Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FAÇADE NOTES
PART I
EUROCODE
PART II
BRITISH STANDARDS
PART III
AMERICAN STANDARDS
ANNEX
DESIGN AIDES
3RD EDITION │2014
LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA
DISCLAIMER
This compendium of international building codes and standards for façade construction is compiled as private property for
the purposes of personal notes only. The compiler does not claim ownership specifically where data or content is
referenced to a source.
If this façade notes reaches the hands of another person aside from the compiler, it should not be distributed, copied or
published in any form or manner. If information contained in this notes are used as reference, the compiler does not
guarantee or warrant the accuracy, reliability, completeness or currency of the information nor its usefulness in achieving
any purpose. Readers are responsible for assessing the relevance and accuracy of the content of these notes. The
compiler will not be liable for any loss, damage, cost or expense incurred or arising by reason of any person using or
relying on information in these notes.
LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA
nd
PE Board Examination Topnotcher, 2 Place │1998
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering - Saint Louis University │1993 – 1998
Master of Science in Structural Engineering - University of the Philippines │1999 – 2001
______________________
PART I
EUROCODE
3RD EDITION │2014
LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Table of Contents
I-1 LOADS 5
1.1 Dead load (D) 5
1.2 Imposed/live load, (L) 6
1.3 Snow load (S) 12
1.4 Wind load (W) 14
1.5 Load combinations 25
PART 1 EUROCODE 3
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
8.5 Glass stress and deflection 64
8.6 Climatic effects 67
8.7 Structural silicone glazing (SSG) 69
8.8 Safety glass TRAV Requirements 71
8.9 Glass fins 73
4 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES LOADS
I-1 LOADS
1.1 Dead load (D)
Density of materials EN 1991-1-1:2010, Table A.3
Group Material Density, γ Group Material Density, γ
[kg/m³] [kg/m³]
Metal Aluminium 2 700 Concrete Normal weight 2 450
Bronze 8 450 Light weight 900 – 2 000
Copper 9 100 Heavy weight > 2 000
Iron, cast 7 400 Natural Stone Granite 2 750 – 3 000
Iron, wrought 7 750 Basalt, diorite, gabbro 2 750 – 3 150
Lead 11 600 Tachylyte 2 650
Steel 7 850 Sandstone, gray wacke 2 100 – 2 750
Stainless Steel 7 850 Dense limestone 2 000 – 2 950
Zinc 7 340 Slate 2 850
Glass Glass (annealed) 2 500 Aggregates Light weight 900 – 2 000
Plastic ETFE film - Normal weight 2 000 – 3 050
PVC-U 250 1 400 Heavy weight > 3 050
Terra Cotta 2 100 Sand 1 400 – 1 950
Insulation Rockwool (Loose) 25 Gravel & sand 1 500 – 2 000
Rockwool (Medium) 51 Wood Timber 350 – 1 100
Rockwool (Dense) 70 Plywood 500 – 700
FRC GRC 2 680 Particle board 700 – 1 200
Fibre board 800 – 1 000
PART 1 EUROCODE 5
LOADS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
1.2 Imposed/live load, (L)
1.2.1 Occupancy live load, LV
Imposed load balconies including floors and stairs EN 1991-1-1:2010
Load Description EN 1991-1-1 UK NA
Table 6.2 Table NA.3
qk [kN/m²] Qk [kN] qk Qk
A A1/A2 Single family dwelling units incl. communal areas 1.5 2.0
Domestic A3 Hotels, motels, hospital wards, toilet areas 1.5 – 2.0 2.0 – 3.0 2.0 2.0
and
residential A4 Billiard, snooker rooms 2.0 2.7
activities A5 Balconies in single family dwelling units 2.5 2.0
A6 Balconies in hostel, guests house, residential club 2.5 – 4.0 2.0 – 3.0 3.0 2.0*
A7 Balconies in hotels and motels 4.0 2.0
B B1 General use above ground level 2.5 2.7
Offices 2.0 – 3.0 1.5 – 4.5
B2 Ground level or below 3.0 2.7
C1 C11 Public, institutional and communal dining rooms and
2.0 3.0
Areas with lounges, cafes and restaurants
tables 2.0 – 3.0 3.0 – 4.0
C12 Reading rooms with no book storage 2.5 4.0
C13 Classrooms 3.0 3.0
C2 C21 Assembly areas with fixed seating 4.0 3.6
Areas with C22 Places of worship 3.0 – 4.0 2.5 – 7.0(4.0)
fixed seats 3.0 2.7
C3 C31 Corridors, hallways, aisles in institutional type buildings not
Areas subjected to crowds or wheeled vehicles, hostels, guest 3.0 4.5
without houses, residential clubs, and communal areas in blocks of flats
obstacles C32 Stairs, landings in institutional type buildings not subjected
for moving to crowds or wheeled vehicles, hostels, guest houses, 3.0 4.0
people residential clubs, and communal areas in blocks of flats
C33 Corridors, hallways, aisles in all buildings not covered by
C31 and C32, including hotels and motels and institutional 4.0 4.5
buildings subjected to crowds
C34 Corridors, hallways, aisles in all buildings not covered by
C31 and C32, including hotels and motels and institutional 3.0 – 5.0 4.0 – 7.0 5.0 4.5
buildings subjected to wheeled vehicles, including trolleys
C35 Stairs, landings in all buildings not covered by C31 and
C32, including hotels and motels and institutional buildings 4.0 4.0
subjected to crowds
C36 Light duty walkways- access for one person, width ≤ 600
3.0 2.0
mm
C37 General duty walkways- regular two-way pedestrian traffic 5.0 3.6
C38 Heavy duty walkways- high density pedestrian traffic incl.
7.5 4.5
escape routes
C4 C41 Dance halls and studios, gymnasia, stages 5.0 3.6
Physical C42 Drill halls and drill rooms 4.5 – 5.0 3.5 – 7.0
activities 5.0 7.0
C5 C51 Assembly areas without fixed seating, concert halls, bars
5.0 3.6
Susceptible and places of worship
5.0 – 7.5 3.5 – 4.5
to large
C52 Stages in public assembly areas 7.5 4.5
crowds
D D1 General retail shops 4.0 – 5.0 3.5 – 7.0(4.0)
Shopping/ D2 Department stores 4.0 3.6
Retail areas 4.0 – 5.0 3.5 – 7.0
Note: * Concentrated at the outer edge
6 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES LOADS
1.2.2 Barrier loads, LH
Claddings shall be designed to sustain safely the characteristic values of the line load qk acting at the height
of the partition wall or parapets but not higher than 1.20 m
Horizontal loads on partition walls and parapets, qk [kN/m] EN 1991-1-1:2010
Category Sub-category examples EN 1991-1-1 UK NA
Table 6.12 Table NA.8
A (i) All areas within or serving exclusively one dwelling including 0.36
Domestic and stairs, landings etc. but excluding external balconies and edges
residential activities of roofs [see (vii)]
(ii) Residential areas not covered by (i) 0.20 - 1.0 0.74
B and C1 (iii) Areas not susceptible to overcrowding in office and (0.5) 0.74
Offices areas institutional buildings, reading rooms and classrooms including
stairs
(iv) Restaurants and cafes 1.5
C2, C3 & C4 (v) Areas having fixed seating within 530 mm of the barrier, 1.5
Areas where people balustrade or parapet
may congregate
(vi) Stairs, landings, balustrades, corridors and ramps 0.74
(vii) External balconies and edges of roofs 0.8 – 1.0 0.74
Footways within building curtilage and adjacent to
basement/sunken areas
D (viii) All retail areas 1.5
C5 (ix) Footways or pavements less than 3 m wide adjacent to 1.5
Areas susceptible to sunken areas
large crowds
(x) Theatres, cinemas, discotheques, bars, auditoria, shopping 3.0
malls, assembly areas, studios
3.0 – 5.0
Footways or pavements greater than 3 m wide adjacent to
sunken areas
(xi) Grandstands and stadia (See requirements of appropriate -
certifying authority)
E (xii) Industrial; and storage buildings except as given by (xiii) 0.74
Storage and and (xiv)
industrial areas
(xiii) Light pedestrian traffic routes in industrial and storage 0.36
0.8 – 2.0
buildings except designated escape routes
(xiv) Light access stairs and gangways not more than 600 mm 0.22
wide
F and G (xv) Pedestrian areas in car parks including stairs, landings, 1.5
Garages and ramps, edges or internal floors, footways, edges of roofs See Annex B
vehicle traffic areas
(xvi) Horizontal loads imposed by vehicles See Annex B
PART 1 EUROCODE 7
LOADS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
1.2.3 Maintainance load, LM
Roof live load
Roofs shall be designed to sustain safely the characteristic uniformly distributed load qk and concentrated
load Qk acting independently.
Imposed loads on roofs EN 1991-1-1:2010
H EN 1991-1-1 UK NA
Roofs not accessible except for Table 6.10 Table NA.7
normal maintenance and repair 2 2
qk,[kN/m ] Qk,[kN] Slope, α qk,[kN/m ] Qk,[kN]
α ≤ 30˚ 0.6
0 – 1.0 0.9 – 1.5
30˚ < α < 60˚ 0.6[(60-α)/30] 0.90
(0.4) (1.0)
α > 60˚ 0
I
Consider appropriate imposed loads according to categories A to D
Roofs accessible by occupants
8 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES LOADS
BMU Loading
• Definition acc. to EN 1808:1999
1 – Trolley unit
2 – Monorail track
3 – Traversing trolley
4 – Single point suspended platform
5 – Carriage
6 – Fixed davit
7 – Counterweight suspension beam
8 – Suspended platform
9 – Parapet clamp
10 – Suspended chair
Wind loads EN 1808:1999 Cl. 6.3.3
Wind load
Description Wind speed Wind pressure Impact energy**
for 3m long BMU*
2
Normal operation (25mph) 11.2 m/s 0.08 kN/m 0.29 kN 280 N·m or J
2
Unrestrained (H ≤ 40 m) 14 m/s 0.125 kN/m 0.46 kN 690 N·m or J
2
Restrained (H > 40 m) 20 m/s 0.25 kN/m 1.00 kN 1400 N·m or J
Notes: * The exposed area of one person standing on a work platform behind
2
an imperforate section of fencing 1 m high is 0,35 m with the centre of area
2
1,45 m above the platform floor. The full area of one person is 0,7 m with the
centre of area 1,0 m above the platform floor.
** Impact energy of the suspended platform when allowed to be drawn
or sucked from façade by negative gust wind pressures acting on the
suspended platform, and then released to impact into façade.
• Minimum restraint force
EN 1808 Cl. 6.7: The mullion guide and anchor points shall be adequately
attached to the building and capable of withstanding the operational and
wind loads imposed upon them with the platform in any position. The
members linking the platform to the mullions or anchor points shall be
capable of withstanding the operational and wind loads imposed upon them.
