r/Dj is 2, where r is
the length of the radial location. In order to have a efficient baking, the dough should be within the
radial location. If the diameter of the dough is assumed 8cm, the value of r should be longer than
4cm to provide a good heat transfer distribution throughout the surface of the dough. Then, the
diameter of the orifice nozzle can be determined as 2cm, so that the distance between the orifice
nozzle to the product surface also can be decided as 4cm. Unfortunately, it is very difficult to predict
the optimum velocity of jet stream without doing experiment.
The air velocity from the orifice nozzle is assumed the slowest speed for the jet stream as 10ms-1 for
the following calculations. (O’Donovan, 2005) In order to find the heat transfer rate, qj, the average
Nusselt number for the jet stream has to be calculated. The correlations for Nusselt number of the
gas jet impingement is shown below,
̅̅̅̅
𝑁𝑢/𝑃𝑟 0.42
= 𝐹(𝑅𝑒) … … (42)(𝑀𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑎, 2009)
𝐻𝑗 𝐻𝑗
𝐾 ( , 𝑓) 𝐺 ( , 𝑓)
𝐷𝑗 𝐷𝑗
6 −0.05
𝐻𝑗
𝐻𝑗 𝐷𝑗
𝐾( , 𝑓) = 1 + … … (43)(𝑀𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑎, 2009)
𝐷𝑗 0.6𝑓 −0.5
{ ( ) }
𝐻𝑗 1 − 2.2𝑓 0.5
𝐺( , 𝑓) = 2𝑓 0.5 … … (44)(𝑀𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑎, 2009)
𝐷𝑗 𝐻𝑗
1 + 0.2 (𝐷 − 6) 𝑓 0.5
𝑗
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒

𝑓= … … (45)(𝑀𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑎, 2009)
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ
These equations can be used under the conditions below,
Hj
0.004 ≤ f ≤ 0.04, 2 ≤ ≤ 12
𝐷𝑗
Before the calculations of the Nusselt number, the validity of the equations for this case has to be
checked. The cross-sectional area of one orifice nozzle exit is 3.14e-4m2. Assuming two orifices will
be involved in the baking one teacake, the total cross sectional area of the orifice nozzle is 6.28e-
4m2. The surface area of teacake heat transfer is assumed to be the overall surface area of the
teacake, because the orifice nozzles would cover the all surface area. The shape of teacake dough is
assumed to be cylindrical in this calculation. The diameter of the dough is 8cm, the height is 5cm.
40
Therefore, the total surface area involves the heat transfer is 0.0226m2. Thus, the value for f is
0.0278, which meets the validity of the equations, the Hj/Dj also meets the conditions.
F(Re) is calculated with correlations depending on the Renolds number, in this case, the Reynolds
number is calculated 5288.2 with the properties of air at 220°C. Hence, the correlation for F(Re)
should be used is below,
𝐹(𝑅𝑒) = 1.36𝑅𝑒 0.574 2000 < 𝑅𝑒 < 30000 … … (46)(𝑀𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑎, 2009)

By using the equation (42) – (45), the Nusselt number for the jet impingement can be calculated
53.35. Therefore, the heat transfer coefficient for the jet impingement is 107.8Wm-2K-1. Using the
equation of convective heat transfer, the heat rate, qj, to heat doughs from 35°C to 80°C can be
estimated, which is 109.6W. As it is mentioned in the previous section that each teacake dough will
need 20.11kJ to be baked, the baking time can be estimated. The calculation is shown below,
The Baking Time of Teacake = 20110 ÷ 109.6 = 183.5 seconds = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟔 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐮𝐭𝐞𝐬

The baking time can be used for determining the dimensions of the jet impingement oven. In the
next section, the calculations for determination of oven dimensions would be demonstrated.
5.2.2. Dimensions of the convection oven

The doughs will be moved on to the oven with four doughs per row from the proofer. A dough is
next to the other dough with 7cm of interval on the conveyor, and its volume will be expanded
during the baking process. As the result, the gap between the teacakes will be changed to 5cm
before they move on to the cooling process. In order to make sure the belt width has enough space
for the volume expansion, the calculation will be based on the diameter of the baked products,
which is 10cm. The gap is also considered as 5cm, so that the width of the conveyor belt in the oven
should be 0.65m. With the consideration of the face length of the conveyor pulley as mentioned in
the previous section, the width of the oven tunnel should be no less than 0.7m. Therefore, the width
of the oven tunnel should be 0.75m for the enough tolerance for the width of belt conveyor. The
length of the belt can also be calculated by the number of columns for teacakes. In order to meet
the production rate, the oven has to be designed to fit 493 of teacakes, this is calculated from the
baking time of the teacakes, the calculation is shown below,
9664 ÷ 60×3.06 ≈ 493 … … (47)

With four teacakes in a row, there should be 124 columns on the conveyor belt in the oven. The gap
between the columns is also 5cm, thus, the length of conveyor belt can be calculated to be 18.65m.
The conveyor speed can be determined by the baking time and the length of the belt. Therefore,
with 3.06minutes of the baking time, the conveyor speed is 0.1ms-1. To provide an even heat
transfer distribution, four orifice nozzles have to be installed in a row with 13.4cm of gap between
the orifices so that there should be also 121 columns for orifices. These orifices have to be installed
on the ceiling and bottom inside of the oven, so that the total number of orifices should be 968.
5.2.3. The pressure required for the jet stream

The jet stream is generated by the pressure difference between the pipe a, where the orifices are
installed, and the atmosphere. A pump is connected to the main pipe in order to create high
pressure inside. To obtain the information of the pressure inside of the pipe, it is necessary to know
the volumetric flowrate of the air blown by the orifice. It can be calculated by the static head in the
pipe, of which the orifice is attached. The equation can be expressed as below,
41
𝑣𝑗2
ℎ𝐿 = … … (48)(𝐶𝑅𝐴𝑁𝐸, 1982)
2𝑔
Q j = 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 √2𝑔ℎ𝐿 … … (49)(𝐶𝑅𝐴𝑁𝐸, 1982)
Therefore, the volumetric flowrate of air for one orifice is 0.00314m3s-1. As the total number of
orifice installed on the oven should be 968, the total volume of air blown by the orifices should be
3.04m3s-1.
It is necessary to know the diameter of the pipe, which the orifice is attached to. According to
CRANE (1982), the ratio of the orifice diameter to the pipe diameter should be ranging from 0.2 to
0.8, and it has to be determined by experimental attempts, in this oven the ratio is chosen 0.5.
Hence, the smaller pipe diameter would be 4cm, and in order to deliver the amount of air to the
orifice, the fluid velocity in the pipe can be determined as 2.5ms-1. The pressure drop of the orifice
can be calculated by the equation below,
2∆𝑃
Q j = 𝐶𝐴√ … … (50)(𝐶𝑅𝐴𝑁𝐸, 1982)
𝜌
The flow coefficient C can be determined by the graph shown below,
Figure 15 The diagram of the flow coefficient against Reynolds number (CRANE, 1982)
As the figure above shows that the Reynolds number based on the pipe diameter is needed for
finding the appropriate flow factor, the Reynolds number the flow in the pipe is found to be 2644.1.
Therefore, the flow coefficient for the orifice is 0.74. By using the equation (50), the pressure drop of
the orifice is 64.46Pa.
There will be total 8 main pipes installed in the oven, where the smaller pipes with orifices are
attached, 4 of them will be placed on the ceiling of the oven and the other 4 will be placed on the
bottom. Assuming that the equal amount of air will flow into each 4cm diameter pipe before the
orifice, the air flowrate in each main pipe should be 0.38m3s-1. Four main pipes have to be designed
to fit in the oven width, which is 0.75m. From this information, the diameter of the main pipe can be
determined. The maximum outer diameter of each main pipe can be taken 0.18m, since 4 pipes have
to be fit in the oven width. Therefore, the schedule of pipe is decided as 150mm STD 40 used for the
main pipes, which has the outer diameter of 0.168m and the inner diameter of 0.154m. Under
42
these assumptions, the air velocity in the main pipe is determined as 20.4ms-1. The length of each
main pipe should be same as the length of the oven, thus, it is 18.65m.
The maximum pressure that the pipe can withstand is calculated by the Barlow’s formula, which is
shown below,
2𝑆×𝑡
𝑃= … … (51)(𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑, 2015)
𝑆𝐹×𝐷
It is assumed that the material used for the pipe is AISI stainless steel 316, and the yield strength of
the material is 205MPa, (UNITED PERFORMANCE METALS, 2017) the safety factor should be 1.5 for
calculating the working pressure. (Engineers Edge, 2000) From the given information, the pressure
that the pipe can withstand is 11.5MPa. Assuming air as the ideal gas, the pressure of air inside of
the pipe should be figured out.
𝑛𝑅𝑇 9.79𝑚𝑜𝑙×8.31×493
P= = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟓𝑴𝑷𝒂 … … (𝟓𝟐)
𝑉 0.1542
4 𝜋×18.65
Therefore, it can be confirmed that the pipe can be withstand the pressure applied by air inside of
the pipeline.
5.2.4. Energy requirement for heating air for jet impingement

Before air moves into the main pipe, it will be heated up to 220°C. From the previous section, the
total volumetric flowrate of air goes into the main pipe is determined as 3.04m3s-1, therefore, this
amount of air is needed to be heated in the heating vessel before the oven. Assuming the ambient
temperature in the oven room is 35°C, air has to be heated from 35°C to 220°C. The energy required
for completing this heating process is calculated by the equation below,
Energy Required = mair 𝐶𝑝 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (220°𝐶 − 35°𝐶) … … (53)
The air properties at 35°C will be used for this calculation. Assuming the Cp value and the density of
air are constant, the energy can be calculated as 665kJs-1, which is 665kW.
5.2.5. Burner for providing the hot air

