Eee-V-dcmachines and Synchronous Machines (10ee54) - Solution

DC Machines & Synchronous Machines 10EE54
Question Bank Solutions
UNIT-1: DC Generator:
1. With a neat sketch explain the construction of Dc machine. June 2016
A dc generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into direct current
electricity. This energy conversion is based on the principle of production of dynamically
induced emf. This article outlines basic construction and working of a DC generator.
Construction of a DC Machine:
Note: A DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any constructional changes and vice
versa is also possible. Thus, a DC generator or a DC motor can be broadly termed as a DC
machine.
The above figure shows the constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine. A DC machine
consists two basic parts; stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC machine are described
below.
1. Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast iron or steel. It
not only provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also carries the magnetic flux
produced by the field winding.
2. Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding. They carry
field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes; (i) they
support field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 1

3. Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and placed on
each pole and are connected in series. They are wound in such a way that, when energized, they
form alternate North and South poles.
4. Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of the machine. It is cylindrical in shape with slots to
carry armature winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for
reducing eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling
purposes. Armature is keyed to the shaft.
5. Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots. The
armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core. Armature
winding can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding. Double layer
lap or wave windings are generally used. A double layer winding means that each armature slot
will carry two different coils.
6. Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a
commutator-brush arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to collect the
current generated in armature conductors. Whereas, in case of a dc motor, commutator helps in
providing current to the armature conductors. A commutator consists of a set of copper segments
which are insulated from each other. The number of segments is equal to the number of armature
coils. Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the commutator is keyed to the shaft.
Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest on commutator segments and slide
on the segments when the commutator rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or supply
the current.
2. What are the Differences between lap winding and wave windings. June 2016
Lap winding is also known as parallel 1. Wave winding is also known as series
windings. winding.
2. The number of parallel path is equal to the 2. The number of parallel paths is always
number of poles i.e., A = P. equal to 2 i.e., A = 2.
3. The number of brush required by this winding 3. The number of brushes required by this
is always equal to the number of poles. winding is always equal to 2.
4. The machine using lap winding requires 4. The machine using wave winding does
equalizer rings for obtaining better require dummy coils to provide the
commutation. mechanical balance for the armature.

3. Derive the expression for emf induced in a DC generator with usual notations.
Dec 2015
Let,  = Flux / pole in webers
 Change in flux d = P webers
Z = Total number armature conductors
= Number of slots x Number of conductors per slot
P = Number of poles ; A = Number of parallel paths in the armature.
N = Rotational speed of armature in revolutions per minute (r.p.m)
 Time taken to complete one revolution = 60/N sec.
E = e.m.f induced / parallel path in armature.
Generated e.m.f Eg = e.m.f generated /parallel path
By Faraday‟s Laws of Electromagnetic induction W K T ,
d PN
E.M.F generated per conductor  
dt 60 volts
Z
Number of armature conductors per parallel path 
A
Eg  e.m.f generated per conductor  Number of conductors ineach parallel path
 PN  Z
Eg    volts ........(i)
 60  A
For a Simplex Wave-Wound Generator, Number of parallel paths A=2;
Z
PN .  
Eg   2   ZPN volts
60 120
For Simplex Lap-Wound Generator:
Number of parallel paths, A = P.

4. Draw the no load characteristic of a DC shunt generator and comment on its shape.
Explain how critical resistance can be found out from the no load characteristics.
Dec 2014, June 2015,
Sol: When the armature is rotating with armature open circuited, an emf is induced in the armature
because of the residual flux. When the field winding is connected with the armature, a =rent flows
through the field winding ( in case of shunt field winding, field current flows even at No-load and in
case of series field winding only with load) and produces additional flux. This additional flux along
with the residual flux generates higher voltage. This higher voltage circulates more current to generate
further higher voltage. This is a cumulative process till the saturation is attained. The voltage to which
it builds is decided by the resistance of the field winding as shown in the figure 1.11. If field circuit
resistance is increased such that the resistance line does not cut OCC like om in the figure 1.11, then
the machine will fail to build up voltage to the rated value. The slope of the as gap lire dawn as a
tangent to the initial linear portion of the curve represents the maximum resistance that the field circuit
can have beyond which the machine fails to build up voltage. This value of field circuit resistance is
called critical feld resistance. The field circuit is generally designed to have a resistance value less than
this so that the machine builds up the voltage to the aced value.
Fig1. Critical Field Resistance of a Dc Shunt Generator