For the calculation, the minimum value of the effort applied to the
restraint system shall be 1 kN.
• Restraint system
EN 1808 Cl. 7.7.3: The lowest restraint point shall not be more than 40 m above
the lowest working level. The distance between restraints above 40 m shall not
exceed 20 m.
1 – Anchor point
2 – Member linking the platform to the anchor point
3 – Suspension wire ropes
Allowable stresses EN 1808:1999 Cl. 6.2.1.1
Condition Allowable Allowable
Load
yield stress, breaking stress,
case
σE/νE σR/νR
1 In service conditions, SAE with RL affected by wind. Fy/1.5 Fu /4.0
Occasional conditions (e.g. static and dynamic tests, Fu /2.2
2 Fy /1.33
tripping of overload detection device)
Extreme conditions (e.g. operation of secondary Fu /1.5
3 Fy
device, out-of-service wind)
PART 1 EUROCODE 9
LOADS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
100 kg mass at a
Class A2 - Inclined roof anchor devices 10 kN [4.3.1.2] maximum of 300
1 – Structural mm horizontal
anchors eccentricity from
the anchor point to
2 – Anchor point
freely fall at a
height of 2500 ±
50 mm.
10 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES LOADS
PART 1 EUROCODE 11
LOADS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
1.3 Snow load (S)
Snow load on roof is considered as medium term load, i.e., to have a notional duration of one month acc. to
EN 1991-1-3 Cl. 5.
Snow load on monopitch roof EN 1991-1-3:2003
Action Values Notes Clause
Data Z Zone Fig. C.1
A Site altitude, [m] through
Characteristic snow load, Sk: C1.13
Region Sk Characteristic snow load on ground,
2
UK [NA.2.8] 0.1Z + 0.2 + ( A − 100 ) 525 [kN/m ] Table C.1
2
Snow load Case (i) Undrifted snow load Characteristic snow load, [kN/m ] 5.2 (3)P
s = Ce · µ1 · sk Exposure coefficient, Ce:
Case (ii) Drifted snow load Topography Ce Table 5.1
s = Ce · µ2 · sk Windswept 0.8
case (iii) Exceptional snow drift
Normal 1.0
s = µ3 · sk
Sheltered 1.2
12 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES LOADS
Figure 1.3-1 Characteristic ground snow load map Fig. NA.1 UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-3:2003
PART 1 EUROCODE 13
LOADS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
1.4 Wind load (W)
1.4.1 Relevant dimensions
For low-rise buildings (h/d ≤ 0.25), according to EN 1991-1-4, Table 7.1 the effect of building plan dimension
is more severe on the positive pressure of the windward face when the inwind depth “d” is the longer
dimension. Albeit, the directional factor is conservatively assumed unity.
1.4.2 Directional factor, cdir
Directional factor, cdir EN 1991-1-4:2005 Clause 4.2
EN 1991-1-4 UK NA [Table NA.1]
Direction - 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330°
cdir 1.0 0.78 0.73 0.73 0.74 0.73 0.80 0.85 0.93 1.00 0.99 0.91 0.82
1 − 0.2 × ln − ln ( 1 − p ) 1 − 0.2 × ln − ln ( 1 − p )
Probability factor c prob = =
1 − 0.2 × ln − ln ( 1 − 1 50 ) 1.3343
14 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES LOADS
1.4.5 Calculating peak velocity pressure
Wind load calculation for EU EN 1991-1-4:2005
Action Values Notes Clause
Data vb,0 Fundamental value of basic wind velocity (10 min. 4.2 (1)P
mean), [m/s]
Factors cdir = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.2] Directional factor, [-] 4.2 (2)P
cseason = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.3] Seasonal factor, [-]
c prob = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.4] Probability factor, [-]
Basic velocity vb = cprob · cseason · cdir · vb,0 Basic wind velocity, [m/s] 4.5 (1)
pressure qb = ½ρ·vb2 2
Basic velocity pressure, [N/m ]
Peak velocity z Height considered above terrain, [m] 7.2.2
pressure ce(z) [See Figure 1.4-1] Exposure factor, [-] Fig. 4.2
qp(z) = ce(z)·qb 2
Peak velocity pressure, [N/m ] 4.5 (1)
Land category:
Land Category
0 Sea or coastal area
I Flat country without obstacles
II Farmland with boundary hedges
III Suburban or industrial areas
IV Densely built-up urban areas
PART 1 EUROCODE 15
LOADS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
16 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES LOADS
vb = cseason · cdir · cprob · vb,0 Basic wind velocity, [m/s] 4.2 (2)P
Basic velocity
pressure 2
Basic velocity pressure, [N/m ] ρ = 1.226 kg/m
3
4.5(1)P
qb = 0.613 · vb2
Displacement h Building height, [m] A.5 (1)
height have = 15 m (if no available data) Average height of neighbouring structures, [m]
- for Town x Site horizontal distance to other structures, [m]
terrain (IV) values of hdis: Effective height, [m]
hdis (lesser of)
x ≤ 2have 0.8have; 0.6h
2have < x < 6have 1.2have – 0.2x; 0.6h
x ≥ 6have 0
Orography is ce(z) [see Figure 1.4-4] Exposure factor, [-] Fig. NA.7
not significant
a) Country terrain (I & II)
qp = ce(z) · qb Peak velocity pressure, [N/m ]
2
NA.2.17
b) Town terrain (III & IV)
Exposure correction factor for Town terrain, [-] Fig. NA.8
ce,T [see Figure 1.4-5]
qp = ce(z) · ce,T · qb
Orography is co(z) = vm/vmf Orography factor, [-] A.3
significant z ≤ 50 m
2
co( z ) + 0.6
q p = 2
ce( z ) ⋅ qb Peak velocity pressure, [N/m ] NA.2.17
1.6
z > 50 m
cr(z) Roughness factor, [-] Fig. NA.3
a) Country terrain (I & II)
vm = co(z) · cr(z) · vb
b) Town terrain (III & IV) Mean wind velocity, [m/s] NA.2.11
cr,T
vm = co(z) · cr(z) · cr,T · vb Roughness correction factor for Town terrain, [-] Fig. NA.4
PART 1 EUROCODE 17
LOADS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
1.4.6 Factors and coefficients
Figure 1.4-3 UK Fundamental basic wind velocity vb,map [m/s] UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. NA.1
18 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES LOADS
50 70
30
20
5
Figure 1.4-5 Exposure correction factor for Town terrain, ce,T UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. NA.8
5
2
PART 1 EUROCODE 19
LOADS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Internal cpi(+) = +0.2 Internal pressure coeff. for uniformly distributed 7.2.9
pressure coeff. cpi(–) = –0.3 opening, [-]
2
Net wind Zones A, B, C & E: Maximum net wind suction, [kN/m ] 5.2
Pressure w = qp [cpe – cpi(+)]
2
Zone D: Maximum net wind pressure, [kN/m ]
w = qp [cpe – cpi(–)]
20 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES LOADS
1.4.9 Wind load for walls of rectangular plan building in London
Wind Load in London
Building height Pressure Isolated [kN/m²] Funnelling [kN/m²]
LONDON
[m] [kN/m²] Suction Local Suction Local
Low-rise bldg. 10 0,89 -0,77 -1,16 -0,85 -1,39
Intermediate 25 1,15 -1,00 -1,50 -1,10 -1,81
Medium-rise 50 1,31 -1,14 -1,71 -1,25 -2,05
High-rise 100 1,43 -1,25 -1,87 -1,37 -2,24
Skyscraper 200 1,57 -1,37 -2,05 -1,51 -2,46
200
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
Building Height [m]
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Wind Load [kN/m²]
PART 1 EUROCODE 21
LOADS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
1.4.10 Wind load on free-standing walls
Wind load on free-standing walls EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.4
Action Values Notes Clause
Data h, L Height and length of free-stand wall, [m] Fig. 7.19
φ Solidity ratio, [-] 7.4 (1)
Pressure values of Cp: Table 7.9
coefficients Zone φ = 1.0 φ = 0.8
Without return corners* Fig. 7.19
Cp3 Cp5 Cp10
L/h ≤ 3 L/h = 5 L/h ≥ 10
A 2.3 2.9 3.4
B 1.4 1.8 2.1
1.2
C 1.2 1.4 1.7
D 1.2
With return corners ≥ h
A 2.1
B 1.8
1.2
C 1.4 7.4.2
D 1.2 Fig. 7.20
* Intermediate values of Cp
(
L c p5 − c p 3
3 < L/h < 5 c p5 − 5 −
)
h 2
5 < L/h < 10 c p10 − 10 −
(
L c p10 − c p5 )
h 5
φ < 0.8:
Treat as plane lattices acc. to 7.11
Fin features Corner fins: [BRE
cp,net = 2.0 Net pressure coefficient [-] NJCook
Series of fins: cl. 20.8.3]
x Dist. of sheltering upwind fin ≥ h, [m] 7.4.2
ψs Shelter factor, [-] Fig. 7.20
cp,net = max{ψs·cp; 0.4} Net pressure coefficient [-]
Net pressures w = cp,net · qp
Net pressure w = cf · q p
22 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES LOADS
1.4.11 Wind load on long elements
Design wind loads on long elements EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.6, 7.7 & 7.8
Action Values Notes Clause
Data b, d, L Width, depth and length of element, [m] Fig. 7.23
φ Solidity ratio, [-]
Force values of cf,0: Force coefficients, [-] 7.6
coefficient Structural Fig. 7.23
cf,0 = 2.0
(sharp edge) 7.7
Circular cf,0 = 1.0
Fig. 7.28
Rectangular See Fig. 7.23
Square cf,0 = 2.1
Fig. 7.24
End-effect Free-end polygon & sharp edged Effective slenderness ratio, [-] Table 7.16
reduction factorsections:
a) L < 15 m
λ = 2·L/b or 70(lesser of)
b) L ≥ 50 m
λ = 1.4·L/b or 70(lesser of)
Free-end circular sections &
Ends connected to structure:
a) L < 15 m
Fig. 7.36
λ = L/b or 70(lesser of)
b) L ≥ 50 m
λ = 0.7·L/b or 70(lesser of)
values of cf,0:
Structural, End-effect factor, [-]
λ = min
polygon &
Free-end lattice {2L/b;70}
ψλ
Net pressure w = cf,0 · ψλ · qp Net wind pressure
PART 1 EUROCODE 23
LOADS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
1.4.12 Wind load on parapet attached to curtain wall
δC δC C
Case-1:
max, wparapet = Cp,A·qs
min, wcw = [Cpe,E – Cpi(-)]·qs
Case-2:
min, wparapet = Cp,D·qs
max, wcw = [Cpe,A – Cpi(+)]·qs
24 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES LOADS
1.5 Load combinations
1.5.1 Faming member design
The most unfavourable effect of the following load combinations should be considered for characteristic
serviceability evaluations.