In order to provide this amount of heat, a gas heater will be used. The gas heater will be placed in an
insulated vessel to heat up the air, the insulation can minimise the heat loss during the combustion.
Several pumps will be installed on this vessel; one of them is used for sucking the fresh air from the
atmosphere, there will be eight other smaller pumps installed with on vessel, which are connected
with the jet impingement oven. Each two of these pumps is connected with one main pipe at ceiling
and one main pipe at the bottom for supplying hot air for one row of the jet impingements. In order
to avoid hazard caused by excessive pressure in the pipes, the relief valves will be installed onto
each main pipe. The gas heater will be using the natural gas from the grid. According to Union Gas
Limited (2017), methane occupies over 95% of the composition in the natural gas from the grid. The
enthalpy of combustion for methane is 890kJmol-1, (NIST, 2016) this is used for calculating the
amount of ethanol required. Assuming all the energy is used for heating up air, 0747mols-1 of
methane is required for generating 665kJs-1. This implies that 43.03kg per hour of methane will be
needed for this burner. The average gas price for non-domestic customer in the UK is approximately
2.3pence per kWh. Compared with the electricity price of 10pence per kWh, gas is much more
reasonable for generating the amount of energy. (Department for Business, Energy & Industrial
Strategy, 2016)
Since the combustion reaction for methane is,
43
CH4 + 2𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 … … (54)
Therefore, 1.494mols-1 of oxygen will be consumed, so it is necessary to circulate air at the flowrate
of 7.11mols-1, based on the mole fraction of oxygen in air is 21%.
5.2.6. The selection of materials for orifices and the conveyor belt
Both the orifice nozzle and the conveyor belt will be exposed to the high temperature of 220°C, it is
necessary to choose the materials which have a good temperature resistance. The common material
used for construction of food processing units is stainless steel, two grades amongst them are
suitable for food processing, which are AISI 304 and AISI 316. (ISSF, 2011) However, the AISI 304 has
a high sensitivity of sodium hypochlorite and salt, which are often presented in food with high
concentration, it is not appropriate to use AISI 304 for food contact material. (Moerman and
Partington, 2014) Both materials have a good temperature resistance, the AISI 304 stainless steel
can be used for the orifices on the jet impingement oven and the AISI 316 stainless steel should be
used for the conveyor belt for the convection oven. The conveyor belt for this oven should also be a
meshed belt, because it will allow the hot air, blown from the bottom of the oven, to bake the
teacake dough. Even for the AISI 316 stainless, contacting with high concentration chloride will
damage the metal at the temperature of 150°C or above. (Moerman and Partington, 2014) Hence,
the cleaning process which involving the high concentration of chloride has to wait for the oven
cooled down.
5.2.7. Insulation
5.2.7.1. Insulation for the convection oven
For the jet impingement oven, the distance between the orifices and the products has to be
ensured. The height of the oven also needs to include the diameter of the main pipes placed on the
ceiling and the bottom of the oven. The diameter of each main pipe is 0.168m as it mentioned in the
section 5.2.3. The height of the product is 6cm, and the distance from the product and the orifice is
4cm, thus, the total distance from the orifice to the surface of the conveyor is 10cm, which has to be
included in the design of the height of the oven wall. Therefore, the total wall height of the oven
should be 0.46m. Since the height of the teacake is 6cm. the height of the entrance of the oven can
be designed as 8cm. The surface area where involves the heat transfer can be calculated by these
dimensions, which is 31.7m2. The total power generated by the oven should be 665kW, and
assuming that the insulation should limit the heat loss down to 1500W. Same as the hotplate oven
and the heating vessel, the material for the internal and the external wall would be using AISI 316
stainless and the thickness of them are both assumed 1.2cm. (The Engineering ToolBox, 2017) The
rock wool is also used for the insulation material, assuming the temperature inside of the oven is
220°C and the ambient temperature for the oven room is 35°C. Then, using the equation (40), the
thickness of the insulation can be estimated as 15.6cm. Hence, the total wall thickness is 18cm.
5.2.7.2. Insulation for the air heating vessel

It is necessary to know the dimensions of the heating vessel for the further calculations of insulation.
The dimensions of the heating vessel can be determined by the required volume. Since the total air
throughput in the vessel is 3.04m3s-1, the volume of the vessel can be assumed as 4m3 with extra
space for preventing excessively pressurised situations. The dimensions are determined to have the
simplest design, so the dimension of the vessel should be 2m height, 1m width and 2m depth. The
vessel has total 9 openings for the pumps; one is for the fresh air supply which has the diameter of
0.43m which can provide 3.04m3s-1 of air at 20.4ms-1 and the other 8 openings are for the smaller
pumps, PU402 – PU409, pumping hot air into the oven through the main pipes, the diameter of
these openings should be 0.168m. The following calculations will be based on the dimensions above.
44
The internal and the external wall for the vessel should be made of stainless steel AISI 316, the
insulation material for the heating vessel should also use rock wool. The thickness of the internal and
the external wall is assumed as same as the hotplate oven, which is 1.2cm. (The Engineering
ToolBox, 2017) The temperature inside of the vessel is 220°C and the ambient temperature in the
vessel for the convection oven is assumed 35°C. The thermal conductivity of the AISI 316 stainless
steel is 16.3Wm-1K-1 (ASM Material, 2017) and that of rock wool is 0.04Wm-1K1. The insulation has to
be constructed to minimise the heat loss from the wall, in this case, the heat loss from the vessel is
assumed to be limited down to 1500W, keeping the same standard as the insulation for the hotplate
oven. The surface area for the heat transfer is 13.68m2. Then, the thickness of the rock wool could
be estimated by the equation (40), which is 6.7cm. The total thickness of the wall should be 9.1cm.
5.2.8. Ventilation for the jet impingement oven

The volumetric flow rate of the flue gas will be necessary for specifying the ventilation system. It can
be determined by the density of each component, and the mass of each component from the mass
balance. The flue gas is assumed to leave the oven at 80°C, and the density of each components at
80°C is going to be used. From the density, the total volumetric flowrate of the flue gas is 5.987m3h-
1
. Not only the flue gas but the hot air ejected by the jet impingement system, the total volumetric
flowrate of used hot air is 3.04m3s-1. Therefore, in total volumetric flowrate of the ventilation should
be 3.042m3s-1. According to The Engineering ToolBox (2017), the flow speed of the fluid in the
secondary ducts should be 6.5ms-1, the diameter of the ventilation duct for the convection oven
should be calculated from the flow speed and the volumetric flow rate, which is 0.77m. In order to
achieve this speed, the fan has to be installed in the vent duct.
The disposal method for the flue gas from the jet-impingement convection oven will be same as the
hotplate oven. It will be condensed and send to the waste treatment section to separate ethanol
before release it to the environment.
5.3. Packaging Unit

Once the products are cooled down to the desired temperature, they will be packed and be ready for
shipping. The packaging machine has mainly two types; the horizontal form-fill- seal machine and the
vertical packaging machine. Since crumpets and teacakes are soft products, so that the vertical
packaging method may not be suitable for packaging them. This is because the greater impact would
be given to the products, which would damage the food and affect the quality of the food. Therefore,
the horizontal packaging units would be adapted for both products.
Each product will use one packaging unit which has an efficient packing ability. The products will be
fed into the horizontal packaging unit, then, the packing film will cover the products. When the
products are sealed with the packing film, the modified atmosphere (MAP) gas will be injected. In this
process, both carbon dioxide and nitrogen would be injected. Carbon dioxide has an antimicrobial
activity that can prevent growth of the micro-organisms, so that with this gas the growth of yeast can
be limited which can make the shelf life of the products longer. CO2 is soluble to liquid and some
organic compounds. This solubility can cause the pack collapse by the headspace volume reduction.
Nitrogen is also injected to the pack for limiting the growth of the micro-organisms, because nitrogen
does not let the aerobic spoilage grow. Yeast would need oxygen to grow or live, so that nitrogen is
effective for packing the crumpets and teacakes. Nitrogen is also an unreactive gas so that it can
prevent the oxidation as well. (Coles, McDowell and Kirwan, 2009)
Since the MAP gases are used for the packaging, the material of the packaging is necessary to have
high barrier to gases. Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) would be suitable for the material of the crumpet
and teacake package because of its excellent gas barrier. However, EVOH is often used for laminating
other plastic film to improve their gas barrier, so another plastic has to be chosen for being the main
45
film. Polyethylene is chosen to be used as the main material for packages because it has the low
melting point which can make sealing process much easier. (Coles, McDowell and Kirwan, 2009) Thus,
the EVOH laminated polyethylene (PE) will be used as the package material.
The bakery intends to produce packs of 4 crumpets and packs of 4 teacakes, so that the packaging
machines will need to produce 11205 packs of crumpets and 2416 packs of teacakes in an hour.
6. Pipeline Design
6.1. Pipeline Design for the stream S-157 from node 1
This pipeline is used for transporting water for the cleaning in place to the vegetable oil tank and the
emulsifier tank. The pipeline has one 3-way valve to allow cleaning in place chemicals to flow into
the pipe S-157 through the pipe S-154. Since the amount of the chemicals is very small, thus, it is
assumed to be negligible for the calculation for the pipeline and the pump.
In the transport process, the head losses have always taken place in the pipe with friction forces,
fittings, and pipe geometry. Hence, conducting appropriate piping analysis before choosing the
suitable pump is critical element on the pipeline design. In this section, the determination of the
parameters of pipeline will be demonstrated.
The first parameter has to be determined in the pipeline design is the optimum inner diameter of
the pipe. Coulson et al. (1993) states that the optimum fluid velocity has a relationship with the
density of the fluid, which can be shown in the graph below,
Figure 16 The optimum fluid velocity against the fluid density (Coulson et al., 1993)
The equation to precisely describe the relationship can be derived from the graph (figure17 ), which
is shown below,
𝑣𝑜𝑝𝑡 = 13.729𝜌−0.219 … … (55)(Coulson, 1993)
The pipeline S-157 is used for transporting water with the flowrate at 0.21kgs-1. According to the
State of Michigan (2002), the water temperature required for bulk tank washing in the clean-in-place
is 70°C (165°F). The physical properties of water at 70°C is going to be listed in the table below. Since
the fluid is pumped with a high temperature and corrosive chemicals, the pipe must be constructed
with the material which has the high temperature and the high corrosive resistance. With these
Table 14The properties of water at 100°C
46
reasons, the material chosen for the pipe is stainless steel AISI 316.
Properties Value Reference