5. A 6 pole, 148 shunt shunt generator has 480 conductors and is wave wound. Its field
current is 2A. Find the magnetizing and cross magnetizing amp turns /pole at full load if
i) the brushes are at the geometrical neutral axis (GNA) ii) the brushes are shifted from
GNA by 5° elec. iii) The brushes are shifted from GNA by 5° mech.
Dec 2014, June 2016
6. What is meant by commutation? Briefly explain the steps involved in commutation

process. June 2014 , Dec 2015, June 2015
Sol; Fig.below shows the schematic diagram of 2-pole lap-wound generator. There are two
parallel paths between the brushes. Therefore, each coil of the winding carries one half (Ia/2 in this
case) of the total current (Ia) entering or leaving the armature.
Note that the currents in the coils connected to a brush are either all towards the brush (positive
brush) or all directed away from the brush (negative brush). Therefore, current in a coil will reverse
as the coil passes a brush. This reversal of current as the coil passes & brush is called commutation.
The reversal of current in a coil as the coil passes the brush axis is called commutation.
When commutation takes place, the coil undergoing commutation is short circuited by the brush.
The brief period during which the coil remains short circuited is known as commutation period Tc.
If the current reversal is completed by the end of commutation period, it is called ideal
commutation. If the current reversal is not completed by that time, then sparking occurs between the
brush and the commutator which results in progressive damage to both.
Ideal commutation
Let us discuss the phenomenon of ideal commutation (i.e., coil has no inductance) in one coil in the
armature winding shown in Fig. (2.6) above. For this purpose, we consider the coil A. The brush
width is equal to the width of one commutator segment and one mica insulation. Suppose the total
armature current is 40 A. Since there are two parallel paths, each coil carries a current of 20 A.

(i) In Fig. (i), the brush is in contact with segment 1 of the commutator. The commutator segment 1
conducts a current of 40 A to the brush; 20 A from coil A and 20 A from the adjacent coil as shown.
The coil A has yet to undergo commutation
(ii) As the armature rotates, the brush will make contact with segment 2 and thus short-circuits the
coil A as shown in Fig. (2.7) (ii). There are now two parallel paths into the brush as long as the
short-circuit of coil A exists. Fig. (2.7) (ii) shows the instant when the brush is one-fourth on
segment 2 and three-fourth on segment 1. For this condition, the resistance of the path through
segment 2 is three times the resistance of the path through segment 1 (Q contact resistance varies
inversely as the area of contact of brush with the segment). The brush again conducts a current of
40 A; 30 A through segment 1 and 10 A through segment 2. Note that current in coil A (the coil
undergoing commutation) is reduced from 20 A to 10 A.
(iii) Fig. (2.7) (iii) shows the instant when the brush is one-half on segment 2 and one-half on
segment 1. The brush again conducts 40 A; 20 A through segment 1 and 20 A through segment 2 (Q
now the resistances of the two parallel paths are equal). Note that now. current in coil A is zero.
(iv) Fig. (2.7) (iv) shows the instant when the brush is three-fourth on segment 2 and one-fourth on
segment 1. The brush conducts a current of 40 A; 30 A through segment 2 and 10 A through
segment 1. Note that current in coil A is 10 A but in the reverse direction to that before the start of
commutation. The reader may see the action of the commutator in reversing the current in a coil as
the coil passes the brush axis.