Vertical facades EN 1990:2005 6.5.3
Serviceability Ultimate limit state Description Occupancy
CO102: D + W s + 0.7L CO202: 1.35D + 1.5W s + 0.7·1.5L Dead + wind suction + imposed all
CO103: D + L + *0.6W s CO203: 1.35D + 1.5L + *0.6·1.5W s Dead + imposed + wind suction all
Note: *0.5W s acc. to UK NA Table NA.A1.1
CO101: D + W p + **0.7S CO201: 1.35D + 1.5W p + **0.7·1.5·S Dead + wind downforce + snow all
D + W p + 0.7SA Dead + wind downforce + snow drift
CO102: D + S + *0.6W p CO202: 1.35D + 1.5S + *0.6·1.5W p Dead + snow + wind downforce all
D + SA + 0.7W p Dead + snow drift + wind downforce
Single glass
CO302: D + L + 0.5W Dead + imposed + wind in the direction of the imposed load
Multiple glazing
CO312: D + L + 0.5W Dead + imposed + wind in the direction of the imposed load
PART 1 EUROCODE 25
DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
26 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS
Columns and Verticality by storey Inclination of a column or h ≤ 10m : ∆ = max {h 400;15} 10.4.a
walls wall at any level
h > 100m : ∆ = max {h 600;25}
h in mm
PART 1 EUROCODE 27
DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Inclination Location of any column, ∑ hi 10.4.d
wall or floor edge, at any ∆ = min ; 50
storey level from any 200 n
vertical plane through its
H in metres
intended design centre at
base level
Beams and Location of beam to column Measured relative to the ∆ = ± max {b 30;20} 10.5.a
slabs connection column
28 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS
Inclination of beam or slab Difference in level across a ∆ = ± ( 10 + l 500 ) G.10.5.c
beam or slab at
corresponding points in
any direction
PART 1 EUROCODE 29
DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Not moulded surface l global = 2.0 m ; ∆global = 15
llocal = 0.2 m ; ∆local = 6
Holes and Holes and conduit inserts Deviation from secondary ∆x , ∆y = ± 25 G.10.8.a
inserts line ∆D = ± 10
Deviation in depth ∆z = ± 10
30 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING
∑ ( xi − m x ) ( n − 1 )
2
sx = ± Standard deviation [kN]
s
Vx = x Coefficient of variation [-]
mx
X k = m x ( 1 − knV x )
Characteristic value [kN]
Log-normal 1
distribution
my = ∑ ln ( xi )
n i Logarithmic mean value [kN]
Vx is known from previous knowledge:
Logarithmic standard deviation [kN]
(
s y = ± ln V x 2 + 1 ≈ V x )
Vx is unknown from previous knowledge:
2
sy = ± ∑ ln ( xi ) − m y ( n − 1 )
Xk = e
( m y − kn s y )
Characteristic value [kN]
5% Fractile values of kn: Values of kn for the 5% characteristic Table D1
n Vx known* Vx unknown* value based on the normal distribution of
1 2.31 - x’s.
2 2.01 -
3 1.89 3.37
4 1.83 2.63
5 1.80 2.33
6 1.77 2.18
8 1.74 2.00
10 1.72 1.92
20 1.68 1.76
30 1.67 1.73
∞ 1.64 1.64
Design value ηd Design value [kN]
Xd = Χ
γm k
Note: * Prior knowledge come from the evaluation of previous tests in comparable situations. What is ‘comparable’
needs to be determined by engineering judgement.
PART 1 EUROCODE 31
DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
3.2 Direct assessment of the design value for ULS verifications
Statistical evaluation of test result EN 1990:2002 Annex D7.3
Action Values Notes Clause
Data x1, x2 .., xi .., xn Measured values [kN] D7.3
n Number of measured values [-]
ηd Design value of the conversion factor
which should cover all uncertainties not
covered by the tests [-]
Normal 1 Mean value [kN] D7.3
distribution
mx = ∑ xi
n i
∑ ( xi − m x ) ( n − 1 )
2
sx = ± Standard deviation [kN]
sx
Vx = Coefficient of variation [-]
mx
X d = ηd m x ( 1 − kd ,nV x )
Design value [kN]
Log-normal 1
distribution
my = ∑ ln ( xi )
n i Logarithmic mean value [kN]
Vx is known from previous knowledge:
Logarithmic standard deviation [kN]
(
s y = ± ln V x 2 + 1 ≈ V x )
Vx is unknown from previous knowledge:
2
sy = ± ∑ ln ( xi ) − m y ( n − 1 )
X d = ηd e
( m y − kd ,n s y )
Design value [kN]
0.1% lower value values of kd,n: Values of kd,n for a probability of Table D2
n Vx known* Vx unknown* observing a lower value of about 0.1%
1 4.36 - based on normal distribution of x’s.
2 3.77 -
3 3.56 -
4 3.44 11.4
5 3.37 7.85
6 3.33 6.36
8 3.27 5.07
10 3.23 4.51
20 3.16 3.64
30 3.13 3.44
∞ 3.04 3.04
Note: * Prior knowledge come from the evaluation of previous tests in comparable situations. What is ‘comparable’
needs to be determined by engineering judgement.
32 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES STEEL DESIGN
I-4 STEEL DESIGN
4.1 Properties of steel
Material constants of structural steel EN 1993-1-1:2005, Cl. 3.2.6
Form Density, Unit weight, ρ Young’s Modulus of rigidity, Poisson’s Thermal
γ [kg/m³] modulus, E G = E/[2(1+)ν] ratio, ν coefficient, α
2 2
[kN/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [-] [/˚C]
-6
All 77.0 7 850 210 000 81 000 0.30 12·10
PART 1 EUROCODE 33
STEEL DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
34 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES STEEL DESIGN
4.2 Properties of stainless steel
Material constants of stainless steel EN 1993-1-4:2006 Cl. 2.1.3
Microstructure Density, Unit weight, Young’s Modulus of rigidity, Poisson’s Thermal
γ ρ modulus, E G = E/[2(1+ν)] ratio, ν coefficient, α
2 2
[kN/m³] [kg/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [-] [/˚C]
Austenitic
195 000
1.4539, 1.4529 & 1.4547
-6
Austenitic 77.0 7 850 77 000 0.30 16·10
200 000
Others
fy fu fy fu fy fu
2 2 2 2 2 2 Long. Trans. [EN 1090-2]
[N/mm ] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]
1.4306, 1.4307 304L 220 520 200 520 (500) 175 450 6 8 2t
1.4404, 1.4435 316L 240 530 220 530 (520) 200 500 7 9 2t
1.4462 Duplex 480 660 460 660 (640) 450 650 5 5 2.5t
Note: Fillet weld correction factor, βw = 1.0 for Stainless steel.
Work hardened condition (process route 2H) EN 1993-1-4:2006 Table B.1; EN 10088-2:2005 Table 17
Microstructure Symbol 0.2% proof strength level, Tensile strength level,
2 2
Rp0.2 [N/mm ] Rm [N/mm ]
PART 1 EUROCODE 35
STEEL DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
4.3 Resistance of steel cross-sections
4.3.1 Partial safety factors
Partial material safety factors for ultimate limit states
Part Steel Stainless steel
[EN 1993-1-1] UK NA.2.15 [EN 1993-1-4]
Resistance of cross-section whatever class γM0 1.0 1.0 1.1
Resistance of members to instability γM1 1.0 1.0 1.1
Resistance of cross-section in tension to fracture γM2 1.25 1.1 1.25
Torsional shear
TRd =
( It c ) f γ ≥ T
3
y M0 Ed Torsional resistance [kN·m]
Approx. non-linear torsional constant [mm³]
( I t c ) ≈ b 2 t 2 ( 3b + 1.8t ) (refer to design aide formulas for exact value)
Bending Pure bending: 6.2.5(1)
M Ed
≤ 1.0 Design tension resistance [kN·m]
M c ,Rd
{
M Rd = min M c ,Rd ; M u ,Rd } 6.2.5(4)
General yielding along the member [kN·m]
M c,Rd =W f y γ M0
Local failure at a section with holes [kN·m] 6.2.5(2)
M u,Rd = Wel,net f u γ M2
Section modulus, W:
Lateral-torsional buckling: Class 1 & 2 W = W pl 6.3.2.1(1)
M Ed
≤ 1.0 Class 3 W = Wel
M b ,Rd 6.3.2.1(3)
Class 4 W = Weff
M b,Rd = χ LT M cy,Rd
Design buckling resistance moment [kN·m]
where:
π EI z GI t Elastic critical moment (conservative) [kN·m]
M cr = 6.3.2.2
L
Slenderness [-]
λ LT = W y f y M cr 6.3.2.2
Initial sway inperfection [-]
φ LT = 0.5 1 + α LT ( λ LT − 0.2 ) + λ LT
2
Reduction factor for buckling [-] 6.3.2.2
1 Imperfection factor, αLT:
χ LT = ≤ 1.0
φ LT + φ LT 2 − λ LT 2 Rolled I, h/b ≤ 2 a α LT = 0.21
6.3.2.1
Rolled I, h/b > 2 b α LT = 0.34
Welded I, h/b ≤ 2 c α LT = 0.49
Welded I, h/b > 2
d α LT = 0.76
Other sections
36 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES STEEL DESIGN
PART 1 EUROCODE 37
STEEL DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
4.3.3 Buckling resistance of steel cross-sections
Lateral-torsional buckling EN 1993-1-1:2005
Clause
T
h d y h y
t
38 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES STEEL DESIGN
c
hw V V
H
a
PART 1 EUROCODE 39
STEEL DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
4.5 Cold-formed members
Panel edge stiffeners EN 1993-1-5:2006
Action Values Notes Clause
Data 235
ε = Yield constant [-]
fy
b t Slenderness [-]
λp =
28.4 ⋅ ε kσ 4.4
c = c − ( 0.293r + 0.646t )
kσ = 0.5 Table 4.2
λ p − 0.188 4.4
ρ= 2
≤ 1.0 Buckling factor for stress gradient, ψ ≈ 0 [-]
λp
Table 4.2
ceff = ρ ⋅ c Effective return depth [mm]
Grade Approx. ceff
S235 20.1t − 75.8 t 2 c
S275 18.6t − 64.8 t 2 c
S280GD 18.4t − 63.6 t 2 c
S320GD 17.2t − 55.7 t 2 c
40 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES ALUMINIUM DESIGN
PART 1 EUROCODE 41
ALUMINIUM DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
5.2 Definitions
5.2.1 H Tempers
Work hardening is used extensively to produce strain-hardened tempers of the non-heat-treatable alloys.
HXY
H – Strain hardened by cold working
X = 1 for strain hardened only.
= 2 for strain hardened and partially annealed. The products are strain hardened more than is required to achieve
the desired properties and then are reduced in strength by partial annealing.