-3
Density 978kgm (The Engineering ToolBox, 2017)
Dynamic viscosity 4.04e-4Pas (The Engineering ToolBox, 2017)
The optimum velocity for 70°C water can be calculated by substituting the density into the equation
(55), which gives 3.04ms-1. Then, the optimum diameter for the pipe can be determined by the
equation below,
0.21
4𝑄 √4× 978
𝐷𝑖 𝑜𝑝𝑡 =√ = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟒𝟖𝒎 … … (56)
𝑣𝜋 3.04𝜋
The optimum diameter calculated above has to be considered when choosing the pipe schedule.
Therefore, the 8mm 10S schedule is chosen for the pipe with the inner diameter of 10.4mm and the
wall thickness of 1.65mm. (The Engineering ToolBox, 2017)
Once the inner diameter and the velocity is determined, the Reynolds number can be calculated for
the later calculations. The calculation of the Reynolds number is shown below,
𝜌𝑣𝐷𝑖 978×3.04×0.0104
Re = = = 𝟕𝟔𝟓𝟑𝟓. 𝟕 … … (57)
𝜇 4.04×10−4
From the equation (57), the Reynolds number of 76535.7 shows that the flow regime in this pipe is
turbulent. Through the Reynolds number, it is possible to calculate the Darcy friction factor which
will be used for calculating the pressure drop across the pipe. Coulson et al. (1993) suggests that the
friction factor can be read from the Moody chart, which also can be precisely calculated by the
equation shown below,
1 𝜀 2.51
= −2 log ( + ) … … (58)(𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑙. , 1993)
√𝑓𝑓 3.7𝐷𝑖 𝑅𝑒√𝑓𝑓
The material for the pipe has already been chosen as the stainless steel AISI 316, thus, the absolute
roughness of the stainless steel 316 is 1.5e-6m. (The Engineering Toolbox, 2017) Substituting the
required parameters into the equation would give the friction factor, which is 0.0197.
After the friction factor is obtained, the pressure drop by the friction can be calculated. The length of
the pipe has been determined 20m. Therefore, the pressure drop in the pipe can be calculated by
employing the Darcy-Weisbach equation (Coulson et al., 1993), which is shown below,
1 𝐿
∆𝑃 = 𝑓𝑓 𝜌𝑣 2 … … (59)(𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑙. , 1993)
2 𝐷𝑖
The pressure drop in the pipe can be derived from the equation (59), which is
1 20
∆𝑃 = ×0.0197×978×3.042 × = 171206𝑃𝑎 … … (60)
2 0.0104
The equation above shows that the pressure drop across the pipe by the friction is 171206Pa. The
next step is to convert the pressure drop to the pressure head loss form, which can be done by the
equation below,
∆𝑃 171206
∆ℎ𝑝 = = = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟖𝟒𝒎 … … (61)
𝜌𝑔 978×9.81
47
Hence, the pressure head loss can be calculated as 17.84m.
The head loss is not only caused by the pressure drop, but also caused by the effects by the fitting,
such as bends and valves have to be considered. Since the pipe does not have bends, only the loss by
the open gate valve should be considered. Coulson et al. (1993) suggests that the head loss by the
fittings can be calculated with the equation given below,
𝐾𝑣 2
∆ℎ𝐿 = … … (62)(𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑙. , 1993)
2𝑔
There are one 3-way valve and one 90° bend along the streamline. Metropumps (2017) suggests that
the coefficient of loss, K, for the 3-way fully opened valve can be taken as 0.81. Therefore, the head
loss by the valve can be calculated as 0.382m. The 90° pipe bend will have 0.81 of the loss
coefficient, thus, the head loss by the bend is also calculated as 0.382m. (Coulson et al.,1993)
Therefore, the total friction head loss can be determined as
∆ℎ𝑓 = ∆ℎ𝑝 + ∆ℎ𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑒 + ∆ℎ𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑 = 17.84 + 0.382 + 0.382 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟔𝒎
7. Design of pump
7.1. Design of the water pump for S-157
The centrifugal pump has been chosen for the water pump, because of its wide adaptability for the
range of physical properties of substances. The pump is used for driving the fluid to overcome the
head losses occurs in the pipeline.
Therefore, the power of pump should be calculated with the equation below,
𝑃𝑝 = 𝑚̇𝑔∆ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 … … (63)(𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑏𝑜𝑥, 2017)
The htotal is the total head loss in the whole system, which consists of the friction head loss in the
pipe, the effects of the fluid velocity and the elevation differences in the pipeline. The elevation of
the pipeline, S-157, has been assumed 5m, which has to be included in the calculation of the total
head loss. The head loss in the pipe is the summation of the head loss of the friction, the head loss of
fittings, which have already calculated in the last section. By using the equation below, the total
head loss can be figured out.
∆𝑣 2
∆ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∆ℎ𝑓 + + ∆𝑧 … … (64)(𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑙. , 1993)
2𝑔
It is assumed that two points are set for the calculation of the equation (64), one point is set at the
point where nearby the pump, and the other point is set at the free surface in the tank, which is
explained with a diagram below.
Figure 17 Simplified diagram of the pump and

tanks (explaining the point)
The velocity at the point 2 can be negligible as it should be very small. Therefore, the velocity
difference in the equation (64) should be as same as the fluid velocity comes from the pump, which
48
is 3.05ms-1. Putting the necessary parameters for the equation (64), the total head loss will be able
to calculate. Hence the total head loss is,
3.042
∆ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 18.6 + + 5 = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟎𝟕𝒎 … … (𝟔𝟓)
2×9.81
Using the equation (63), the power required for the pump is,
𝑃𝑝 = 0.21×9.81×24.07 = 𝟒𝟗. 𝟔𝑾 … … (𝟔𝟔)
7.2. Specifications for the air pump PU401, PU402 – PU409

Before the specification of the air pump, it has to be assumed that air is incompressible. According to
Autodesk (2017), when the air velocity is below than 0.3 Mach, air can be assumed to be
incompressible. Based on this assumption, following calculations will be conducted.
As it mentioned in previous section, PU401 is a big pump to supply the fresh air into the heating
vessel, and PU402 – PU409 are 8 same smaller pumps to pump hot air into the oven.
In order to calculate the pressure head of each pump, the following table is going to show the
properties of necessary parameters.
Pump Air density (kgm-3) Air velocity (ms-1) Air viscosity (kgm-1s-1) Inner diameter (m)
PU401 1.177 @20°C 20.4 1.846e-5 0.43
PU402 – PU409 0.706 @220°C 20.4 2.67e-5 0.154
Pump Reynolds number Friction factor Elevation (m) Pressure head (m)
PU401 559298 0.013 0 0.64
PU402 – PU409 83070 0.019 0 48.8
Since there is no fittings nor elevations in the streamlines of these pumps, the total heads of these
pumps are equal to the pressure head. Thus, it is possible to calculate the power requirements for
these pumps by using the equation (63). The power requirements for these pumps are shown below,
Pump Power requirements (W)

PU401 22.46
PU402 – PU409 128.4
7.3. Consideration of the cavitation
The cavitation is one of the factors that needs to be considered carefully when choosing a pump, as
the occurrence of the cavitation would bring about a catastrophic hazard upon the process. The
cavitation will form when the pressure in the pump is low. When the fluid flows into the pump with
a low pressure, the component of the pump would be damaged by the pressure difference. In order
to avoid this phenomenon, the available net positive suction head (NPSHa) for the system would
need to be bigger than the required net positive suction head (NPSHr). In this section, the calculation
of NPSHa would be conducted and ensure that is larger than NPSHr.
The NPSHa can be calculated by the equation shown below, Pfs= Pressure at the free surface
𝑃𝑓𝑠 𝑃𝑣 ∆𝑣 2
NPSHa = − ± ∆𝑧 + − ∆ℎ𝑓 … … (67)(𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑙𝐵𝑜𝑥, 2017)
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Pfs is the pressure above the suction tank, or the pressure inside of the pipe where the water is
sucked from. Since the pump is transporting 70°C water, the saturated vapour pressure for water at
the temperature is 31160Pa. (The Engineering ToolBox, 2017) If the Pfs is assumed as the
atmospheric pressure, then NPSHa will be negative, thus, the absolute pressure required for Pfs is
going to be calculated in this section. Δz, is used as positive when the pump is below the tank where
49
the fluid is transported to, Δz is called static head in this case. On the other hand, Δz would be
negative if the pump is higher than the tank, this would be called suction lift. (Pump School, 2017)
This pump is placed below the tank, so the Δz will be used as positive.
Therefore, the NPSHa for this pump is calculated as below,
𝑃𝑓𝑠 31160 3.042

NPSHa = − +5+ − 18.6 … … (68)
978×9.81 978×9.81 2×9.81
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝑎
Bloch (2013) claims that the margin ratio of more than 1.3 is needed for completely
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝑟
eliminating the damage from cavitation. According to the specifications provided by Simerics (2017),
the average NPSHr for the centrifugal pump is 4m. Thus, by applying the margin ratio, the NPSHa
should be larger than 5.2m. This means that the pressure in the main water supply has to be larger
than 207kPa, or 2.07bar
The power requirement of the pump is based on the valve is fully opened, but the power
requirement could be changed depends on how much the valve is opened or the variation of the
fluid velocity. In order to access these factors, the system curve would need to be developed. The
equation of the system curve can be expressed as,
ℎ = ℎ𝑠 + 𝑘𝑄 2 … … (69)(𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑙𝐵𝑜𝑥, 2017)

where the static head is the head which is independent with the changing factors, such as the
flowrate, the velocity, the fitting conditions. In this case the static head could be the elevation across
the pipe. The constant k is the friction loss coefficient, which is calculated from the coefficients of
fittings. It is can be calculated by the equation below,
𝐿 𝐾𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑒 + 𝐾𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑
𝑘 = 𝑓𝑓 ( 2
)+ … … (70)
2𝑔𝐴 𝐷𝑖 2𝑔𝐴2
From the equation (70), the coefficient k is 3.871e+8. Once k is figured out the system curve can be
plotted, which is shown below,
Figure 19 The pump curve of centrifugal pump (Earle, 2017) Figure 18 The system curve derived from the pipeline S-157
Using the system curve above, and the pump curve can determine the sizing of the pump and the
pump efficiency, therefore, the true power requirement for the pump could be determined by using
the equation below,
𝑃𝑝
Ptrue = … … (71)(𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑙𝐵𝑜𝑥, 2017)
𝜂
50
8. Design of Control Valve

The valve installed on the pipe would play a great role on managing the process by controlling the
flowrate or shutting-off the flow when it is needed. This can be accomplished by using the control,
pressure relief, globe and shut-off valves. In this section, the design of the control valve will be
mentioned.
The control valve is used for controlling the flowrate, which can be done manually and also
automatically. The valve has to be sized to avoid the flashing of the hot liquid as well as the super-
critical flow of the fluids. (Coulson, 1993)
A 3-way valve is installed on the pipeline S-157 to let the cleaning in place chemicals flow into the
pipeline S-157 through S-154. Since the fluid flowing in the S-157 is at high temperature, and
contains corrosive chemicals, it is crucial to consider the corrosive resistance and the temperature
resistance. Moreover, the material that is suitable for using in the food industry has to be chosen for
this equipment. The AISI 316 stainless steel is chosen because of its great resistance of corrosion
and the wide acceptance in the food industry.
Globe type valve is chosen for the 3-way valve installed on

the pipeline S-157, because the globe valve uses the
double plug and port as its structure. The double port type
is the most common valve type used for the control valve,
thanks to its ability of balancing the internal pressure and
giving a smoother flow. Flow smoothness is a very
important factor in the flow control, and the smoother
flow could bring about the better process control. (Dam,
2010) Figure 20 The diagram for the 3-way globe valve
(CRANE, 2017)
The valve implemented on the pipeline S-157 would generate the fluid resistance along the pipeline,
which will cause the pressure drop. The liquid pressure drop across the valve can be estimated by
the equation below,
𝑄[𝑈𝑆 𝑔𝑝𝑚] 2
∆𝑃[𝑝𝑠𝑖] = ( ) 𝑆𝐺 … … (72) (𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 2017)
𝐶𝑣
Cv is the flow coefficient across the valve can be calculated from the equation (72), which would be
necessary for sizing the valve. In order to obtain this coefficient, the maximum allowable pressure
drop has to be figured out. Siemens (2017) suggests that the pressure drop of the valve is commonly
designed to be limited to within 25% of the maximum pressure head [psi] of the pipeline. From the
predetermined total pressure head of 24.8psi, the valve should be designed to absorb 6.2psi of
maximum pressure drop.
Substituting the predetermined parameters of the flowrate in the unit of US gpm, the pressure drop
in the unit of psi and the specific gravity of water at 70°C (The Engineering ToolBox, 2017) into the
equation (72), the flow coefficient can be determined.
𝑄 3.41
𝐶𝑣 = = = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓 … … (73)
√∆𝑃 √ 6.2
𝑆𝐺 0.977
51
From the equation (73), the flow coefficient across the valve in the S-157 determined as 1.35.
However, the coefficient obtained from the equation (73) has not included the considerations for
the fluid viscosity. Therefore, the viscosity coefficient has to be introduced into this estimation of the
actual flow coefficient, which can be accomplished by the equation below,
Cvr = 𝐶𝑣 𝐹𝑣 … … (74)(𝐸𝑀𝐸𝑅𝑆𝑂𝑁, 2017)