Fig. (v) shows the instant when the brush is in contact only with segment 2. The brush again
conducts 40 A; 20 A from coil A and 20 A from the adjacent coil to coil A. Note that now current in
coil A is 20 A but in the reverse direction. Thus the coil A has undergone commutation. Each coil
undergoes commutation in this way as it passes the brush axis. Note that during commutation, the
coil under consideration remains short circuited by the brush. Fig. (2.8) shows the current-time
graph for the coil A undergoing commutation. The horizontal line AB represents a constant current
of 20 A upto the beginning of commutation. From the finish of commutation, it is represented by
another horizontal line CD on the opposite side of the zero line and the same distance from it as AB
i.e., the current has exactly reversed (- 20 A). The way in which current changes from B to C
depends upon the conditions under which the coil undergoes commutation. If the current changes at
a uniform rate (i.e., BC is a straight line), then it is called ideal commutation as shown in Fig. (2.8).
under such conditions, no sparking will take place between the brush and the commutator.

7. How would you classifies the types of generators (D.C) and explain them in brief, along
with their diagrams. Dec 2014
Sol: Depending on the type of excitation of field winding, there are two basic types of DC machine.
1. Separately excited machine: In this type of machines the field flux is produced by connecting
the field winding to an external source.
2. Self excited machine: The field flux is produced by connecting the field winding with the
armature in this type. A self excited machine requires residual magnetism for operation.
Depending on the type of field winding connection DC machines can be further classified as:
1. Shunt machine: The field winding consisting of large number of turns of thin wire is usually excited
in parallel with armature circuit and hence the name shunt field winding. This winding will be having
more resistance and hence carries less current.
2. Series machine: The field winding has a few turns of thick wire and is connected in series with
armature.
3. Compound machine: Compound wound machine comprises of both series and shunt windings and
can be either short shunt or long shunt, cumulative, differential or flat
compounded.

In separate excited DC machine, the field winding is connected to a separate DC source. This type of
machine is most flexible as full and independent control of both armature and field circuit is possible.
Figure 1.1 shows separately excited DC generator. Permanent magnet machines also fall in this
category.
A self excited DC generator could be excited by its armature voltage as shown in figure 1.2 (i.e., shunt
excitation) or by its armature current as shown in figure 1.3 (series excitation). Compound wound
generator comprises of both series and shunt windings and can be either short shunt (figure 1.4) or
long shunt (figure 1.5), cumulative or differential or flat compounded
8. Explain what lap and wave windings arc and where they are preferred in DC machines.
June 2014
1. Armature winding is a closed winding. Depending on the type of winding, the closed path gets
divided into number of parallel paths and is available between the positive and negative brushes.
2. Wave winding is used for high voltage low current machines.
3. Equalizing rings are not required in wave winding where as there are used in lap winding.
4. Lap winding is suitable for low voltage high current machines because of more number of parallel
paths.
In case of lap winding, the number of parallel path (A) = number of poles (P) In case of wave winding,
the number of parallel path (A) = 2 irrespective of number of poles. Each path will have -AZ
conductors connected in series.

9. Explain armature reaction with neat figures and derive equations for, i) DC magnetizing
ampere tams/pole and ii) Gas magnetizing ampere turns/pole. June 2016
Sol: The current flowing through armature conductors also creates a magnetic flux (called armature
flux) that distorts and weakens the flux coming from the poles. This distortion and field weakening
takes place in both generators and motors. The action of armature flux on the main flux is known as
armature reaction.The phenomenon of armature reaction in a d.c. generator is shown in Fig. Only one
pole is shown for clarity. When the generator is on no-load, a smal1 current flowing in the armature
does not appreciably affect the main flux coming from the pole [See Fig 2.1 (i)]. When the generator is
loaded, the current flowing through armature conductors sets up flux 1. Fig. (2.1) (ii) shows flux due to
armature current alone. By superimposing 1 and 2, we obtain the resulting flux 3 as shown in Fig. (2.1)
(iii). Referring to Fig (2.1) (iii), it is clear that flux density at; the trailing pole tip (point B) is increased
while at the leading pole tip (point A) it is decreased. This unequal field distribution produces the
following two effects:
(i) The main flux is distorted.
(ii) Due to higher flux density at pole tip B, saturation sets in.
Consequently, the increase in flux at pole tip B is less than the decrease in flux under pole tip A. Flux
at full load is, therefore, less than flux at no load. As we shall see, the weakening of flux due to
armature reaction depends upon the position of brushes.