= 3 for strain hardened and stabilized. In the strain-hardened condition, these alloys tend to age soften at room
temperature. Therefore, they are usually heated at a low temperature to complete the age-softening process and to
provide stable mechanical properties and improved working characteristics.
Y = 2 for quarter-hard cold work condition.
= 4 for half-hard cold work condition.
= 6 for three-quarter cold work condition.
= 8 for full-hard cold work condition.
= 9 for extra-hard cold work condition.
5.2.2 T Tempers
The complete heat-treatment consists of a solution heat-treatment, a quenching process and subsequent
ageing, where the actual hardening occurs. It must be said that, unlike steel, aluminium alloys are definitely
not hard after quenching.
To get the highest strength values it is important to keep the material for sufficient time at the correct solution
heat temperature and to follow the correct quenching procedure. Depending on the alloy this may be carried
out using water or moving air. Quenching with water produces distortion and residual stresses. Alloys
quenchable with air have some technical and economical advantages, but the most of the high strength
alloys need to be water quenched. If the solution heat-treatment or the quenching process is not properly
executed this will result in lower values with respect to mechanical strength and elongation (ductility).
Symbol Description
T4 = Solution heat-treated and then naturally aged
T5 = Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and then artificially aged
T6 = Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged
T61, T64 = Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged in underageing conditions in order to improve formability (T64
between T61 and T6)
T66 = Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged –mechanical property level higher than T6 achieved through special
control of the process 6000 series alloys
T7 = Solution heat-treated and artificially over-aged
42 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES ALUMINIUM DESIGN
5.3 Protection at metal-to-metal contacts
Additional protection at metal-to-metal contacts to take precautions against crevice and galvanic effects.
Characteristic values of aluminium fasteners EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table D.2
Metal to be joined Bolt/rivet Rural Industrial urban
to aluminium material
Dry, unpolluted Mild Moderate Severe
(M) (B/R) (M) (B/R) (M) (B/R) (M) (B/R) (M) (B/R)
Aluminium 0 0 0 1
X
Aluminium Stainless steel 0 0 0 0 0/X 0 1
a
Zinc-coated steel 0 (2) (1) (2) 1 (2)
Aluminium 0 0 0 1
Painted steel X
0/X
Stainless steel 0 0 0 0 0 a 1
a
Zinc-coated steel z
Zinc-coated steel 0 (2) (2) 1 (2)
Aluminium 0 0 0 1
X
0/X
Stainless steel Stainless steel 0 0 0 0 0 a 1
a
z
Zinc-coated steel 0 (2) (2) 1 (2)
Further treatments
Procedure a
If not painted for other reasons it may be necessary to protect the adjacent metallic parts of the contact area by a
suitable paint coating in cases where dirt may be entrapped or where moisture retained.
Procedure z
Additional protection of zinc-coated structural parts as a whole may be necessary
PART 1 EUROCODE 43
ALUMINIUM DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
5.4 Cross-sectional properties
5.4.1 Section Classification
Classification of cross-sections EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 6.1.4, 6.1.5
Action Values Notes Clause
Data b, t Width and thickness of critical part [mm] Fig. 6.1
c Length of reinforcement leg (if any) [mm] Fig. 6.4
yc Dist. to n.a. of more heavily compressed edge [mm] Fig. 6.2
yo Dist. to n.a. of other edge [mm]
fo
Tensile yield strength of alloy [N/mm2] Table 3.2
ε = 250 / f o Yield point constant [-] Table 6.2
Effective slenderness ratio [-] 6.1.4.3
(β ε ) = η ε ⋅b t
44 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES ALUMINIUM DESIGN
ε O0 · · · O1 O2 O3 O5 I0 I1 I2 I3 I5
η = 0.7+0.3(yo/yc) = 1,0 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,4 1,0 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,4
6060 T5 (t ≤ 5) B 1,44 b/7,2 b/9 b/10,3 b/12 b/18 b/26 b/32,5 b/37,1 b/43,3 b/65
T6 (t ≤ 15) A 1,34 b/8 b/10 b/11,5 b/13,4 b/20 b/29,4 b/36,7 b/42 b/49 b/73,5
T66 (t > 3) A 1,29 b/7,7 b/9,7 b/11,1 b/12,9 b/19,4 b/28,4 b/35,5 b/40,6 b/47,3 b/71
6063 T5 (t > 3) B 1,51 b/7,5 b/9,4 b/10,8 b/12,6 b/18,8 b/27,1 b/33,9 b/38,8 b/45,2 b/67,8
T6 (t ≤ 25) A 1,25 b/7,5 b/9,4 b/10,7 b/12,5 b/18,8 b/27,5 b/34,4 b/39,3 b/45,8 b/68,8
Local buckling factor for class 4 cross-section part EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 6.1.4
PART 1 EUROCODE 45
ALUMINIUM DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
5.4.3 Effective section properties of thermally separated profiles
Effective properties of thermally broken profiles EN 14024:2004 Annex C
Action Values Notes Clause
4
Data A1, I1 Area and moment of inertia of inner profile [mm,mm ]
a1,i Distance of inner profile centroid to inner edge [mm]
4
A2, I2 Area and moment of inertia of outer profile [mm,mm ]
a2,o Distance of outer profile centroid to outer edge [mm]
E Modulus of elasticity of the profiles [N/mm²]
L Length of member [mm]
∆F
c= Elasticity constant determined from test [N/mm/mm] 5.4.3
∆δ ⋅ L
Centroid z = A1 ⋅ a1,i + A2 ( h − a 2 ,o ) ( A1 + A2 ) Location of centroid [mm] Annex
distances C
a1 = z − a1,i
a 2 = h − z − a 2 ,o
4
Moments I s = I 1 +I 2 +A1 a1 2 +A2 a 2 2 Rigid moment of inertia [mm ] Annex
of intertia C
A1 a1 2 +A2 a 2 2 4
ν = Compound part of the rigid moment of inertia [mm ]
Is
c ⋅ a 2 L2 Effect of elastic connection [-]
λ=
E ⋅ I s ⋅ν ( 1 − ν )
λ2 Partial solution constant [-]
C =
π 2 +λ2
1 −ν
I ef = Is 4
1 −ν ⋅ C Effective moment of inertia [mm ]
Section 1
We,1 = 3
modulus C ( a1 + a1,i ) ( 1 − C ) a1,i Effective section modulus for inner profile [mm ]
+
Is I1 + I 2
1 3
Effective section modulus for inner profile [mm ]
We,2 =
C ( a 2 + a 2 ,o ) ( 1 − C ) a 2 ,o
+
Is I1 + I 2
46 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES ALUMINIUM DESIGN
5.5 Resistance of aluminium cross-sections
5.5.1 Partial safety factors
Partial safety factors for ultimate limit states EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 6.1
Part Example EN 1999 UK NA
Resistance of member to instability Bending and overall yielding γM1 = 1.1 γM1 = 1.1
Resistance of cross-section in tension to fracture Local capacity in net tension γM2 = 1.25 γM2 = 1.25
EN 1999-1-1 clause 1,1,2(1) The following design applies to material thickness not less than 0.6mm, steel
bolts not less than 5mm, rivets and tapping screws not less than 4.2mm.
5.5.2 General cross-sections
Design resistance of aluminium structures EN 1999-1-1:2007
Mode Values Notes Clause
2
Shear Av, Ae Shear area and effective shear area [mm ] 6.2.6
Utilization grade: E γ (A.1)
VEd U= k F
≤ 1.0 Rk γ M
VRd
General, hw/tw < 39ε: Design shear resistance for sections containing
VRd = Av 3 ⋅ f o γ M1 shear webs [kN]
values of Av:
Solid bar Av = 0.8· Ae
Round tubes Av = 0.6· Ae
3
Bending Wel Elastic modulus of the gross section [mm ] 6.2.5
Wnet Elastic modulus of the net section allowing for
3
Pure bending: holes and reduced thickness of ρu,haz [mm ]
M Ed
≤ 1.0
M Rd
{
M Rd = min M c ,Rd ; M u ,Rd } Design tension resistance [kN·m]
M c,Rd = α Wel f o γ M1 General yielding along the member [kN·m]
M u,Rd = W net f u γ M2 Local failure at a section with holes [kN·m]
values of α:
α = W pl Wel Shape factor [-]
Class 1 & 2
Class 3 & 4 α = 1.0
Table 6.4
Lateral-torsional buckling:
M Ed
≤ 1.0 6.3.2.1
M b ,Rd Design buckling resistance of compression
M b,Rd = χ LT M cy,Rd member without welding
6.3.2.1
where:
Elastic critical moment (conservative) [kN·m]
M cr = π EI z GI t L I.1
PART 1 EUROCODE 47
ALUMINIUM DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Design resistance of aluminium structures EN 1999-1-1:2007
Mode Values Notes Clause
2
Tension Ag Gross section area [mm ] 6.2.3
Anet 2
Net section area [mm ]
Aeff Effective area based on the reduced thickness of
Basis: 2
ρu,haz [mm ]
N Ed
≤ 1.0
N t ,Rd
Where:
{
N t,Rd = min N o ,Rd ; N u ,Rd } Design tension resistance [kN]
{
N c,Rd = min N c ,Rd ; N u ,Rd } Design tension resistance [kN]
N c,Rd = Aeff f o γ M1
General yielding along the member [kN]
N u,Rd = Anet f u γ M2
Local failure at a section with holes [kN]
Flexural buckling, λ > λo :
6.3.1.1
N Ed
≤ 1.0
N b ,Rd
Design buckling resistance of compression
N b,Rd = χ Aeff f o γ M1
member without welding [kN]
a) Doubly symmetrical cross-sections:
π EI y π EI z Elastic critical force [kN]
N cr,y = 2
; N cr,z = 2
(
ky L ) ( kz L) I.3
48 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES ALUMINIUM DESIGN
Solid sections:
0.6 (6.61)
N Ed
2.0 M
1.7
M z,Ed
1.7
+
y,Ed
+ ≤ 1.0
M y,Rd M
N Rd z,Rd
+
M +
M ≤ 1.0 Interaction formula (conservative) (6.63)
N b,z,Rd b,Rd z,Rd
PART 1 EUROCODE 49
ALUMINIUM DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
5.6 Cold formed members
5.6.1 Effective widths
Panel edge stiffeners EN 1999-1-4:2007
Action Values Notes Clause
Data bp fo Plate slenderness [-] 5.5.2
λ p ≅ 1.052 ⋅
t Ekσ
λ p − 0.188 4.4
ρ= 2
≤ 1.0
λp
ceff = ρ ⋅cp Table 4.2
Buckling factor for stress gradient, ψ ≈ 0 [-]
Alloy Approx. ceff
Effective return depth [mm]
O/H111 40t − 297 t 2 c p
1050A
H14 20t − 79 t 2 c p
50 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES CONCRETE DESIGN
PART 1 EUROCODE 51
CONCRETE DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
6.2 Concrete design
Partial safety factors for ultimate limit states EN 1992-1-1:2004 Table 2.1N
Design Situations Concrete Steel Prestressing steel
Design Tension
resistance Fbt,Rd = π ⋅ φ ⋅ f bd ⋅ lb ,eq α Design bonding tensile resistance [N] 8.4.3
Bearing shear
Fbv,Rd = φ 2 f yk γ s ⋅ f ck γ c Design bearing shear resistance [N] 8.6
52 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES TIMBER DESIGN
I-7 TIMBER DESIGN
7.1 Strength grade
7.1.1 Solid timber
A timber population may be assigned to a strength class if its characteristic values of bending strength and
density equal or exceed the values for that strength class, and its characteristic mean modulus of elasticity in
bending equals or exceeds 95 % of the value for that strength class.