The viscosity coefficient can be read off from the group provided below,
Figure 21 The Viscosity Correction factor vs Reynolds number (Spiraxsarco, 2017)

Applying the Reynolds number predetermined from the previous section, the viscosity correction
factor for the pipeline S-157 can be determined. As the Reynolds number is 76535.7, the factor can
be read off as 0.97. Therefore, the actual flow coefficient for the valve sizing is,
Cvr = 0.97×1.35 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟏
9. Cleaning procedures
Cleaning process would be one of the sections that needs to take extra considerations on in order to
guarantee the food safety, since deteriorated food quality would probably cause catastrophic
accidents which may massively affect the client’s reputation. In this bakery, 3 hours a day would be
dedicated to the cleaning process. This section will demonstrate the methods of cleaning for the
units in the node 4.
Conveyor belts installed in the ovens and the coolers have a great opportunity for containing the
crumbs from the baked products, which would be the best places for the growth of bacteria.
Therefore, the clean-in-place unit will be installed to clean it regularly.
For the conveyor belts for coolers and ovens, two types of cleaning method would be adapted. The
first one is to use a brush placed under the conveyor belt, as the belt rotating the brush can wipe off
the crumb on the belt surface. This would avoid contamination in the products and keep the belt
smooth enough for conveying.
The other one is to use nozzles installed under the conveyor belt to spray cleaning chemicals to the
belt surface, while the belt is driven by the pulleys. The cleaning agents can be classified into six
types, each type will be described in the table below,
Name Effects
Acid This would remove hard rigid crystallised salts,
metal oxides and hydroxides.
52
Table 15 Classification of the cleaning agents for clean-in-place (Tamime, 2009)
Alkali Used for removal of organic pollutions.

Active Chloride Limiting the growth of micro-organisms and
minimising the organic pollutions.
Oxide This will limit the organic pollutions.
Organic solvent Removing the organics by dissolving them.
Enzyme Enzymes can absorb specific organic pollutants,
the addition of alkali soap or additive can
activate them to remove organic foulants.
However, temperature and pH would be
important parameters for the effective cleaning
by Enzymes.
In the bakery, the cleaning agents for the clean-in-place are: nitric acid, sodium hypochlorite, caustic
soda and the peracetic acid. Nitric acid will be used as the scale removal, and removing any build-up
in the equipment. This chemical is not required to apply for each CIP process, but it is necessary to
be used every six months. (Process-worldwide, 2016) Sodium hypochlorite is a commonly used low-
cost cleaning agent to inhabit the micro-organisms. The caustic soda is used for removing fats by
softening them. Peracetic acid is an intensive acid that could kill yeast and bacteria in half minutes.
(Process-worldwide, 2016)
The nozzle used for CIP process will be flat fan nozzles, which can spray the
cleaning agents with a wide-angle range. This could enable the cleaning agents
covering the full width of the belt with the minimum number of nozzle installed.
The material for the nozzle must be the stainless AISI 316, since the chloride is
contained in the cleaning agents. Figure 22 The flat
fan nozzles (Lechler,
Each CIP process will involve unique cleaning stages and the cleaning duration, 2017)
but the common sequence of the cleaning often found in food industry would be involving following
operations,
Table 16 The common CIP sequence in the food industry (HATLAR group, 2010)
Stage Duration (seconds)

Cold rinse 600
Hot rinse 600
Fill caustic tank 400
Caustic flush 600
Caustic rinse 400
Final rinse 360
Rinse to drain 600
Total 3560 seconds (59 minutes)
This sequence should be employed in the daily cleaning hours for both ovens and coolers.
10. Process Control System

10.1. Start-up and Shut-down procedures
10.1.1. Hotplate oven
Before turning on the oven, the operators have to check the inside of the oven, side of the oven and
top of the oven are clean. Equipment for moving the air must be turned on beforehand to make
proper airflows. The damages on the conveyor belt should be checked at this stage. (AFC Finishing
Systems, 2017) The temperature of the oven is very crucial for the baking process. Initially, the oven
53
must be heated up to the desired temperature, which is 210°C for the hotplate oven, before the
batter comes in.
When shutting down the oven, products should be all removed from the oven, the operator must
not touch the surface of the oven until the temperature is low enough. The any debris should be
removed from the oven before the CIP process. CIP process applied in a high temperature
environment would likely damage the material of the oven, since even AISI 316 cannot withstand
the corrosion by chlorine at the temperature of 150°C or above, (Partington and Moerman, 2014) so
low temperature is required for the CIP process.
10.1.2. Jet-impingement oven

Making sure that the oven is free of any debris, and turned on the airflow equipment before turning
on the oven. The hot air for baking the teacake comes from the heating vessel, the heating vessel
needs to be able to supply hot air at stable rate. The pressure in the main pipes should be
appropriate for the jet streams. Once the jet stream reaches the desired velocity, the oven
temperature should go up. The doughs should not come into the oven before the temperature
becomes 220°C.
By shutting down the oven, the burner and the air pumps in the heating vessel should be turned off
first. Then, the pressure inside of the main pipes should be neutralised to the atmosphere. CIP
process should not start until the oven temperature become low enough as AISI 316 cannot
withstand the corrosion by chloride at 150°C or above. (Partington and Moerman, 2014)
10.1.3. Crumpet Cooler and Teacake Cooler

The fans in the coolers should start when the coolers are turned on. The required air velocity should
be achieved before the cooling process starts, in order to make the cooling process more efficient.
The conveyor belt should not contain any dirt or debris.
10.2. Process Control System Philosophy

The process control is one of the most significant sections amongst the plant that needs to be carefully
designed. Since this plant is for manufacturing food, it is highly necessary to ensure the food hygiene
across the bakery for maintaining the reputation of the client and for safe customer consumption.
Moreover, the bakery should be designed to assure that the frequency of the unexpected or abnormal
operations is less than what is assumed in the risk analysis. (Center for Chemical Process Safety, 2017)
At the same time, in order to minimise the failure rate, the process control has to be designed for
meeting the industrial product quality standards and for providing the consistent product quality.
(Trystram, 1997)
Birmingham Food Consultancy has established a process control philosophy to aim for plant safety
with maximum hygiene and food quality.
Detailed objectives of the process control system have to be designed by following the conditions
listed below,
Category of objectives Conditions

Safety  Keeping the appropriate parameters for instrumentations, while
preventing the equipment from overloading, which might lead to
failures.
 Make sure that each equipment has an enough ability to detect
unusual conditions and to inform the control centre with alarms
or signals.
54
 The process control system should be able to shut down the

manufacturing process automatically, if any emergencies take
place.
Production rate  Make sure that the manufacturing process is smooth enough to
provide desired production rate with minimal time losses.
 Make sure that every ingredient is transported smoothly, so that
there is minimum chance of incidents that could possibly cause
time losses, such as clogging in the pipes.
Product quality  The required number of ingredients should be delivered properly;
suitable cooking time and cooking conditions have to be applied
to the products.
Economic feasibility  Process control system should provide an automated system that
minimising the cost of labours that needs for operating the plant.
 The control system would automatically limit the equipment
preventing the overloads, which would minimise the damage to
the machines and increase the lifetime of each equipment unit.
55
10.3. Process Control Hierarchy
Figure 23 A diagram of process control hierarchy (Popović and Bhatkar, 1990)

The process control hierarchy is commonly constructed with five pyramid shaped layers, which is
showed in the figure 24 above. The hierarchical control system plays an important role with the whole
control system, which would determine the most economical decisions without compromising the
product quality and production rate. The working mechanism of process control hierarchy is the higher
layer would decide the plans and schedules and the order would pass through to the lower layer
control systems. The field level of control components will take into account the decisions that higher
level made to control the actual plant.
Figure 24 The levels of DCCS (Popović and Bhatkar, 1990)

This hierarchical control system can be realised by implementing the Distributed Computer Control
System (DCCS). DCCS is the system uses decentralised computers, elements to control the distributed
processes. It can offer the flexibility of the whole process, extension of equipment lifetime, simplified
integration of equipment and ease of centralised maintenance. (IEEE Global Spec, 2017) The system
consists of five main levels, which are explained below.
 Level 0: This is the lowest level over the DCCS, which consists of the devices installed all over
the plant to measure the parameters. These components are usually connected via wires to
provide a central access from the controllers in the further levels.
56
 Level 1: Three main components are usually installed in this level, the control module, which
would control the parameters to the desired conditions, the programmable logic controller
(PLC), which can monitor the status of the devices, initiate the emergency shutdown
mechanism across the whole plant. Another instrumentation installed is the data collection
unit, which would collect data from both control modules and PLCs to transfer it to further
levels.
 Level 2: This level consists of machines with human interface, to let plant workers grasp the
overall situation happening in the plant and interact with any occurrences. The operators have
to operate as required to avoid any unnecessary, unexpected shutdown or accidents that
might cause the delay of production rate, which will result in less economic viability.
 Level 3: Third level of the control system consists of the host computers to monitor and gather
all the data from the controllers at the lower levels. The data will be processed and analysed
with complex processes so that the host computers have to be very powerful.
 Level 4: Fourth level of the DCCS will have computers that collect data from lower levels and
create the schedule of the plant, including production control, maintenance, and optimisation.
10.4. P&ID Implementation

This section focuses on the process control systems that would be installed across the node 4, to avoid
any variations in parameters that might cause the inconsistency of product quality or the failures of
the entire plant. This section is separated into subsections for each equipment in the node 4, to
mention the considerations have been made for safety and consistency.
10.4.1. Hotplate Oven

Temperature control: The hotplate consists of the conveyor belt which is made of separated
hotplates. The heating agent is high resistance wire, which is embedded in each hotplate. Therefore,
there is minimum risk of electric sparks would happen. Since the baking process is a continuous
process, the disturbance for the hotplate temperature would be caused by the low-temperature
crumpet batter entering the oven. It is necessary to install thermocouples onto the hotplates, so that
the temperature indicator-controller can monitor the temperature variations and minimise the
fluctuation of the temperature.
Fire alarm: Since the temperature inside of the oven is very high, it is possible to cause fire with very
low probability. Therefore, a fire alarm should employ to the oven for preventing the accidents
related the fire caused inside of the oven.
10.4.2. Convection Oven