Demagnetizing and Cross-Magnetizing Conductors

With the brushes in the G.N.A. position, there is only cross-magnetizing effect of armature
reaction. However, when the brushes are shifted from the G.N.A. position, the armature reaction
will have both demagnetizing and cross magnetizing effects. Consider a 2-pole generator with
brushes shifted (lead) qm mechanical degrees from G.N.A. We shall identify the armature
conductors that produce demagnetizing effect and those that produce cross-magnetizing effect.
(i) The armature conductor‟s oqm on either side of G.N.A. produce flux in direct opposition to main
flux as shown in Fig. (2.4) (i). Thus the conductors lying within angles AOC = BOD = 2qm at the top
and bottom ofthe armature produce demagnetizing effect. These are called demagnetizing armature

conductors and constitute the demagnetizing ampere-turns of armature reaction (Remember two
conductors constitute a turn).
(ii) The axis of magnetization of the remaining armature conductors lying between angles AOD and
COB is at right angles to the main flux as shown in Fig. (2.4) (ii). These conductors produce the cross-
magnetizing (or distorting) effect i.e., they produce uneven flux distribution on each pole. Therefore,
they are called cross-magnetizing conductors and constitute the cross-magnetizing ampere-turns of
armature reaction.
10. A long shunt compound generator delivers a load current of 50A at 500V, and has armature, series
field resistance of 0.05 ohm and 0.03 ohm, 250 ohm respectively. Calculate the generated voltage and
the armature current, allow 1 volt per brush for contact drop. Dec 2014

UNIT-2: DC Motor:
1. Classify DC motors according to their field winding connections. Draw the circuit
diagrams and write the voltage and current relationships in all the types.
Dec 2015
Sol: Depends upon the field winding connected to the armature
(1) DC Shunt Motor

(2) DC Series Motor
(3) DC Compound Motor (i) Cumulative Compound Motor
(a) Long shunt
(b) Short shunt
(ii) Differential Compound Motor
(a) Long shunt
(b) Short shunt
DC Shunt Motor: Ish = V/Rsh and
Ia = I– Ish. Where I is the line current
Eb= V - IaRa– B.C.D – A.R.D, where B.C.D is brush contact drop(1 V/brush)
A.R.D is the armature reaction drop
2. DC Series Motor: Ia = I = Ise

Eb= V - Ia(Ra +Rse) – B.C.D – A.R.D.
2. With the help of relevant characteristics explain why a series motor should never be
started at no load. June 2016
In any DC. Motor the speed depends inversely on the flux. Consider when stating a series
motor the current flowing will be high, but the flux that the motor produces will be moderate
since the series winding has less number of turns. If you start the motor without load the speed
will increase as speed increases the back emf increases. This decreases the current through the
series winding and hence flux decreases and the speed father increases. Theoretically speaking
the s peed becomes infinite But practically the mot will accelerate to very high speed. „which

will damage the motor. But if you start the motor with the load, you are actually reducing the
starting speed hence the motor runs safely.
3. A 200 V DC shunt motor takes 22 amp at rated voltage and runs at 1000 rpm. Its field
resistance is 100 ohm and armature resistance is 0.1 ohm. Compute the value of
additional resistance required in the armature circuit to reduce the. Speed to 800 rpm
when i) The load torque is proportional to the speed ii) The load torque proportional to
the square of the speed. Dec 2014