Strength grading of solid timber can be achieved in one of two ways:
Visual method: EN 14081-1.
Machine method: EN 14081-1, EN 14081-2, EN 14081-3 & EN 14081-4.
The characteristic values are defined as the population 5th-percentile values obtained from the results of
tests with a duration of approximately 5 min at the equilibrium moisture content of the test pieces relating to a
temperature of 20°C and a relative humidity of 65%.
Timber strength class – Characteristic values EN 338:2009 Table 1
Strength Density Modulus of elasticity Shear Bending Tension Compression Shear
class Parallel, 5%, Perpendicular modulus
2 2
[kg/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]
ρk ρmean E0,mean E0,05 E90,mean Gmean fmean,k* ft,0,k* ft,90,k fc,0,k fc,90,k fv,k
Softwood
1.2ρk - 0.67E0,m E0,m/30 E0,m/16 - 0.6fm,k 0.4 5fm,k0.45 0.007ρk -
(Conifer)
C14 290 350 7 000 4 700 230 440 14 8 0.4 16 2.0 3.0
C16 310 370 8 000 5 400 270 500 16 10 0.4 17 2.2 3.2
C18 320 380 9 000 6 000 300 560 18 11 0.4 18 2.2 3.4
C20 330 390 9 500 6 400 320 590 20 12 0.4 19 2.3 3.6
C22 340 410 10 000 6 700 330 630 22 13 0.4 20 2.4 3.8
C24 350 420 11 000 7 400 370 690 24 14 0.4 21 2.5 4
C27 370 450 11 500 7 700 380 720 27 16 0.4 22 2.6 4
C30 380 460 12 000 8 000 400 750 30 18 0.4 23 2.7 4
C35 400 480 13 000 8 700 430 810 35 21 0.4 25 2.8 4
C40 420 500 14 000 9 400 470 880 40 24 0.4 26 2.9 4
C45 440 520 15 000 10 000 500 940 45 27 0.4 27 3.1 4
C50 460 550 16 000 10 700 530 1000 50 30 0.4 29 3.2 4
Hardwood
1.2ρk - 0.84E0,m E0,m/15 E0,m/16 - 0.6fm,k 0.6 5fm,k0.45 0.015ρk -
(Deciduous)
D18 475 570 9500 8000 630 590 18 11 0,6 18 7.5 3.4
D24 485 580 10000 8500 670 620 24 14 0,6 21 7.8 4
D30 530 640 11000 9200 730 690 30 18 0,6 23 8.0 4
D35 540 650 12000 10100 800 750 35 21 0,6 25 8.1 4
D40 550 660 13000 10900 860 810 40 24 0,6 26 8.3 4
D50 620 750 14000 11800 930 880 50 30 0,6 29 9.3 4
D60 700 840 17000 14300 1130 1060 60 36 0,6 32 10.5 4.5
D70 900 1080 20000 16800 1330 1250 70 42 0,6 34 13.5 5
Note: * For rectangular solid timber, the reference depth in bending or width (max. dim.) in tension is 150 mm. For
depths in bending or widths in tension less than 150 mm the characteristic values for fm,k and ft,0,k may be increased
by the factor k h , given in section 0.
B B
PART 1 EUROCODE 53
TIMBER DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
7.1.2 Glulam
A glued laminated member can be assigned to one of the strength classes if its characteristic bending
strength and modulus of elasticity, derived from tests in accordance with EN 408 and EN 1193, equal or
exceed the values for that strength class.
It is assumed that bending specimens have a depth h ≥ 600 mm and thickness b ≥ 150 mm. It is assumed
that tension specimens have a width h ≥ 600 mm and thickness b ≥ 150 mm. If the cross-section dimensions
are lower than these reference values, the test results shall be multiplied by:
0 ,05 0 ,1
b h
k size = 600
150
Glulam strength class – Characteristic values EN 1194:1999 Tables 1, 2 & A.1
Strength Density Modulus of elasticity Shear Bending Tension Compression Shear
class Parallel, 5%, Perpendicular modulus
2 2
[kg/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]
*
ρg,k E0,g,mean E0,g,0.05 E90,g,m Gg,mean fm,g,k* ft,0,g,k ft,90,g,k fc,0,g,k fc,90,g,k fv,g,k
GL 24h 380 11 600 9 400 390 720 24 16.5 0.4 24 2.7 2.7
GL 28h 410 12 600 10 200 420 780 28 19.5 0.45 26.5 3.0 3.2
GL 32h 430 13 700 11 100 460 850 32 22.5 0.5 29 3.3 3.8
GL 28c 380 12 600 10 200 390 720 28 16.5 0.4 24 2.7 2.7
GL 32c 410 13 700 11 100 420 780 32 19.5 0.45 26.5 3.0 3.2
GL 36c 430 14 700 11 900 460 850 36 22.5 0.5 29 3.3 3.8
Note: * For rectangular glued laminated timber, the reference depth in bending or width in tension is 600 mm. For
depths in bending or widths in tension less than 600 mm the characteristic values for fm,k and ft,0,k may be increased
by the factor k h , given in section 0.
B B
54 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES TIMBER DESIGN
7.3 Design of Solid, Glulam and LVL
7.3.1 Serviceability
Deflection EN 1995-1-1:2008
Mode Values Notes Clause
Stiffness* E mean Modulus of elasticity [N/mm²] 2.3.2.2
Gmean Modulus of rigidity [N/mm²]
Deflection u fin = u fin,G + u fin,Q1 + + u fin,Qi Total final deformation [mm] 2.2.3
where:
(
u fin,G = uinst,G 1 + k def ) Final deformation due to permanent action [mm]
(
u fin,Q1 = uinst,Q1 1 + ψ 2 ,1 kdef ) Final deformation due to leading variable action [mm]
u fin,Qi = uinst,Qi (ψ 0 ,i + ψ 2 ,i kdef ) Final deformation due to accompanying variable action
Deformation factor, kdef [mm]
Service Table 3.2
Material
class
kdef Deformation modification factor
Solid, 1 0.6
Gluelam 2 0.8
and LVL 3 2.0
Note: * The moduli given in clause 2.3.2.2 are used only for structure with different materials (i.e. different creep).
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8.1.2 Interlayer
Laminated glass interlayer
Shear Modulus [N/mm²]
Interlayer Thickness [mm] Load Duration
Temp.
3s 1m 10 m 1 hr 24 h 1 mo 10 yr
PVB xx.1 xx.2 xx.3 xx.4 30°C 0.97 0.75 0.5 0.44 0.28 0.07 0.05
Polyvinyl
[mils] 15 30 45 60
Butyral
[mm] 0.38 0.76 1.14 1.52 50°C 0.44 0.29 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
30°C 141 110 65* 59.9 49.7 11.6 5.31
SG [mils] 35 60 90 120 50°C 26.4 11.3 4.0* 4.0 2.82 2.18 2.0
Sentryglas [mm] 0.89 1.52 2.28 3.05
60°C 8.18 3.64 2.0* 1.7 1.29 1.08 0.97
80°C 1.32 0.83 0.4 0.32 0.25 0.21 0.18
Note: *According to DIBt Zulassungnummer: Z-70.3-170, valid until 7 November 2016.
8.2 Glass sizes
Split sizes are delivered in size ranges 3210mm*×1000mm to 2550mm.
Jumbo sizes are delivered in sizes 3210mm*×4500mm, 5100mm or 6000mm
*The usual width is 3 210 mm. Exceptional production requirements can cause this to be reduced but the
nominal width is never below 3 150 mm
Tolerance on nominal thickness EN 572-2:2004 Table 1
Nominal thickness Tolerances Nominal thickness Tolerances
2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ± 0.2 mm 15 ± 0.5 mm
6, 10, 12 ± 0.3 mm 19, 25 ± 1,0 mm
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8.4.4 Design of single glass
Design of Single Glass prEN 13474-2:2000 Annex E
Action Values Notes Clause
Data a, b Shorter and longer side of the glass, [mm]
Fd, Fk 2
Design and characteristic load, [kN/m ]
Monolithic hef,σ = hef,w = h Effective glass thickness, [mm]
Laminated Short duration loads, Γ =1: Effective glass thickness with full composite action,
safety glass hef,σ = hef,w = Σ(hi) [mm]
Other loads, Γ =0:
∑ hi 3 Effective glass thickness for stress calculation of
i individual pane, [mm]
hef ,σ j =
hj Table F.1
Effective glass thickness for deflection calculation,
hef ,w = 3 ∑ hi 3 [mm] F.2
i
Load combinations**
Ultimate limit state Serviceability limit state Allowable stress criteria
Vertical glazing
1.5W W
1. 5(W + 0.7L) (W + 0.7L) σ ef ≤ f g ,d (short duration )
1.5L L
Sloped glazing
1.35D D σ ef ≤ f g ,d (permanent )
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a 5 b Fd
V = k5 3
hef ,w 3 E Insulating glass change of cavity volume, [mm ]
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Isochoric p0 = c1 ⋅ ∆T − ∆ pmet + c2 ⋅ ∆ H
pressure
Summer Glass absorptance ≤ 30% +39 101 +19 103 +20 -2 +600 +16.0
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DC 895
DC 3362
One- Sika IG 16
part
DC 3793
Note: * Modulus tangential to the origin.
†
Design stress is based on the Ru,5 value with a safety factor of 6. The Ru,5 value is the probability at 75% that
95% of the population will have a breaking strength above this value.
8.7.1 Types of SSG
Type 1: Mechanical transfer of the self weight of the infill to
the sealant-support frame and thence to the structure. The
structural seal transfers all other actions. Devices are used
to reduce danger in the event of a bond failure.
Type II: Mechanical transfer of the self weight of the infill to
the sealant-support frame and thence to the structure. The
structural seal transfers all other actions and no devices are
used to reduce danger in the event of bond failure.
Type III: The structural seal transfers all actions including
the self-weight of the infill to the sealant support frame and
thence to the structure. Devices are used to reduce danger
in the event of a bond failure.