Pressure control: This oven would use jet impingement system to bake teacake, high pressure is
essential factor for the impingement system as it is the driving force of the hot air. The oven adapts
eight main pipes that contains high pressure hot air from the heating vessel for the jet. This pressure
has to be maintained to ensure the velocity of the jet stream. The hot air would be continuously
released by orifice nozzles, which would be a disturbance of the pressure inside of the main pipe.
Therefore, a pressure sensor has to be implemented inside of each main pipe to measure the pressure.
This sensor is connected to the pressure indicator-controller (PIC), which can adjust the power output
of the air pumps.
Temperature control: Consistent temperature also has to be provided to ensure the best quality of
the product. By isolating the hot air from the ventilation system, the disturbance for the temperature
by the vent is minimised, but there is a tiny amount of airflow which will probably disturb the constant
temperature. A thermocouple will be installed in the oven, which will continuously monitor the
57
temperature, which will be connected to the temperature indicator-controller (TIC) to let it control
the power output of the air heating system.
Fire alarm: The fire alarm will be installed on the convection oven as well, to prevent negative
influences to the whole process by the fire incidentally caused by the oven.
10.4.3. Heating vessel

Fire alarm: This unit is the only unit using the actual fire across the process. Hence, it will have a
relatively higher possibility of causing fire hazard. Therefore, the fire alarm will be installed on the
vessel, which can inform operators if the emergency situations happened.
Fail close valve: This valve is connected to the fire alarm, in the emergency cases, the valve will
receive information from the alarm and close the valve, so that the gas supply can be ceased.
10.4.4. Crumpet Cooler and Teacake Cooler

Temperature control: The temperature would be one of the crucial factor for the cooling system. Thus,
the temperature has to be monitored by the thermocouples installed inside of the cooler, which are
connected with the temperature indicator-controller (TIC). The TIC can control the speed of fans to
minimise the temperature variations.
Conveyor speed control: The controller of conveyor speed would be provided to get the flexibility of
the production line.
10.4.5. Crumpet Packaging Unit and Teacake Packaging Unit

Conveyor speed control: The control system for the conveyor speed will be installed on the
packaging unit to gain the flexibility for the production rates.
9. Cost Economics
Preliminary cost estimation is very useful for the initial feasibility studies and to seek alternatives for
more economic solutions. Since it is usually based on the limited data of cost data, ±30% of errors
would often happen. (Coulson and Richardson, 1996) A series of cost estimation will be conducted in
this chapter to give a preliminary cost estimation of the node 4 in the whole process.
9.1. Purchase Cost of Major Equipment

Purchase Cost of Major Equipment (PCE) is the total cost of purchasing the all equipment needed for
the process. The cost can be used as the basis of the factorial method of cost estimation, which can
predict the other costs, such as fixed capital costs (FCC) and the physical plant cost (PPC).
The following table is showing the approximate PCE of each equipment in the node 4.
Table 17 Purchase cost of equipment (2004 and 2017 mixed)
Equipment Parts Designation Number Total Cost Reference

(Richardson,
£17657.8 (2004 Sinnott and
Conveyor belt C402 1
Hot plate basis) Coulson,
oven 1993)
£323946.7 (2017 (Triton
Hot plate - 1
basis) Alloys, 2017)
(Richardson,
Jet
£16154 (2004 Sinnott and
Impingement Conveyor belt C401 1
basis) Coulson,
Oven
1993)
58
(Tyco Fire
£ 67023 (2017
Orifice nozzle - 484 Production,
basis)
2017)
(Richardson,
£52747.8 (2004 Sinnott and
Gas heater B401 1
basis) Coulson,
1993)
(Richardson,
PU401,
Heating £31765 (2004 Sinnott and
Centrifugal Pump PU402- 9
Vessel basis) Coulson,
PU409
1993)
(Richardson,
Sinnott and
Vessel HV401 1 £3331 (2004 basis)
Coulson,
1993)
(Richardson,
£27603.6 (2004 Sinnott and
Conveyor belt C404 1
Crumpet basis) Coulson,
Cooler 1993)
£249263 (2017 (Matches',
Fans - 254
basis) 2017)
(Richardson,
£10245.4 (2004 Sinnott and
Conveyor Belt C403 1
Teacake basis) Coulson,
Cooler 1993)
£113837 (2017 (Matches',
Fans - 116
basis) 2017)
Crumpet
£4355.6 (2017 (Alibaba,
Packaging Packaging Unit P402 1
basis) 2017)
Unit
Teacake
£4355.6 (2017 (Alibaba,
Packaging Packaging Unit P401 1
basis) 2017)
Unit
The cost of some miscellaneous equipment can be estimated by the coefficients and the equation
provided by Richardson, Sinnott and Coulson (1993). The equation and the coefficients are shown
below,
𝐶𝑒 = CS 𝑛 … … (75)(𝑅𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠𝑜𝑛, 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑜𝑛, 1993)

Table 18 The coefficients for cost estimation (Richardson, Sinnott and Coulson, 1993)
Equipment C (£) (2004 basis) n (Index)

Conveyor belt (0.5m wide) 1200 0.75
Conveyor belt (1.0m wide) 1800 0.75
Furnaces (Box) 340 0.77
Tank 1450 0.6
Centrifugal Pump 1160 0.8
The cost of the conveyor belts in the hot plate oven and in the crumpet cooler, C402, C404, are
calculated based on the coefficients of 1m wide conveyor belt, and the conveyor belts of jet
59
impingement oven and the teacake cooler, C401, C403, are calculated based on the coefficients of
0.5m wide conveyor belt.
The gas heater, B401, in the heating vessel, HV401, is considered as same as the boxed furnace,
when estimating the cost. The heating vessel, HV401, is assumed as same as a vertical tank when
estimating the cost.
The cost of the hot plate is calculated by obtaining its weight. Since the surface of the hot plate can
be calculated from the dimensions of the hotplate oven, the volume of the hotplate can be
estimated by assuming its thickness is 1cm. The material of the plate is hastelloy C22, using its
density, 8690kgm-3, (HighTempMetals, 2017) the total weight can be estimated. Triton Alloys (2017)
provides that the price of hastelloy C22 is $80 per kg, the total cost of the hotplate can be obtained.
As some of the cost is based on 2004 prices, it is necessary to convert them to the prices in 2017 by
taking inflations into account. The chemical engineering index will be used for the method of
conversion. The equation below is used for the inflation calculation.
𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑖𝑛 2017
Cost in 2017 = Cost in 2004×
𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑖𝑛 2004
… … (76)(𝑅𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠𝑜𝑛, 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑜𝑛, 1993)
The chemical engineering index of 2004 is mentioned in the work by Richardson, Sinnott and
Coulson (1993) which is 154. The index of 2016 is increased up to 556.8. (Chemical Engineering
Online, 2017) By using the equation (76), the cost of equipment can be estimated and shown in the
table below,
Table 19 Purchase cost of equipment with inflation considerations
Equipment Cost in 2017

C401 £58406
C402 £63843.2
C403 £37043
C404 £99803.1
B401 £190714
HV401 £12044
P401, P402 – P409 £114849
The total cost of equipment in the node 4 in 2017 is £1,339,483.2. As PCE is obtained, other cost can
be calculated by the factorial method, which will be demonstrated in following section.
9.2. Fixed Capital Costs

The fixed capital is the cost of the bakery ready for start-up. It includes following costs of:
 Design and engineering supervision

 All equipment with the installation fees
 Piping, instrumentation and process control system
 Building
 Land and civil engineering work
This cost can be calculated with the total physical plant cost (PPC). The total plant cost includes not
only the major equipment in the process, but also includes the additional cost on piping, electrical
wiring and utilities. These cost can be predicted by using the factors listed below,
60
Item Factor number Value

Equipment erection F1 0.4
Piping F2 0.7
Instrumentation F3 0.2
Electrical F4 0.1
Buildings, process F5 0.15
Utilities F6 0.5
Storages F7 0.15
Site development F8 0.05
Ancillary buildings F9 0.15
𝑃𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝐶𝐸×(1 + 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3 … + 𝐹9 … … (77)(𝑅𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠𝑜𝑛, 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑜𝑛, 1993)
Therefore, PPC is £4,554,242.9. After the PPC is obtained, the FCC can be estimated by these factors,
Item Factor number Value

Design and Engineering F10 0.3
Contractor’s fee F11 0.05
Contingency F12 0.1
FCC = PPC×(1 + F10 + 𝐹11 + 𝐹12 ) … … (78)(𝑅𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠𝑜𝑛, 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑜𝑛, 1993)
Hence the Fixed Capital Cost of the node 4 is £6,603,652.2.
9.3. Running Costs

Another important consideration in the cost estimation is that the operating cost. Estimating the
costs for running the plant is critical for the evaluation of the economic feasibility of the plant. There
are two main costs to consider when conducting the study of the operating cost, the variable
operating cost and the fixed operating cost. The variable operating cost is the cost of the material
which will tend to change over the time, such as the cost of electricity, and the cost of gas. The fixed
operating cost includes the costs keep constant over time, it is including the insurance, taxes,
licensing fees.
Firstly, the fixed operating cost (FOC) will be calculated. According to Coulson and Richardson (1993),
the FOC can be predicted by using the factors for FCC, which will be listed in the table below,
Fixed costs (Annual) Factors Values

Maintenance costs 10% of FCC £660365.2
Operating labour (OL) 20 labours, each £30000 £600000
Lab costs 20% of OL £120000
Supervision 20% of OL £120000
Plant overheads 50% of OL £300000
Capital charges 10% of FCC £660365.2
Insurance 1% of FCC £66036.5
Taxes 2% of FCC £132073
Royalties 1% of FCC £66036.5
Total - £2724876.4
Therefore, the FOC for the node 4 can be estimated £2724876.4 annually.
The variable cost should be calculated based on the amount of the resources used by the node 4.
The main resources used in the node 4 are electricity and the gas.
61
 The power requirement for the hotplate oven O402 is 29.4kW, the process will be running
21hours a day, 340days a year, thus, the total electricity used by O402 is 209916kWh
annually.
 The power requirement for the crumpet cooler conveyor C404 is 0.21kW, the total annual
electricity is 1500kWh.
 The power requirement for the teacake cooler conveyor C403 is 0.064kW, the total annual
electricity is 457kWh.
 The pump PU401 has 22.46W, so that the electricity consumption is 160kWh, and the
PU402-PU409 have the same power requirement of 128.4W, so each pump will consume
916.8kWh. There are eight same pumps, thus, the total annual electricity consumption is
7334.2kWh.
 Other than electricity, the heating vessel for the jet impingement oven would use gas. It will
need 700kW, which means it would consume 4998000kWh of gas energy annually. This
means it would need 307234kg of methane will be consumed in the heating vessel in a year.
 The amount of nitrogen and carbon dioxide consumed by the packing machines is
64533.57kg per year and 152114.9kg per year, respectively. According to Richardson,
Sinnott and Coulson (1993), the price of nitrogen in 2004 was 6 US cents per m3. Since the
US producer price index of nitrogen in 2004 was 104.1 and became 164.7 in 2016, the price
in 2004 can be converted to price in 2017 by the equation (76). Therefore, the price of
nitrogen in 2016 was 9.5 US cents per m3, which is 8 pence per m3. BOC (2017) claims that
the price of CO2 is 4 pence per m3.
Based on the given data of energy consumption, the variable operating cost can be calculated.
The energy prices for industrial usage is provided by the UK government (2016).
Energy source Price for industry Amount of usage Total cost