4. What is meant by back emf? Explain its significance. June 2015, Dec 2015
Significance of Back E.M.F. It is seen in the generating action, that when a conductor cuts the
lines of flux, e.m.f. gets induced in the conductor. The question is obvious that in a d.c. motor,
after a motoring action, armature starts rotating and armature conductors cut the main flux. So
is there a generating action existing in a motor ? The answer to this question is 'Yes'. After a
motoring action, there exists a generating action. There is an induced e.m.f. in the rotating
armature conductors according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. This induced
e.m.f. in the armature always acts in the opposite direction of the supply voltage. This is
according to the Lenz's law which states that the direction of the induced e.m.f. is always so as
to oppose the cause producing it. In a d c. motor, electrical input i.e. the supply voltage is the
cause and hence this induced e.m.f. opposes the supply voltage. This e.m.f. tries' to set up a
current through the armature which is in the opposite direction to that, which supply voltage is
forcing through the conductor. So as this e.m.f. always opposes the supply voltage, it is called
back e.m.f. and denoted as Eb. Though it is denoted as Eb, basically it gets generated by the
generating action which we have seen earlier in case of generators. So its magnitude can be
determined by the e.m.f. equation
5. Derive torque equation of a DC motor. June 2014
Torque Equation of a D.C. Motor
It is seen that the tuning or twisting force about an axis is called torque. Consider a wheel of
radius R meters acted upon by a circumferential force F newton as shown in the Fig. The wheel
is rotating at a speed of N r.p.m.
Then angular speed of the wheel is w = 2πN/60 rad/sec
So work done in one revolution is, W = F x distance travelled in one revolution
= F x 2 π R Joules

6. A 440 V, DC shunt motor has a no load speed of 2000 rpm. It is running at 1000 rpm at full
load torque, reduced armature voltage and full field. If the load torque is reduced to 50% of
rated value, with armature voltage and filed voltage held constant at previous voltages the O
speed increases to 1050 rpm. Find the armature voltage drop at full load. Neglect the effect of
armature reaction. June 2015

7. What are the different methods of speed control of D.C. shunt motor, explain them in
brief. June 2016

8. Explain the torque-Armature Current characteristics of shunt and series motors.
June 2015, Dec 2014

9. Explain in brief the Ward-Leonard speed control of DC motors. June 2014
10. A series motor whit an unsaturated magnetic circuit and 0.5 0hm total resistance when
running at a certain speed takes 60 A at 500V. If the load torque varies as the cube of the
speed. Calculate the resistance required to reduce the speed by 25%.
June 2015


11. Write a short notes on Permanent Magnet DC Motors. Dec 2013

UNIT-3&4: LOSSES, EFFICIENCY AND TESTING OF DC MACHINES.
1. What are the losses occurring in a DC machine. Explain how do, they vary with the load.
Derive the condition for maximum efficiency of a DC generator.
June 2016, June 2014, Dec 2014, June 2015, Dec 2015


The condition for maximum efficiency of a DC generator

2. Draw the power flow diagram of a DC long shunt compound generator and explain.
June 2016
3. Explain, with the help of necessary circuit diagram, how the efficiency of a DC generator
and motor can be predetermined by conducting Swinburne’s test. Obtain the efficiency
expressions for the motor and generator.
Dec 2014, Dec 2015



4. Two identical DC shunt machine, when tested by Hopkinson's method, gave the following
data: Line voltage = 230 V Line current excluding the field current = 30 A Motor
armature current = 230 A Field currents 5 A and 4 amp. The armature resistance of each
machine is 0.025 ohm. Calculate the efficiency of both the machines.
Dec 2014

5. Explain Field's test as applied to two similar DC series motors. June 2014
Figure 4.8 shows the circuit for fields test. This test is applicable to two similar series motor. One of
the machine runs as a motor and drives a generator whose output is wasted in a variable load „R‟.
Both machine field coils are in series and both run at same speed so that iron and friction losses are
made equal. Load resistance „R‟ is varied till the motor current reaches its full load value.
V = Supply voltage ;I1 = Motor current
V2 = Generator terminal voltage ;I2 = Load current
Input = VI1 and output = V2I2 ; Ra and Rse = hot resistances.
Total losses in the set Wt = VI1 – V2I2 .
Armature and Field copper losses Wc = (Ra + 2 Rse) I12 + Ia2Ra
Stray losses for the set = Wt – Wc