Type IV: The structural seal transfers all actions, including
self-weight of the infill to the sealant support frame and
thence to the structure. No devices are used to reduce danger in the event of bond failure.
EN 13022-1:2006 Retaining devices may be required by national regulations. SSGS types III & IV may be
forbidden by national regulation for laminated glass and laminated safety glass.
ETAG 002-1:2001 Types III and IV SSGS are only applicable for single glass units. For insulating glass units
or laminated glass, each pane of glass must be supported (type I or II).
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Sealant thickness
1 2 Expansion length [mm] A2.3.2
S = b + 4h 2
2
∆S = α f T f − T0 − α g Tg − T0 S Differential expansion [mm]
( ) ( )
values of α & ∆T: 4.4.4.1
α Condition Tf,g – T0 [°C] Coefficient of thermal expansion of
[/°K] ETAG SIKA frame and glass
-6
Alu. 24·10 Internal 55 - 20
-6
Temperature difference
Steel 12·10
-6 Exposed 80 - 20 60
S/S 16·10
-6
Glass 9·10 Clear 55 - 20 30
Opaque 100 - 20 -
∆ ⋅ G ∆S Sealant thickness, minimum [mm]
e ≥ min S ; ; 6mm
Γ des
2
2ε + ε
IGU hermetic seal* Seal height in non-stepped IGU [mm] A2.3.4
min {b; h} ⋅ W
r ≥ ⋅ β ≥ 6mm
2 σ des
values of β:
Glass thickness β
do ≤ di 0.5
do ≤ di 1.0
Sealant thickness
1 2 Expansion length [mm] A2.4.2
S = b + h2
2
∆S = α f T f − T0 − α g Tg − T0 S Differential expansion [mm]
( ) ( )
∆ ⋅ G ∆S Sealant thickness, minimum [mm] A2.4.1
e ≥ min S ; ; 6mm
Γ des 2ε + ε 2
Relationship e ≤ hc ≤ 3 ⋅ e A2.3.3
Note: * For small units or non-rectangular shapes climatical effects must be taken into account.
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Reduction Wind pressure (-h/2) <<- more critical! Uniformly loaded beam:
factor k = 3.59 − 4.35 χ 0.37 Euler constant [-] (4.3)
Wind suction (+h/2)
k = 3.56 + 18.5 χ 0.58
for λ LT ≥ 1.1 :
2
κ LT = 0.87 λ LT (5.5)
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18
16
14
12
74 PART 1 EUROCODE
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sln = ±
∑ ln ( xi ) − xln Logarithmic standard deviation [N/mm ]
2
n−1
2
Flexural strength x − k ⋅s Lower expected value [N/mm ] Table A.1
E = e ln s ln
Fractile factor ks*:
Quantile or fractile factor [-]
n ks n ks
3 3.15 10 2.10
*Corresponding to 5% fractile for a
4 2.68 15 1.99 confidence level of 75%
5 2.46 20 1.93
6 2.34 30 1.87
7 2.25 40 1.83
8 2.19 50 1.81
9 2.14 ∞ 1.64
9.1.3 Tolerances
Stone tolerances EN 1469:2004
Measurement Thickness [mm] Length or width [mm] Tolerance Reference
Thickness 12 < t ≤ 30 ± 10 % Table 1
30 < t ≤ 80 ± 3 mm
t > 80 ± 5 mm
Length or width t* ≤ 50 L or b < 600 ± 1 mm Table 2
L or b ≥ 600 ± 1.5 mm
t* > 50 L or b < 600 ± 2 mm
L or b ≥ 600 ± 3 mm
Note: * Sawn edge thickness
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10.2 Weather performance tests
10.2.1 Weather performance test sequence [EN 13830]
Weather resistance tests are interdependent on each other. The following groups of tests carried out in
sequence shall be considered as a single weather test. All tests shall be carried out strictly in sequence, as
follows
Weather resistance sequence of testing BBSEN 13830:2003 cl. 5.2.3
Requirement/
Test Purpose Test method
Classification
a Air permeability for classification EN 12153 EN 12152
b Watertightness under static for classification EN 12155 EN 12154
pressure
c Resistance to wind load serviceability EN 12179 EN 13116
d Air permeability repeat to confirm wind resistance EN 12153 EN 12152
classification
e Watertightness repeat to confirm wind resistance EN 12155 EN 12154
classification
f Resistance to wind load increased wind resistance test - safety EN 12179 EN 13116
Note: Where specifically required, an additional supplementary watertightness test under dynamic wind conditions
can be carried out, in accordance with ENV 13050, on completion of test sequence a) to e).
No test in the sequence shall be carried out unless all previous tests have been passed to the acceptance
criteria.
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10.2.2 Air permeability [EN 12153:2000]
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10.2.3 Watertightness [EN 12155:2000]
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10.3 Impact resistance tests
10.3.1 Framing - Impact resistance [EN 14019:2004]
Its criteria is targeted to safety in use and integrity of curtain wall in the
event of sudden impact forces on the curtain wall surfaces.
It applies to those areas of curtain walling which face onto areas of
human activity, either internally or externally and takes account of
accidental impacts brought on by people going about their normal daily
activities and impacts brought about by equipment and similar devices
for maintenance, cleaning, repair and similar occasional activities.
The specimen shall be tested in accordance with EN 13049 with one
impact for any single position.
Impact loads normal to the plane of the curtain wall are to be applied in
the following positions:
1. Centre mullion height between fixings (external only).
2. Centre width (external, internal at sill height).
3. Crossing mullion and transoms.
4. Centre of spandrel unit.
Glass products used as or incorporated in infill components shall be assessed in accordance with EN 12600.
Impact classification BBSEN EN 14019 :2004 Tables 1 & 2
Internal impact External impact Requirements
Class Drop height Class Drop height
[mm] [mm]
I0 Not applicable E0 Not applicable The curtain wall shall safely absorb the impact loads and shall
retain its integrity in fulfilling the following criteria :
I1 200 E1 200
a) no parts shall fall down;
I2 300 E2 300 b) any holing shall not occur;
c) any breakage shall not occur;
I3 450 E3 450
d) any infilling panel shall remain in its position and come off
I4 700 E4 700 only when removed;
e) any permanent deformation of curtain wall component shall
I5 950 E5 950 be accepted.
10.3.2 Windows - Soft and heavy body impact resistance [EN 13049]
The test applies to all infill of whatever materials including glass. It is intended to assess the interactions
between all components of a window with particular regard to safety in use.
The impactor as specified in EN 12600 shall be mounted on a horizontal or vertical axis, as best befits the
requirements of access to the impact point.
Tests shall be performed separately, one impact on each test specimen. Select, e.g. by means of pre-tests or
calculations, the most dangerous impact point to strike the following:
the centre of the infill or
a corner of the infill or
the centre of the longest edge of the largest area of the infill.
Impact level/drop heights BBSEN EN 13049:2003 Table 1
Class Drop height [mm] Requirements
1 200 a) Any opening shall not allow the ellipsoid, as specified in ENV 1630, to pass;
2 300
b) The impact shall not detach or dislodge any casement or sash of the test
3 450 specimen nor disconnect any hardware or infill retaining components, nor shall any
of its composite parts become dislodged or shattered in a dangerous manner;
4 700
5 950 c) The mass of any dislodged part shall not exceed 50 g.
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10.3.3 Glass - Pendulum impact test [EN 12600:2002]
The test shall be carried out at each drop height on four
pieces 876mm×1938mm of identical structure and the
same nominal thickness.
For asymmetric materials that are intended for
installation where the risk of impact is from both sides,
carry out the test on both sides.
Performance classification:
Classification α (β) Φ
α - highest drop height class at which the product either
did not break or broke in accordance with a) or b) of
clause 4 requirements
β - mode of breakage;
Φ - highest drop height class at which the product either
did not break or when broke, broke in accordance with
a) of clause 4 requirements.
When a glass product breaks at a drop height of 190 mm and the breakage is not in accordance with a) of
clause 4 requirements then the value of Φ quoted shall be zero.
Drop height class BBSEN EN 12600:2002 Table 1, Cl. 4 & 6.2
Class Drop height Clause 4 Requirements
[mm]
Each test piece shall either not break or shall break as defined in one of the following ways:
3 190 a) Numerous cracks appear, but no shear or opening is allowed within the test piece
through which a 76 mm diameter sphere can pass when a maximum force of 25 N is
applied (Annex A). Additionally, if particles are detached from the test piece up to 3 min
2
after impact, they shall, in total, weigh no more than a mass equivalent to 10 000 mm of
2 450
the original test piece. The largest single particle shall weigh less than the mass equivalent
2
to 4 400 mm of the original test piece;
b) Disintegration occurs and the 10 largest crack-free particles* collected within 3 min after
1 1200 impact and weighed, all together, within 5 min of impact shall weigh no more than the mass
equivalent to 6 500 mm² of the original test piece.
Note: *The particles shall be selected only from the portion of the original test piece exposed in the test frame. Only
the exposed area of any particle retained in the test frame shall be taken into account in determining the mass
equivalent.
Mode of breakage BBSEN EN 12600:2002 Cl. 6.3; Annex C
Type Mode of breakage Typical breakage
Numerous cracks appear forming - Annealed glass (EN 572-1)
A separate fragments with sharp edges, - Heat strengthened soda lime silicate glass (EN 1863-1)
some of which are large - Chemically strengthened soda lime silicate glass (EN 12337-1)
Numerous cracks appear, but the - Laminated safety glass (EN ISO 12543-1)
B fragments hold together and do not - Wired glass (EN 572-1), polished wired glass (EN 572-3)
separate - Film backed annealed glass
Disintegration occurs, leading to a - Thermally toughened soda lime silicate safety glass (EN 12150-1)
C large number of small particles that
are relatively harmless
PART 1 EUROCODE 83
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10.4 Glass safety tests
Sample glass classifications EN 12600 :2002 & EN 356:2000
Laminated glass EN 12600 (Impact safety) EN 356 (Manual Attack)
(PVB) Class* Drop height [mm] Class Height [mm] Number of throws**
33.1 = 6.38mm 2(B)2 450 -
44.1 = 8.38mm
55.1 = 10.38mm 1(B)1 1200 -
33.2 = 6.76mm P1A 1500 3
44.2 = 8.76mm P2A 3000 3
55.2 = 10.76mm
66.2 = 12.76mm
88.2 = 16.76mm
44.4 = 9.52mm P4A 9000 3
66.4 = 13.52mm
44.6 = 10.28mm P5A 9000 9
66.6 = 14.28mm
Tempered glass Class Drop height [mm]
4, 6 & 8 mm 1(C)2 450
10 & 12 mm 1(C)1 1200
Note: * See section 10.3 for classification to EN 12600 ** Test with steel ball of 4.1 kg.