Electricity 10.843 pence per kWh 219367.2kWh £23786
Gas 2.533 pence per kWh 4998000kWh £12660
3 3
Nitrogen 8 pence per m 55393.6m £4431.5
Carbon dioxide 4 pence per m3 82581.4m3 £3303.3
Total £44180.5
Therefore, the annual variable operating cost for node 4 can be determined as £2769056.9.
Hence, the total operation cost will be £2343752.5.
10. Conclusions
The purpose of this section is to provide an overall review for the methods and the considerations
have been adapted in the process of designing the node 4 of the bakery. It can evaluate the reliability
and the validity of the designs.
Throughout the equipment design process, the calculations were all based on the parameters
provided from the revised mass and energy balance, which has been succeeded in enhancing the
reliability of the mass and energy balance in the scheme report by adapting several additional
references. Birmingham Food Consultancy does not use the method of detailed mass transfer in order
to calculate the mass balance, this is due to lack of several crucial parameters, such as the surface
vapour concentrations and the diffusivity coefficients, which should be obtained by sophisticated
experiments and simulations.
The specific heat capacity is another important parameter that has huge influence with the whole
design calculations. Hence, it is assumed very carefully to minimise the error. The specific heat
62
capacity of the crumpet is assumed higher than that of teacakes, because the crumpets likely contain
more moisture than the teacakes do.
During the calculation of the coolers, the cooling time is determined with the calculations of heat loss
due to three main heat transfer mechanisms. The assumption made for this calculation is all the heat
loss from the hot baked products is used for evaporating the water. Based on this assumption, it was
possible to estimate the cooling time of crumpets and teacakes as 5.56 minutes and 2.87 minutes,
respectively. Due to the assumption made in this section, the cooling time maybe altering in the real
units.
The jet speed is an assumption made for the calculation of the heat transfer in the jet impingement
oven. This is because it would be necessary to know the maximum wind load that the teacake dough
can withstand in order to know the optimum wind speed for the jet stream. Unfortunately, it is
impossible to measure it without a practical experiment, thus, the slowest jet speed was chosen for
the calculations. It is clear that if the faster jet speed can be used for the oven, which would increase
the heat transfer coefficient. Therefore, the baking time of the teacake might be shorter in the real
situations.
There is a heating vessel for supplying hot air for the jet impingement oven, which will generate 700kJs-
1
of heat would be generated. In design report, it is assumed that this amount of heat will be only used
for the jet impingement oven, but it might be a possibility to consider the heat integration with other
nodes to provide more efficient way to treat the heat in the further design improvements.
A HAZOP for the node 4 has been conducted, which improved P&ID controlling system across the
process for minimising the possibility of hazard so that P&ID for the ode 4 on this report has been
carefully considered and achieved the best quality.
The cost estimation for the node 4 shows that the fixed capital cost of £4772175 and the total
operating cost of £2321768.1 each year. The FCC is probably relatively high because the alloys
employed in this bakery is relatively expensive, which can withstand several extreme environments,
such as high temperature, highly corrosive situations.
To conclude this report, the process has been designed with care of food safety, durability and
economic feasibility. The more detailed economic analysis will be discussed in the final report.
Therefore, it is able to say that the design of the node 4 in the bakery is economically viable with the
ability to produce the high-quality food products.
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74
125. Appendices
125.1. Specification Sheets
Table 20 The data specification sheet for crumpet cooler
Process Specification Crumpet Cooler Prepared by Derui Zhu
Client Warburtons Checked by Derui Zhu
Plant Crumpet Bakery Date 14.03.2017
Plant Location Lemington
Belt Width [m] 1.35 Belt Speed [ms-1] 0.1
Power
Belt Length [m] 38.1 0.21
Requirement [kW]
Default Wind
Face length [m] 1.4 5
Speed [ms-1]
Maximum Wind
Hub Centre [m] 1.35 8.96
Speed [ms-1]
Diameter of fan
Shaft Diameter [cm] 2.55 15
[cm]
Pulley Diameter [cm] 5.37 number of fans 254
Pulley Thickness [mm] 8 Material of fans PVC
Cooling time
Pulley Contact face grooved lagging 5.56
[minute]
Maximum Stress on Pulley Capacity
68.95 4146
[MPa] [crumpets]
Maximum Stress on Shaft Air Filter
55.16 EU12
[MPa] Requirement
Material of wall
Belt Material Polyester Rockwool
insulation
Thickness of the
Pulley Material AISI 316 stainless steel 0.257
insulation [m]
Contoured End Disk Total load on
Hub Connection 42.07
with Integral Hub support [kN]
AISI 316
Material for
Pulley Condiguration Drum style Pulleys stainless
support
steel
Maximum support
Wall Material AISI 316 stainless steel height adjustment 75
allowance [mm]
75
Table 21 The data specification sheet for teacake cooler
Process Specification Crumpet Cooler Prepared by Derui Zhu

Belt Width [m] 0.65 Belt Speed [ms-1] 0.1
Belt Length [m] 38.1 Power Requirement [kW] 0.064
Face length [m] 1.4 Default Wind Speed [ms -1] 3
Maximum Wind Speed
Hub Centre [m] 1.35 5.39
[ms-1]
Shaft Diameter [cm] 1.04 Diameter of fan [cm] 15
Pulley Diameter [cm] 2.19 number of fans 116
Pulley Thickness [mm] 4 Material of fans PVC
Pulley Contact face grooved lagging Cooling time [minite] 2.87

Maximum Stress on
68.95 Capacity [teacakes] 346
Pulley [MPa]
Maximum Stress on
55.16 Air Filter Requirement EU12
Shaft [MPa]
Belt Material PolyesterMaterial of wall insulation Rockwool
Thickness of the insulation
Pulley Material AISI 316 stainless steel 0.257
[m]
Keyed Hub with Set
Hub Connection Total load on support [kN] 16.15
Screw
AISI 316
Pulley Condiguration Drum style Pulleys Material for support stainless
steel
Maximum support height
adjustment allowance 75
[mm]
Table 23 The data specification for crumpet packaging machine

Process specification Crumpet Packaging Machine
Type Horizontal form-fill seal machine
Pack material EVOH laminated polyethylene
Packing speed 11205 packs per hour
Table 22 The data specification for teacake packaging machine
Process specification Teacake Packaging Machine
Type Horizontal form-fill seal machine
Pack material EVOH laminated polyethylene
Packing speed 2416 packs per hour
76
Table 25 The data specification sheet for hotplate oven
Process Specification Hotplate Oven Prepared by Derui Zhu

Height [cm] 5 Conveyor speed [ms -1] 0.117
Width [m] 1.4 Oven temperature [°C] 80
Length [m] 21 Hotplate Temperature [°C] 210
Capacity [crumpets] 2241 Vent diameter [cm] 5.4
Wall Material AISI 316
Hotplate Material Hastelloy C22
Baking time [minute] 3
Heating element nichrome
Power requirement [kW] 29.4
Insulation material Rockwool
Insulation thickness [cm] 6.25
Table 24 The data specification sheet for the jet impingement oven
Process Specification Jet Impingement Oven Prepared by Derui Zhu
Plant Teacake Bakery Date 14.03.2017
Height [m] 0.46 Conveyor speed [ms -1] 0.117
Width [m] 1.4 Oven temperature [C] 220
Length [m] 18.65 Hot Air Temperature [C] 220
Capacity [teacakes] 493 Vent diameter [cm] 5.4
Wall Material AISI 316 H/D 2
Nozzle Material AISI 304 diameter of the nozzle [cm] 2
-1
Conveyor belt material AISI 316 Air velocity [ms ] 10
Baking time [minute] 3.06 Diameter of the main pipe [m] 0.154
Heating element Hot air Diameter of the vent duct [m] 0.77
Power requirement [kW] 665 -1 6.5
Velocity of the ventilation [ms ]
Insulation material Rockwool Number of Nozzles 968
Insulation thickness [cm] 18
77
Table 27 The data specification sheet for the globe valve

Process Specification 3way Globe Valve Prepared by Derui Zhu
Plant Crumpet&Teacake Bakery Date 14.03.2017
Pressure drop [psi] 6.2
Flowrate [kgs-1] 0.21
Fluid temperature [C] 70
Flow coefficient 1.35
Actual Flow Coefficient 1.31
Viscosity Correction Factor 0.97
Material for valve AISI 316 stainless steel
Table 26 The data specification sheet for the centrifugal pump (S-157)
Process Specification 3way Globe Valve Prepared by Derui Zhu
Plant Crumpet&Teacake Bakery Date 14.03.2017
Pump Type Centrifugal Pump
Pump Material AISI 316 stainless steel
Fluid Density [kgm-3] 978
-1
Flowrate [kgs ] 0.21
Fluid Temperature [C] 70
Pump Power [W] 49.6
Total Head [m] 24.07
Vapour Pressure [Pa] 31160
NPSHa [m] 5.2
NPSHr [m] 4
NPSHa - NPSHr [m] 1.2
Required Operational Pressure [kPa] 207
78
38100
30
25.5
53.7
1000
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DRAWN BY: Derui Zhu SCALE & UNITS PROJECTION TITLE OF PROJECT
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING CHECKED BY: Derui Zhu 1:5, mm Side Design Project Crumpet Cooler
THE UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM DATE: 12/03/2017
38100
30 150
1400
1350
25.5
53.7
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DRAWN BY: DeruiZhu SCALE & UNITS PROJECTION TITLE OF PROJECT
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING CHECKED BY: DeruiZhu
Plan Design Project Crumpet Cooler
1:5, mm
1350
150
25.5
53.7
1400
50
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING CHECKED BY: Derui Zhu
Front
1:5, mm Crumpet Cooler
To Waste Treatment
Air Input S-415
S-416 Air Output
PA
401 RTT
CD401 401
S-412
FA
PT 401
401
FSC
S-404
401 S-417 N2 Input
S-405 20 1 S-418 CO2 Input
S-406
S-407
Dough Input S-401 220 1 S-402 S-414 P401 S-419 Teacake Output
C401 C403
CO401
S-408 V414 V415
FA PIC S-409
403 401 S-410 SIC SIC

S-411
401 402
S-434
V401-V408 O401
S-435
TT
220 1 PT PA 401
402 402
HV401
S-403
TIC
Air Input
Filtered Air Input
S-424
P401 PIC 401 S-425 Air Output
402
B401 RTT
V409 P402-P409 402
Gas Input S-413