6. Explain the power flow diagram in D. C. machine as generator and as motor.
June 2016

7. The Hopkinson's test on two shunt machine gave the following results for full load. Line
If voltage, 250 V, line current excluding field currents, 5A, and 4.2 A, calculate the
efficiency of each machine, armature resistance of each machine is 0.02 0hm.
Dec 2015


8. Explain the retardation test on DC machines. June 2015

9. Explain the regenerative test on DC machines. June 2016, June 2014
This is a regenerative test in which two identical DC shunt machines are coupled mechanically
and tested simultaneously. One of the machines is run as a generator while the other as motor
supplied by the generator. The set therefore draws only losses in the machines. The circuit
connection is shown in Figure 4.3. The machine is started as motor and its shunt field resistance
is varied to run the motor at its rated speed. The voltage of the generator is made equal to
supply voltage by varying the shunt field resistance of the generator which is indicated by the
zero reading of the voltmeter connected across the switch. By adjusting the field currents of the
machines, the machines can be made to operate at any desired load with in the rated capacity of
the machines
ADVANTAGES:
i. The two machines are tested under loaded conditions so that stray load losses are accounted.
ii. Power required for the test is small as compared to the full load powers of the two machines.
Therefore economical for long duration tests like “Heat run tests”.
iii. Temperature rise and commutation qualities can be observed.
iv. By merely adjusting the field currents of the two machines the two machines can be loaded
easily and the load test can be conducted over the complete load range in a short time.

DISADVANTAGES:
i. Availability of two identical machines
ii. Both machines are not loaded equally and this is crucial in smaller machines.
iii. There is no way of separating iron losses of the two machines which are different because of
different excitations.
iv. Since field currents are varied widely to get full load, the set speed will be greater than
rated values. The efficiency can be determined as follows:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM


10. Briefly explain the brushless DC motors and their applications. June 2015
Construction of brushless DC motor:
The construction of brushless DC motor is shown in Figure 2.37.It consists of a

stator and a permanent magnet rotor. The stator houses a polyphase winding in its slots.
The rotor consists of permanent magnets. The stator windings are fed by an inverter.
Rotor position sensors generate pulses for controlling the transistors in the inverter.
Features of brushless DC motor:
i) Due to absence of brushless & commutator they require practically no
maintenance.
ii) The operation is highly reliable and they have long life.
iii) They have low inertia & friction.
iv) Low radio frequency interference & hence the operation is noiseless.
v) Speeds upto 30000rpm & more is possible.
vi) Cooling is much better.
vii) Due to feedback diodes efficiency is high (75-80%).
Applications of brushless DC motor:
i) Unipolar brushless DC motor upto 100W, table driver, record players, spindle drives in
H D Drives, video recorders control systems.
ii) Also in aerospace, gyroscope & biomedical instruments.

11. Explain commutation with neat figure. Dec 2014
Sol; Fig.below shows the schematic diagram of 2-pole lap-wound generator. There are two
parallel paths between the brushes. Therefore, each coil of the winding carries one half (Ia/2 in
this case) of the total current (Ia) entering or leaving the armature.
Note that the currents in the coils connected to a brush are either all towards the brush (positive
brush) or all directed away from the brush (negative brush). Therefore, current in a coil will
reverse as the coil passes a brush. This reversal of current as the coil passes & brush is called
commutation. The reversal of current in a coil as the coil passes the brush axis is called
commutation.
When commutation takes place, the coil undergoing commutation is short circuited by the
brush. The brief period during which the coil remains short circuited is known as commutation
period Tc. If the current reversal is completed by the end of commutation period, it is called
ideal commutation. If the current reversal is not completed by that time, then sparking occurs
between the brush and the commutator which results in progressive damage to both.
Ideal commutation
Let us discuss the phenomenon of ideal commutation (i.e., coil has no inductance) in one coil in
the armature winding shown in Fig. (2.6) above. For this purpose, we consider the coil A. The
brush width is equal to the width of one commutator segment and one mica insulation. Suppose
the total armature current is 40 A. Since there are two parallel paths, each coil carries a current
of 20 A.
(i) In Fig. (i), the brush is in contact with segment 1 of the commutator. The commutator
segment 1 conducts a current of 40 A to the brush; 20 A from coil A and 20 A from the
adjacent coil as shown. The coil A has yet to undergo commutation
(ii) As the armature rotates, the brush will make contact with segment 2 and thus short-circuits
the coil A as shown in Fig. (2.7) (ii). There are now two parallel paths into the brush as long as
the short-circuit of coil A exists. Fig. (2.7) (ii) shows the instant when the brush is one-fourth
on segment 2 and three-fourth on segment 1. For this condition, the resistance of the path
through segment 2 is three times the resistance of the path through segment 1 (Q contact
resistance varies inversely as the area of contact of brush with the segment). The brush again
conducts a current of 40 A; 30 A through segment 1 and 10 A through segment 2. Note that
current in coil A (the coil undergoing commutation) is reduced from 20 A to 10 A.