Safety and burglar resistance EN 12600:2002 & EN 356:2000
Resistance to impact (EN 12600) Resistance to manual attack (EN 356)
Class Glass type Drop height [mm] Class Test method Drop height [mm] No. of drops
1A1 Monolithic 1200 P1A Steel ball 1500 3
annealed 4.11 kg
2A2 450 P2A 3000 3
dropped
3A3 190 P3A to form an 6000 3
equilateral
1B1 Laminated 1200 P4A 9000 3
triangle
annealed
2B2 450 P5A 9000 3×3
3B3 190 Class Test method No. of hits
1C1 Monolithic 1200 P6B Hammer 30 to 50 hits (axe)
tempered and axe
2C2 450 P7B 51 to 70 hits (axe)
impacts
3C3 190 P8B ≥ 71 hits (axe)
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10.5 Fire classification
∆T, ∆m, tf – Temperature rise [K], mass loss [%] and duration of sustained flaming [s], respectively
PCS - gross calorific potential [MJ/kg or MJ/m²]
FIGRA - fire growth rate index used for classification purposes [W/s]
LFS – lateral fire spread [m]
THR - total heat release during the evaluation period [MJ]
Fs – Fire spread during the evaluation [mm]
SMOGRA – smoke growth rate [m²/s²]
TSP - total smoke production during the evaluation period [m²]
Classes of reaction to fire performance EN 13501-1:2007 Table 1
Test Classification Additional classification (EN 13823:2010)
Class
methods criteria Smoke production
f
Flaming droplets/particles
A1 EN ISO 1182 ∆T ≤ 30 °C; ∆m ≤ 50 %; & - -
& tf = 0 (i.e. no sustained flaming)
abce
EN ISO 1716 PCS ≤ 2.0 MJ/kg ;& - -
2 d
PCS ≤ 1.4 MJ/m
a
A2 EN ISO 1182 ∆T ≤ 50 °C; ∆m ≤ 50 % & - -
or tf ≤ 20 s
ad
EN ISO 1716 PCS ≤ 3,0 MJ/kg & - -
2 bc
& PCS ≤ 4,0 MJ/m
EN 13823 FIGRA ≤ 120 W/s ; s1 = d0 =
2 2
LFS < edge of specimen & SMOGRA ≤ 30m /s & No flaming droplets/
2
THR600s ≤ 7,5 MJ TSP600s ≤ 50m particles within 600 s;
B EN 13823 FIGRA ≤ 120 W/s ;
& LFS < edge of specimen & s2 = d1 =
2 2
THR600s ≤ 7,5 MJ SMOGRA ≤ 180m /s & no flaming droplets/
2
i
TSP600s ≤ 200m particles persisting
EN ISO 11925-2 : Fs ≤ 150 mm within 60 s longer than 10 s within
Exposure = 30 s s3 = not s1 or s2 600 s;
C EN 13823 FIGRA ≤ 250 W/s ;
g
& LFS < edge of specimen & d2 = not d0 or d1.
THR600s ≤ 15 MJ
i
EN ISO 11925-2 : Fs ≤ 150mm within 60 s
Exposure = 30 s
D EN 13823 & FIGRA ≤ 750 W/s
i
EN ISO 11925-2 : Fs ≤ 150 mm within 60 s
Exposure = 30 s
i h
E EN ISO 11925-2 : Fs ≤ 150 mm within 20 s -
Exposure = 15 s
F No performance determined
a
For homogeneous products and substantial components of non-homogeneous products.
b
For any external non-substantial component of non-homogeneous products.
c
Alternatively, any external non-substantial component having a PCS ≤ 2,0 MJ/m2, provided that the product
satisfies the following criteria of EN 13823: FIGRA ≤ 20 W/s, and LFS < edge of specimen, and THR600s ≤ 4,0 MJ,
and s1, and d0.
d
For any internal non-substantial component of non-homogeneous products.
e
For the product as a whole.
f
In the last phase of the development of the test procedure, modifications of the smoke measurement system have
been introduced, the effect of which needs further investigation. This may result in a modification of the limit values
and/or parameters for the evaluation of the smoke production.
g
Ignition of the paper in EN ISO 11925-2 results in a d2 classification
h
Pass = no ignition of the paper (no classification); Fail = ignition of the paper (d2 classification).
i
Under conditions of surface flame attack and, if appropriate to the end–use application of the product, edge flame
attack.
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11.1.4 Washers
Generally, washers are not required for use with non-preloaded round holes. The use of washers can reduce
local damage to metal coatings (washer to be placed under nut or bolt head, whichever is rotated)
Plate washers shall be used for connections with long slotted and oversized holes. They shall not be
thinner than 4 mm
Taper washers shall be used if the surface is at an angle to a plane perpendicular to the bolt axis of more
than 1/20 (d≤20mm) or 1/30 (d>20mm)
Washers acc to EN 14399-5 (plain) shall only be used under nuts
Washers acc to EN 14399-6 (chamfered) shall be used under heads of preloaded bolts and positioned
with the chamfer towards the bolt head.
For preloaded 8.8 bolts a plain washer (or hardened taper washers) shall be used under the bolt head or
the nut, whichever is to be rotated
For preloaded 10.9 bolts plain washers (or hardened taper washers) shall be used under both the bolt
head and the nut
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11.1.5 Bolt design
Design resistance for individual fasteners subjected to shear and/or tension
Design resistance of fasteners EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.4 and EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.5
Mode Values Notes Clause
Data d Nominal diameter of the fastener [mm]
P Pitch of thread [mm]
A 2
Cross-sectional area of the fastener [mm ]
As 2
Tensile stress area of the fastener [mm ]
fub 2
Tensile strength of fastener [N/mm ]
Shear a) rivets and shear through shank of bolts: Shear resistance per shear plane [N]
Fv,Rd = 0.6 A ⋅ f ub 1.25
b) shear through thread of bolts:
Fv,Rd = α v ⋅ As ⋅ f ub 1.25
Reduction factor or packing:
(
β p = 9d 8d + 3t p ≤ 1.0 ) 3.6.1 (12)
values of αv:
0.6 class 4.6, 5.6 & 8.8
class 4.8, 5.8, 6.8, 10.9,
0.5
stainless steel & aluminium
Bearing Fb,Rd = α b ⋅ k1 ⋅ d ⋅ t ⋅ f u 1.25 Bearing resistance of connected part [N]
t Thickness of the connected part [mm]
k For countersunk head screws, the effective
t´ = t − thickness should have a reduction of half the
2
countersinking.
Single lap joints:
Fb,Rd ≤ 1.5 d ⋅ t ⋅ f u 1.25 Limiting bearing resistance for single lap joint with 3.6.1 (10)
only one bolt row [N] Fig. 3.3
Reduction factor slot holes βR:
1.0 Nominal size hole
Oversized holes
0.8
Short slot, axis ⊥ to load Slot holes:
0.8
Long slot, axis ⊥ to load Short: length ≤ 1.5d0
0.65 Fig. 3.1
[EN 1999-1-1] Long: 1.5d0 < length ≤ 2.5d0:
0.6 Slotted holes [EN 1993-1-8]
values of αb:
values of αb for slot holes:
e1 f end bolts:
, ub or 1.0 e3 + d 2 end bolts:
3d 0 fu e1 < 3d0
3 ( d + 1) ( e3 + d 2 ) < 3 ( d+1 )
p1 1 f inner bolts:
− , ub or 1.0 p3 + d 1 inner bolts:
3d 0 4 f u p1 < 3d0 −
3 ( d + 1) 4 ( p3 + d ) < 3 ( d+1 )
values of k1:
values of k1 for slot holes:
e edge bolts:
2.8 2 − 1.7 or 2.5 e +d 2 edge bolts:
d0 e2 < 1.5d0 2.8 4 − 1.7
d+1 ( e4 + d 2 ) < 1.5 ( d+1 )
p2 inner bolts:
1.4 − 1.7 or 2.5 p +d inner bolts:
d0 p2 < 3d0 1.4 4 − 1.7
d +1 ( p4 + d ) < 3 ( d+1 )
Tension Ft,Rd = k 2 ⋅ As ⋅ f ub 1.25 Tension resistance [N]
values of k2:
0.60 rivets
0.63 countersunk steel bolts
0.90 steel bolts
0.50 aluminium bolts
Punching F p,Rd = 0.6 π ⋅ d m ⋅ t p ⋅ f u 1.25 Punching shear resistance [N]
88 PART 1 EUROCODE
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PART 1 EUROCODE 89
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αv 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.6
M4 8.78 12.57 2.46 4.22 2.81 4.83 1.69 2.41 3.37 4.83 3.51 6.03
M5 14.18 19.63 3.97 6.60 4.54 7.54 2.72 3.77 5.45 7.54 5.67 9.42
M6 20.12 28.27 5.63 9.50 6.44 10.86 3.86 5.43 7.73 10.86 8.05 13.57
M8 36.61 50.27 10.25 16.89 11.72 19.30 7.03 9.65 14.06 19.30 14.64 24.13
M10 57.99 78.54 16.24 26.39 18.56 30.16 11.13 15.08 22.27 30.16 23.20 37.70
M12 84.27 113.1 23.60 38.00 26.97 43.43 16.18 21.72 32.36 43.43 33.71 54.29
M16 156.7 201.1 43.88 67.56 50.14 77.21 30.09 38.60 60.17 77.21 62.68 96.51
M20 244.8 314.2 68.54 105.56 78.34 120.64 47.00 60.32 94.00 120.64 97.92 150.80
M24 352.5 452.4 98.70 152.00 112.80 173.72 67.68 86.86 135.36 173.72 141.00 217.15
M30 560.6 706.9 156.97 237.50 179.39 271.43 107.64 135.72 215.27 271.43 224.24 339.29
Note: Values in black are for shear through threaded part; values in gray are for shear through shank
M4 8.78 4.43 3.10 5.06 3.54 2.53 1.77 5.06 3.54 6.32 4.43
M5 14.18 7.15 5.00 8.17 5.72 4.08 2.86 8.17 5.72 10.21 7.15
M6 20.12 10.14 7.10 11.59 8.11 5.79 4.06 11.59 8.11 14.49 10.14