FA FSC
402 S-422 402 S-427 N2 Input
20 1 S-428 CO2 Input
S-433
80 1
Batter Input S-420
S-421 S-423 P402 S-426 Crumpet Output
210
C402 C404
O402 CO402
V412 V413
S-432
TIC TT SIC SIC

402 402 403 404
CIP Input S-429 S-430 S-431
V410 V411
Temperature(°C)
1 Pressure(bar)
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING CHECKED BY: Derui Zhu Hotplate Oven &
Jet-impingement Oven Individual Design Project KG1 Node 4
THE UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM DATE: 11/03/2017 Coolers & Packagers
LSH LY
M 501
CV-501 20 LSH
512
FR
S-501c-SS316
FST501 S-502c-SS316
phY
501
phY
512 CV-523 506
LAHL
501 LY
501
502
HE502 3WV-510 S-518a-SS316
LR Base Acid S-518-SS316 S-521a-SS316

501
LSL
CV-506 CV-507 FR
505
PS501 LAHL
Water out
501 S-505-SS316 M S-506-SS316 S-521a-SS316 CV-521
LT 512
501 LSH LR LT
LSH 506 512 512
LSL
3WV-503
M 502
CV-502
3WV-504 S-503a-SS316
phR phT
TR Water in TY TT TR 512
504
S-501b-SS316
FST502 S-502b-SS316
501 501
FR
503
502
P-504 S-518b-SS316 P-505
504 504
TT
LAHL LAHL TY 502 LSH DV-503
LY 506 502
502
502 phR FT
CV-517 LR 511 S-519a-SS316
LR
502 LR NT501 CV-510
502
501 LT 511
LSL
LAHL
511
P-506
LSL 511 511 S-522a-SS316
502 506 LY
LT
502
LT
LSL
506
FY
501
FR
501 P-503 20 LSH
510
FR
S-520a-SS316
506
LY 510
503 CV-520 505
LSH
S-504a-SS316
LY
M 503 CV-522
CV-503 3WV-505 S-503-SS316 511
Wastewater
3WV-501
FST503 S-502a-SS316
3WV-507
phY
CV-512
FS501 S-517-SS316
FR
PS501 S-521b-SS316
503 Water
LAHL phY 504 LAHL
out
S-501-SS316 S-501a-SS316 S-509-SS316 S-521b-SS316 CV-518
503 LY 504 3WV-509 510 S-520a-SS316
LR LT
503 3WV-508 S-516-SS316 510 510
LR
CV-508
Acid LSL
503
LSL CV-509 Water in TY TT TR 510
LT 503
M S-508-SS316 503 503 503
S-507-SS316 Base
503
LSH P-508
LSH 507 LSH
3WV-502 M
504
CV-504 3WV-506 S-503b-SS316 phR
503
phT P-501 LT
LR
509
509
LAHL DV-502 P-507
S-501d-SS316 FST504 S-502d-SS316
LAHL
502
P-502 S-511 LSH

523
S-522b-SS316
509 LSL
509
509
S-522b-SS316 LSH
LAHL
507 525
504 LY
504
phR LR
523
S-520b-SS316
S-519b-SS316 LTS503
LR
504 LR NT502 CV-511 504
S-510-SS316 LT LAHL
LTS502 LAHL
525
LSL 507
S-504b-SS316 523 LY LR LT
504 523 CV-519
LT LSL
509 525 525
504 LY S-523-SS316 LY
LT 507 LSL 523 LSL
507 LY 523 525
M
LSH 507 525
505
CV-505 3WV-512 3WV-513 3WV-514
S-501e-SS316
FST505 S-502e-SS316
S-522b-SS316
3WV-511 S-529-SS316 S-527-SS316 S-524-SS316 S-525-SS316
LAHL
505 LY
505
S-590-SS316 S-528-SS316 S-526-SS316 25
LR 3WV-516 3WV-515 LSH
505 S-535-SS316
LSL
S-546-SS316
M 516
LT
505
3WV-518 3WV-517 25
S-547-SS316 LSH FR LR LT
505 S-540-SS316 S-538-SS316
M 515 S-534-SS316 510 516
S-589-SS316 S-530-SS316 516
S-548-SS316 FR CV-524
3WV-531 25 S-529-SS316 508

LR
515
LT
515 Water MBR503 S-530-SS316 LAHL
516
4WV-502 Water out
3WV-519 S-543-SS316 M LSH
514 Water
S-539-SS316 MBR502 S-539-SS316
LAHL
in
P-511 TY S-583-SS316
515 507
FR LR LT in CV-528 Water out TR LSL
507
506 514 514 P-510 TY 516
Water
S-541-SS316 CV-532 MBR501 S-541-SS316 LAHL
506 TR
506
LSL
515
FY
504
FT
504
FR
511 TT DV-504
514 507
S-591-SS316 in
Outside S-582-SS316 Water out FY FT FR
TT DV-503
S-533-SS316
Air BO501 Electricity P-509 TY

505 TR
505
LSL
514
503 503 509
506 CV-527
LY
515 CV-526 B503
S-531-SS316 CV-525 LY
516
LY S-532-SS316
FY FT FR S-536-SS316
502 502 507 TT CV-530 514 CV-529 B502
505 S-537-SS316
P-512 P-513 P-514
Atmosphere
S-545-SS316 3WV-517
S-544-SS316 3WV-516
S-301 CV-531 S-542-SS316
Air to
3WV-522 3WV-524
B501 S-553-SS316 S-551-SS316 3WV-523
S-552-SS316 S-550-SS316 S-549-SS316
4WV-501 3WV-520 3WV-532
S-574-SS316 25 LSH
CB-301 Mains HE501
PY 3WV-525
S-565-SS316
S-561-SS316
M 25 LSH 3WV-529
S-557-SS316
FR
M
517
LT
Water FR
523
TY
515 501
Biogas
S-573-SS316
3WV-521
S-572-SS316
M 25 LSH
519 FR
518
LR LT
S-556-SS316
S-554-SS316 CV-539
512
LR
517 517
S-584-SS316
TR
515
S-513-SS316
FR LR LT CV-536
514
MBR505 518 518 Water MBR504 S-554-SS316 LAHL
517
516 519 S-560-SS316 in Water out
FC PT S-571-SS316 519 S-560-SS316
LAHL
301 S-305 TT
Sludge/Slurry Mixture 35 S-566-SS316 CV-532 Water in 518 TY
FC
LSH
524
515 501
CV-518
S-526
Water in
MBR506 S-566-SS316
LAHL
519 TY
Water out P-515 508 TR
508
LSL
PR Water out 517
S-304 302 LR S-511-SS316 P-516 509 TR LSL FT FR
524 S-512-SS316 501 TY FY DV-505
FI V-301 V-332 V-313
LT LAHL
LTS501 P-517 510 TR LSL
509
518 505 505 513 TT
508
pHT pHR FT FR
TT
301
TI HI TI 524 524 M LSL
510
519
FY
506 506 515 TT DV-506 LY
TI FI 506 505 509 517
301 301 S-311 304 302 302 302 LSL
LY
524
Water in 508 FY
507
FT
507
FR
517 TT DV-507 CV-537
S-559-SS316 CV-540
S-558-SS316
524
S-514-SS316
510
S-561-SS316 LY
CV-538 B504 S-558-SS316
S-307 S-306 CV-513 CV-534
LY 518 P-518 P-517
3WV-534
S-339 S-567-SS316 CV-535 S-563-SS316 S-555-SS316 3WV-528
FT HI
CF-309 V-317
Outside LAHL S-569-SS316 519 B505
S-562-SS316
S-564-SS316
3WV-533
301 302 508 CV-533 B506
Air FR
Water out
AD501
S-568-SS316
TT FT 3WV-527 S-579-SS316 M
25 LSH
F-301 S-303 NRV-301

F-302 302 302 CB-303 Water in CV-514
S-515-SS316
502
3WV-530
S-570-SS316
S-580-SS316
FR
520
LR LT
P-521 518 520 520
3WV-526
TT TR
S-515-SS316
P-520 P-519 S-575-SS316 CV-543
MBR507 S-575-SS316 LAHL
501 501 Water in Water out
520 P-522
H-301 H-302 TY
501
CV-515
P-523
TY
511
BAV-301 S-512-SS316 S-516-SS316
TR
511
LSL
HC 520
301 P-525 FY FT FR
TT DV-508
508 508 519
511
LT LR S-517-SS316 LY
520
LIC HC 508 508
S-576-SS316 CV-541 S-578-SS316
301 S-315 BV-301 302 LSL GV-501 S-578-SS316
Fertiliser/Compost mixture CV-542
HF-301 FY
508
FT
508
FR
519
508 B507
LIC
302
RO-301 LIC
307
S-592-SS316
DV-501
LY S-577-SS316
S-316 S-321 CV-542 508
HF-302 V-302 HF-307 B508
LIC LIC
303 S-322 308
HF-303
S-317
V-303 S-312
V-318 HF-308
LIC LIC FY
304 S-323 309 509
HF-304
S-318 LIC LAH V-319 HF-309 S-588-SS316
FT FR
V-304 313 301
TT TR
Chlorine 509 520 M LSH
521
LIC 513 513
LIC TY 20
305 S-319
ST-301 V-320
S-324 310
HF-310 513
SST501 S-518-SS316
BFP501 CV-542
3WV-535
HF-305 V-305
S-313 LAL
S-314
NRV-303 LIC
FR
522
S-587-SS316 DT501 S-587-SS316
LSH
NRV-302 301
GV-302 S-325 311 Water in S-521-SS316
S-521-SS316 Water in FR
521 LAHL
LTS504
522
LIC
306 GV-301 V-316
HF-311 S-309 S-519-SS316
CV-543
S-587-SS316
521 LAHL
522
S-320 V-315 V-321 CV-516 LR
HF-306 CF-301 CF-311 CF-312
LIC
S-520-SS316
Water out LY
522 LT
522
NRV-304 LSL
GV-303 312 P-526 522 522
Dough V-310 S-326 Solid fertiliser/ soil conditioner TT TR
S-302 V-306 CF-302
S-329 HF-312 TY
512 512 512
HALH HI GV-304 NRV-305 HALH HI LR LT

V101 CB-302 303
301 301
V-307 CF-303
V-311
S-330 CIP & 302
S-310 Air to
S-586-SS316
CV-544
521 521
Water Liquid fertiliser

103
Water for
102
NRV-306
TIC GV-305 S-308
V-312 S-331 V-322 Atmosphere LSL
301 V-308 NRV-309 CF-306 irrigation LY 521
NRV-307
CF-304 521
GV-306 CB-304
CIP & Water