(iii) Fig. (2.7) (iii) shows the instant when the brush is one-half on segment 2 and one-half on
segment 1. The brush again conducts 40 A; 20 A through segment 1 and 20 A through segment
2 (Q now the resistances of the two parallel paths are equal). Note that now. current in coil A is
zero.
(iv) Fig. (2.7) (iv) shows the instant when the brush is three-fourth on segment 2 and one-fourth
on segment 1. The brush conducts a current of 40 A; 30 A through segment 2 and 10 A through
segment 1. Note that current in coil A is 10 A but in the reverse direction to that before the start
of commutation. The reader may see the action of the commutator in reversing the current in a
coil as the coil passes the brush axis.
Fig. (v) shows the instant when the brush is in contact only with segment 2. The brush again
conducts 40 A; 20 A from coil A and 20 A from the adjacent coil to coil A. Note that now

current in coil A is 20 A but in the reverse direction. Thus the coil A has undergone
commutation. Each coil undergoes commutation in this way as it passes the brush axis. Note
that during commutation, the coil under consideration remains short circuited by the brush. Fig.
(2.8) shows the current-time graph for the coil A undergoing commutation. The horizontal line
AB represents a constant current of 20 A upto the beginning of commutation. From the finish
of commutation, it is represented by another horizontal line CD on the opposite side of the zero
line and the same distance from it as AB i.e., the current has exactly reversed (- 20 A). The way
in which current changes from B to C depends upon the conditions under which the coil
undergoes commutation. If the current changes at a uniform rate (i.e., BC is a straight line),
then it is called ideal commutation as shown in Fig. (2.8). under such conditions, no sparking
will take place between the brush and the commutator.
12. Discuss the factors that control the speed of DC motors. Dec 2015

13. A test in two coupled similar tramway motors, with their fields connected in series gave
the following results, when one machine acted as a motor and other as generator motor:
Armature current = 56 A Applied voltage across motor terminals = 590 V; Voltage drop
across field winding = 40 V Generator: Armature current = 44 A Armature voltage = 400
V Field voltage drop = 40 V Resistance of each armature = 0.3 ohm. Calculate the
efficiency of motor and generator at this load. June 2016


UNIT-5: Synchronous Machines
1. Define pitch factor and distribution .factor. Derive-the expressions for these factors. Explain
the Effect-of harmonics on them. June 2016, June 2014, Dec 2015
As shown in the above figure, consider the coil short pitched by an angle α, called chording angle.
When the coils are full pitched the emf induced in each coil side will be equal in magnitude and
in phase with each other. Hence the resultant emf induced in the coil will be sum of the emf
induced. Hence Ec = E1 + E2 = 2E for full pitched coils,
Hence total emf = algebraic sum of the emfs = vector sum of emfs as shown in figure below
When the coils are shot pitched by an angle α, the emf induced in each coil side will be equal in
magnitude but will be out of phase by an angle equal to chording angle. Hence the resultant emf is
equal to the vector sum of the emfs as shown in figure below.
Hence the resultant coil emf is given by Ec = 2E1 cos α/2 = 2E cos α/2 volts.