M8 36.61 18.45 12.92 21.09 14.76 10.54 7.38 21.09 14.76 26.36 18.45
M10 57.99 29.23 20.46 33.40 23.38 16.70 11.69 33.40 23.38 41.75 29.23
M12 84.27 42.47 29.73 48.54 33.98 24.27 16.99 48.54 33.98 60.67 42.47
M16 156.7 78.96 55.27 90.24 63.17 45.12 31.58 90.24 63.17 112.80 78.96
M20 244.8 123.37 86.36 141.00 98.70 70.50 49.35 141.00 98.70 176.25 123.37
M24 352.5 177.66 124.36 203.04 142.13 101.52 71.06 203.04 142.13 253.80 177.66
M30 560.6 282.54 197.78 322.90 226.03 161.45 113.01 322.90 226.03 403.62 282.54
Note: Values in black are for hexagonal and socket head bolts; values in gray are for countersunk head bolts
90 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
Bearing resistance of bolts on single lap joint per mm EN 1993-1-8:2005 Cl. 3.6.1(10)
Fb,Rd = 1.5·d·fu/1.25 [kN/mm] per (t)
EN AW-5005 EN AW-5754 6060 6005A 6082 1.4301 1.4401 S235 S275 S355
fu [N/mm 2] 100 145 190 240 170 260 290 540 530 360 430 510
M4 0.480 0.696 0.912 1.152 0.816 1.248 1.392 2.592 2.544 1.728 2.064 2.448
M5 0.600 0.870 1.140 1.440 1.020 1.560 1.740 3.240 3.180 2.160 2.580 3.060
M6 0.720 1.044 1.368 1.728 1.224 1.872 2.088 3.888 3.816 2.592 3.096 3.672
M8 0.960 1.392 1.824 2.304 1.632 2.496 2.784 5.184 5.088 3.456 4.128 4.896
M10 1.200 1.740 2.280 2.880 2.040 3.120 3.480 6.480 6.360 4.320 5.160 6.120
M12 1.440 2.088 2.736 3.456 2.448 3.744 4.176 7.776 7.632 5.184 6.192 7.344
M16 1.920 2.784 3.648 4.608 3.264 4.992 5.568 10.368 10.176 6.912 8.256 9.792
M20 2.400 3.480 4.560 5.760 4.080 6.240 6.960 12.960 12.720 8.640 10.320 12.240
M24 2.880 4.176 5.472 6.912 4.896 7.488 8.352 15.552 15.264 10.368 12.384 14.688
M30 3.600 5.220 6.840 8.640 6.120 9.360 10.440 19.440 19.080 12.960 15.480 18.360
PART 1 EUROCODE 91
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
EN AW-5005 EN AW-5754 6060 6005A 6082 1.4301 1.4401 S235 S275 S355
O/H111 H24/H34 O/H111 H24/H34 T6 T6 T6 - - - - -
2
fu [kN/cm ] 10.0 14.5 19.0 24.0 17.0 26.0 29.0 54.0 53.0 36.0 43.0 51.0
M4 7 1.056 1.531 2.006 2.533 1.794 2.744 3.061 5.700 5.595 3.800 4.539 5.383
M5 8 1.206 1.749 2.292 2.895 2.051 3.137 3.498 6.514 6.394 4.343 5.187 6.152
M6 10 1.508 2.187 2.865 3.619 2.564 3.921 4.373 8.143 7.992 5.429 6.484 7.691
M8 13 1.960 2.843 3.725 4.705 3.333 5.097 5.685 10.586 10.390 7.057 8.430 9.998
M10 17 2.564 3.717 4.871 6.152 4.358 6.665 7.434 13.843 13.587 9.229 11.023 13.074
M12 19 2.865 4.154 5.444 6.876 4.871 7.449 8.309 15.472 15.185 10.314 12.320 14.612
M16 24 3.619 5.248 6.876 8.686 6.152 9.410 10.495 19.543 19.181 13.029 15.562 18.457
M20 30 4.524 6.560 8.595 10.857 7.691 11.762 13.119 24.429 23.977 16.286 19.453 23.072
Thread pull-out resistance per (t) Gerhard Dose 2006 & Wilhelm Schwarz 2005
Fo,Rd ≈ αM·βM·π·d2·fuM/1.25 [kN/mm] per t αM = βBfyB/(βBfyB+βMfyM)
d2 [mm] P A2-70 screw
βB 0.5774
Threaded EN AW-5005 EN AW-5754 6060 6005A 1.4301 1.4401 S235 S275 S355
Temper O/H111 H14/H24 O/H111 H24/H34 T6 T6 - - - - -
2
fuM [N/mm ] 100 145 190 240 170 250 520 530 360 430 510
βM 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.77 0.77 0.58 0.58 0.58
αM 0.90 0.86 0.83 0.79 0.84 0.79 0.50 0.50 0.66 0.62 0.58
M4 3.55 0.70 0.399 0.552 0.687 0.821 0.628 0.846 1.794 1.808 1.293 1.430 1.562
M5 4.48 0.80 0.499 0.690 0.859 1.028 0.786 1.060 2.266 2.285 1.627 1.800 1.969
M6 5.35 1.00 0.598 0.828 1.031 1.233 0.943 1.270 2.707 2.728 1.947 2.153 2.354
M8 7.19 1.25 0.798 1.104 1.375 1.646 1.258 1.697 3.636 3.666 2.607 2.886 3.158
M10 9.03 1.50 0.997 1.381 1.720 2.059 1.574 2.123 4.566 4.603 3.266 3.618 3.961
M12 10.86 1.75 1.197 1.657 2.065 2.473 1.889 2.549 5.495 5.540 3.926 4.350 4.764
M16 14.70 2.00 1.596 2.210 2.758 3.307 2.521 3.410 7.436 7.499 5.278 5.857 6.426
M20 18.38 2.50 1.995 2.763 3.447 4.134 3.151 4.263 9.295 9.373 6.597 7.322 8.032
M24 22.05 3.00 2.393 3.315 4.136 4.960 3.781 5.115 11.153 11.248 7.917 8.786 9.638
M30 27.73 3.50 2.992 4.145 5.174 6.208 4.729 6.402 14.024 14.143 9.928 11.026 12.104
92 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
11.2 Pin connections
Pin connections with no rotation may be designed as single bolted connections.
Design resistance of pin connections EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.10, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Fig. 8.13
Mode Values Notes Clause
Data d Diameter of pin [mm]
A 2
Cross-sectional area of pin [mm ]
Wel 3
Elastic section modulus of pin cross-section [mm ]
fup 2
Tensile strength of pin [N/mm ]
fy
Lower of the yield strengths of the pin and the
2
connected part [N/mm ]
Shear Fv,Rd = 0.6 A ⋅ f up 1.25 Shear resistance per shear plane [N]
Replaceable pin:
M Rd,ser = 0.8 Wel ⋅ f yp 1.0 ≥ M Ed,ser
Interaction Fv,Ed
2
M
2 Combined shear & bending
+ Ed
≤ 1.0
Fv,Rd M Rd
Design of pin ended members EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.9, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Fig. 8.12
Mode Values Notes Clause
Given FEd ⋅ γ M 1 2d 0 Table 3.9
a ≥ +
thickness 2 t ⋅ fy 3
FEd ⋅ γ M 1 d 0
c ≥ +
2 t ⋅ fy 3
PART 1 EUROCODE 93
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
11.3 Tapping screws and rivets
Spaced thread
Size Pitch Major Thread root Shank Tensile Plastic section Tightening
diameter diameter area Stress area modulus tourque
2 2 3 3
P [mm] dmin [mm] d1,min [mm] Ab [mm ] As [mm ] W pl = d1 /6 [mm ] [N·m]
ST 3.5 1.3 3.35 2.51 4.95 4.95 2.64 2.7
ST 3.9 1.3 3.73 2.77 6.03 6.03 3.54 3.4
ST 4.2 1.4 4.04 2.95 6.83 6.83 4.28 4.4
ST 4.8 1.6 4.62 3.43 9.24 9.24 6.73 6.3
ST 5.5 1.8 5.28 3.99 12.50 12.50 10.59 10.0
ST 6.3 1.8 6.03 4.70 17.35 17.35 17.30 13.6
Bearing tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.43d tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.36d - fu,min ≤ 260 N/mm2;
Fb,Rd = 3.2 t d f u ,min 1.25 - d ≥ 5.5mm
Fb,Rd = 2.5 d t 3 f u ,min 1.25
Otherwise (also for timber support): Otherwise (also for timber support):
Fb,Rd = 2.1 d t f u ,min 1.25 Fb,Rd = 1.5d t f u ,min 1.25
Pull-through F p,Rd = 0.5 d w t f u 1.25 Steel or stainless steel washer: - fu ≤ 260 N/mm2;
(punching) F p,Rd = 6.1 α E d w 22 t f u 1.25 - t ≤ 1.5mm;
- dw ≥ 14 mm; tw ≥ 1 mm
Aluminium washer:
F p,Rd = 4.88 α E d w 22 t f u 1.25
94 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
ST 6.3 3.3 3.5 4.1 3.3 3.5 4.1 4.8 5.5 6.0
PART 1 EUROCODE 95
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
11.3.4 Resistance of rivets
Design resistance of blind rivets
Mode EN 1993-1-3 Cl. 8.2 EN 1999-1-4 Cl.8.2 Conditions
Material - EN ISO 15973, 15974, 15977, 15978, 15981 &15982
Shear Fv,Rd = Anet ⋅ f u 1.25 Fv,Rd = 38 d 2 1.25 - fu,min ≤ 260 N/mm2;
- 2.6mm ≤ d ≤ 6.4mm
Bearing tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.34d tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.36d
Fb,Rd = 3.6 d t min 3 f u ,min 1.25 Fb,Rd = 2.5 d t 3 f u ,min 1.25
≤ e1 1.2 t f u /1.25 Otherwise:
Otherwise (also for timber support): Fb,Rd = 1.5d t f u ,min 1.25
Fb,Rd = 2.1 d t f u ,min 1.25
P 15 PS 45 PS 25
1050 5005 5754 6060 6005A 6082 1.4301 1.4401 S235 S355
fu [N/mm 2] 65 100 100 145 190 240 170 260 290 540 530 360 510
4.0 0.312 0.480 0.480 0.696 0.912 1.152 0.816 1.248 1.392 2.592 2.544 1.728 2.448
4.8 0.374 0.576 0.576 0.835 1.094 1.382 0.979 1.498 1.670 3.110 3.053 2.074 2.938
5.0 0.390 0.600 0.600 0.870 1.140 1.440 1.020 1.560 1.740 3.240 3.180 2.160 3.060
6.0 0.468 0.720 0.720 1.044 1.368 1.728 1.224 1.872 2.088 3.888 3.816 2.592 3.672
6.4 0.499 0.768 0.768 1.114 1.459 1.843 1.306 1.997 2.227 4.147 4.070 2.765 3.917
PART 1 EUROCODE 97
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
11.5 Weld
11.5.1 Weld Symbols to EN 22553:1994 (ISO 2553:1992)
98 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
PART 1 EUROCODE 99
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
(
σ ⊥ 2 +3 τ ⊥ 2 +τ / / 2 )
Interaction fu
2 ⋅ σ 2 +3 ⋅ τ / / 2 ≤
1.25 β w
fw
2 ⋅ σ 2 +3 ⋅ τ / / 2 ≤
1.25
values of γMw:
EN 1999-1-1 γMw = 1.35
UK NA γMw = 1.35