TALH S-333 V-313 S-332 GV-308 DV-509
301 V-309 TIC V-327 S-334
NRV-310
Sugar Salt CIP 1 CIP 2 CIP 3 CIP 3 CF-305 302 V-323 CF-307
LRC LRC NRV-308
LRC LRC LRC LRC GV-307 GV-309 S-587-SS316 P-524
101 102 V-314 S-333 S-335
113 114 115 115 TALH NRV-311 V-328
ST105 ST106 ST107 ST107 DR-301 FIC UP-302 302 S-338 V-324 CF-308
WR
S101
WR
S102 301 M-301 V-325
GV-310
V-329 S-336
101 NRV-312
102
101
CF-309
CV119 CV118 CV118 CV118 CW-301 UP-301 V-326 GV-311
FRC FRC
RV102
SIC SR B-301 FIC NRV-313
V-330 S-337
101 RV101 102 301 301 302 CF-310
PLC PLC PLC PLC B-302 GV-312
PLC PLC
102 102 102 102 SIC
302
SR
302
MIC MR S-327 B-303 V-331 S-338
S-328
101 101 GS101 301 301 SIC SR B-304 Dough
To Waste Treatment
Air
V102 V103 109 303 303

Air
SIC SR SIC SR to Oven
304 304 306 306
SR
155
153
159
157
SIC
104 105 ST103 & ST104 305 305 CIP Recycle & SIC SR
Air Input S-415
107
307 307
Waste Treatment
,other pieces
CV118 CV117 S-416 Air Output
106
of equipment CV116 CV115 154 CV113
PRC 161 160 158 156

PA PLC
V104 101 101 102
PLC
ST101 & ST102 102
PLC
102
PLC
102
PLC
102 CV114 PA
108
PRC ,other pieces

110
of equipment
B101
101
Manual Loading
W
SB101 SB102
W
166 165 164 163 162
PLC
102
401 RTT
Manual Loading
CD401 401
167
S-412
F F
PLC
103 H101 PLC
104 FA
133c 133b
Water
PT 401
401
139
CV102 CV103 HE102
TA
131b 128b 125b 122b
W
LRC PLC
FSC
140
B101
101 PLC
101
105 106
401 S-417 N2 Input
131a
128a
125a
122a
133a
141
TRC TI FRC
136 S-404
101 101 102
V107
1 CO2 Input
132b
TI FIC S-405 20 S-418

138
102 101
132a W
C103 C103 C103 C103
LRC S-406
V111 CV101 PLC B102 106
101
165
Water
129
PLC
101 FRC S-407
102
137 V108
130
127
124
121
HE101 Dough Input S-401 220 1 S-402 S-414 P401 S-419 Teacake Output
119
V105 126 Manual Loading

Dried
118
123 Fruit
C401
112
113
PLC
101
PLC
101
PA
102
120 PLC
101
LRC
107
S104
C403
V109 152 CV109 CV110 151
PR FRC
LRC Flour LRC Flour 102 106 PLC PLC FRC
103 104 101 101
CO401
111
105
RV103
S103b 145
WR S103a WR Water PLC FRC
CV104 142 101 107 146 147
103 104
CV107 CV108
CB101
S-408 V414 V415
LAH
FRC FRC TT TIC

103
MSP101 104 MSP102
M201
LIC TT TIC
M202 LIC
LAH
V114
CIP Blue Line
FA PIC S-409
171
TAH
LAL
TAL
CV105
117
145
co-201
PIC
SIC
TAH
401 SIC
TAL
LAL
PLC
co-202
V112 172 PIC

Vegetable
115
CV106 Emulsif-
101
403
114
PAH
V111 cv-202 PAH LRC
Oil iers
LRC S-410
110
143
V115 112
401 402
144
CIP Red Line cv-201 Rv-201 cv-239

Water in 31 Rv-210 ST103 ST104
134
LRC cs201 Water out cv-238

111 V106 cs201 1bar Water in 28 cs210
Water out
S-411
V112 FIC
cv-203
RE101 V113
Waste Treatment
cs210 1bar
170 P201 FIC
cv-240
V401-V408
O401
116
PRC V114
P221
Dv-201
102 TRC P103 P104

Waste Treatment
135 102 Cream Cream

V111 Yeast Yeast
LRC LRC Dough
s-225
CV120 108 109 s-224

s-202
168 169
B102 166
ST101 ST102 PLC
101
FRC
108
PLC
101
FRC
109 TT
GST101
PLC
103
167 CV111
CV112
220 1 PT PA 401
169 168
waste water 402 402
waste water treatment HV401
148
149
treatment
V110 150
S-403
TIC
Filtered Air Input

PU401 PIC 401
s-220
cv-237 402
LAH
LIC
s-201 S201
LIC D201 B401
PU402-PU409
LAL LAH
V409
cv-236
P202 waste water
P220 treatment Gas Input
Dv-210
S-413
FT FT FT FT FT FT
s-222
FT
s-223
Vegetable oil for

lubrication To Waste Treatment
FY FY FY FY FY FY FY
cv-204 FIC cv-206 FIC cv-208 FIC cv-210 FIC cv-212 FIC cv-214 FIC cv-216 FIC cv-218
s-201 s-201 s-201 s-201 s-201 s-201 s-201 Mo201 Batter Input
cv-205 cv-207 cv-209 cv-211 cv-213 cv-215 cv-217
s-221
Air Input
LAH
LAH
LAH
LAH
LAH
LAH
LAL
LAL
LAL
LAL
LAL
LAL
S-424
LAH
LAH
LAL
LAL
c101
LIC
s-203 PIC
LIC
s-204 PIC
LIC
s-205 PIC
LIC
s-206 PIC
LIC
s-207 PIC
LIC
s-208 PIC LIC
s-209 LIC
s-210
S-425 Air Output
co-203
co-204
co-205
co-206
co-207
co-208
PIC PIC
co-209
co-210
F201 F202 F203 F204 F205 F206

s-219
PAH
PAH
PAH
PAH
PAH
PAH
F207 F208
PAL
PAL
PAL
PAL
PAL
PAL
PAH
PAH
PAL
PAL
TIC TIC TIC TIC TIC TIC

TIC TIC
TAH
TAH
TAH
TAH
TAH
TAH
TAL
TAL
TAL
TAL
TAL
TAL
TAH
TAH
TAL
TAL
35 Rv-202 35 Rv-203 35 Rv-204 35 Rv-205 35 Rv-206 35 Rv-207

35 35
cv-220
cv-219
Water
out cv-222
cv-221
Water
out cv-224
cv-223
Water
out cv-226
cv-225
Water
out cv-228
cv-227
Water
out cv-230
cv-229
Water
out
cv-231
Water
out
Rv-208
cv-233
Rv-209
Water
out
RTT
cs202 cs203 cs204 cs205 cs206 cs207 cv-232
cs208
cv-234
cs209
402
FIC FIC FIC FIC FIC FIC
FIC FIC
s-211
s-212
s-213
s-214
s-215
s-216
cs202
cs203
cs204
cs205
cs206
cs207
s-217
s-218
Cs209
cs208
P203 P204 P205 P206 P207 P208

P209 P210
Water Water Water Water Water Water Water
in in in in in in in
FA FSC
Dv-202
Dv-203
Dv-204
Dv-205
Dv-206
Dv-207
Dv-208
Dv-209
402 402 S-427 N2 Input

20 1 S-428 CO2 Input
P211 P212 P213 P214 P215 P216 P217 P218
FT
1
s-211
s-212
s-213
s-214
s-215
s-216
s-217
s-218
80
FY
FIC S-420
S-421 Crumpet Output
S-423 P402 S-426
s-219 s-219 s-219 s-219 s-219 s-219 s-219 cv-235 210
P219 C402 C404
O402 CO402
V412 V413
S-432
TIC TT SIC SIC

402 402 403 404
CIP Input S-431
V411

Detailed Individual Report - Derui Zhu (Final Version)

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Detailed Individual Report - Derui Zhu (Final Version)

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DESIGN PROJECT INDIVIDUAL

Name: Derui Zhu

Module: Design Project

Word Count: 28931 words

MARCH 14, 2017

4.2.1. Determination of wind speed ....................................................................................... 25

7.1. Design of the water pump for S-157 ..................................................................................... 48

Aw: surface area of wind force interferes [m2]

1.2. Aims and Objectives

Figure 2 Simplified process flow diagram proposed by B.F.C.

2.2. Ingredient Batching and Transportation

2.3. Crumpet manufacturing processes

2.3.2. Crumpet Proofing and depositing

2.3.3. Crumpet Baking process

2.3.4. Crumpet Cooling process and packing process

2.4. Teacake manufacturing process

2.4.2. Teacake divider, intermediate proofer and moulder

2.4.3. Teacake final proofer

2.4.4. Teacake Baking Process

2.4.5. Teacake Cooling process and packing process

2.5. Waste Treatment

3. Revised Mass and Energy balance

Table 2 Specific heat capacity for crumpet ingredients

Ethanol (vapour) 1.54 (Global Digital Central, 2010)

3.2. Teacake Convection Oven

Ingredient Temperature Change Sensible Heat (kJ)

3.3.1.1. Crumpet Cooler

3.3.1.2. Teacake Cooler

3.4. Packaging Unit

4. Main Design: Coolers

4.1. Belt Conveyor

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 44818 ÷ 60×5.55 = 4145.7 … … (2)

𝐵𝑒𝑙𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑦𝑜𝑟 ÷ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 … … (3)

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 9664 ÷ 60×2.87 = 462.3 … … (4)

4.1.2. Conveyor pulley

4.1.2.1. The face length of the conveyor pulley

4.1.2.2. Expected belt tension

4.1.2.4. Choice of the hub connection

Figure 6 Effects of pre-stress on the end disk (ProCal Inc., 2014)

Type Advantages Disadvantages Actual figure

ER – Internal Bearings Shaft and bearings are It is not suitable for

Weld-On Hubs & Shaft and bearings are Pre-stressing would

4.1.2.5. Determination of the pulley configuration

Drum Style Pulleys

This configuration is the simplest configuration, a cylindrical shaped tube with a

Wing Style Pulleys

This type of pulley has a non-continuous contact surface, consists of multiple

Spiral Style Pulleys

Angled Wing Pulleys

4.1.2.6. Determination of material

Plastic and other non-metallic

Standards for stainless steel selection for food applications

4.1.2.7. The selection of the contact surface

Figure 7 The illustrated patterns of grooved lagging. (ProCal Inc., 2014)

4.2. Cooling fan

4.2.1.1. Maximum wind load and wind speed on crumpets

4.2.1.2. Maximum wind load and wind speed on teacakes

4.2.2. Determination of material for cooling fans

4.2.3. Position of the cooling fans

4.3. Determination of the cooling time

Total Energy to be cooled = mcrumpet 𝐶𝑝 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑡 ∆𝑇 … … (10)

Q(conv. ) = 29.82×0.01×44818×(353 − 293) = 584874.9W = 𝟖𝟎𝟗. 𝟖𝟗𝐤𝐖 … … (17)

4.3.2. Teacake cooler

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 = 𝑚teacake 𝐶𝑝 𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑘𝑒 ∆𝑇 = 638.9×1.88×(358 − 293)