Hence the resultant emf in the short pitched coils is dependent on chording angle α. Now the factor
by which the emf induced in a short pitched coil gets reduced is called pitch factor and defined as
the ratio of emf induced in a short pitched coil to emf induced in a full pitched coil.
Pitch factor Kp= emf induced in a short pitched coil/ emf induced in a full pitched
coil
= (2E cos α/2 )/ 2E
Kp = cos α/2
where α is called chording
angle.
= (2r sin mβ/2) / (m x 2 sin β/2)
Kd = ( sin mβ/2) / (m sin β/2)
2. A 3 phase 8 pole 50 Hz star connected alternator has 96 slots with 4 conductors, coil span is
10 slots and the flux per pole is 0.06 wb. Determine the line emf generated. If each phase is
capable of carrying 650 amp, what is the KVA rating of the machine?
June 2015, Dec 2014

3. Derive an expression for EMF equation of a alternator by considering pitch factor and distribution
factor. June 2014, Dec 2014
Consider the following

Φ = flux per pole in wb
P = Number of poles
Ns = Synchronous speed in rpm
f = frequency of induced emf in Hz
Z = total number of stator conductors
Zph = conductors per phase connected in series
Tph = Number of turns per phase
Assuming concentrated winding, considering one conductor placed in a slot

According to Faradays Law electromagnetic induction,
The average value of emf induced per conductor in one revolution e a v g
eavg = Change of Flux in one revolution/ Time taken for one revolution
Change of Flux in one revolution = p x
Time taken for one revolution = 60/Ns seconds
Hence eavg = (p x ) / ( 60/Ns) = p x x Ns / 60
We know f = PNs /120
Hence PNs /60 = 2f
Hence eavg = 2 f volts
Hence average emf per turn = 2 x 2 f volts = 4 f volts
If there are Tph, number of turns per phase connected in series, then average emf induced in
Tph turns is
Eph, avg = Tph x eavg = 4 f Tph volts
Hence RMS value of emf induced E = 1.11 x Eph, avg
= 1.11 x 4 f Tph volts
= 4.44 f Tph volts
This is the general emf equation for the machine having concentrated and full pitched winding.
In practice, alternators will have short pitched winding and hence coil span will not be 1800, but on
or two slots short than the full pitch.
4. Calculate the RMS value of line and phase induced emf of a 10 pole, 3-Ph 50 Hz
alternator with 2 slots/pole/phase and 4 conductors/slot in two layers. The coil span is
150° electrical. 0. The flux/pole has a fundamental component of 0.15 wb and 20% third
harmonic, 6% fifth harmonic component. June 2015


5. Briefly explain salient pole and non-salient pole synchronous machines.
June 2014
This is also called project pole type as all the poles are projected out from the surface of the
rotor. The poles are built up of thick steel laminations. The poles are bolted to the rotor as shown in
figure above. The field winding is provided on the pole shoe. These rotors have large diameters and
small axial lengths. The limiting factor for the size of the rotor is the centrifugal force acting on the
rotating member of the machine. As mechanical strength of salient pole type is less, this is preferred
for low speed alternators ranging from 125rpm to 500rpm. The prime movers used to drive such rotors
are generally water turbines and IC engines.

Smooth Cylindrical Type Rotor. (Non Salient or Non Projected Pole Type)
The rotor consists of smooth solid steel cylinder having a number of slots to accommodate the field
coils. These slots are covered at the top with the help of steel or manganese wedges. The unslotted
portions of the cylinder itself act as the poles.
The poles are not projecting out and the surface of the rotor is smooth which maintains uniform
air gap between stator and rotor. These rotors have small diameters and large axial lengths. This is to
keep peripheral speed into limits. The main advantage of this type is that these are mechanically very
strong and thus preferred for high speed alternators ranging 1500rpm to 3000rpm. Such high speed
alternators are called „turbo alternators‟. The prime movers used to drive such type of rotors are steam
turbines, electric motors.
6. Mention the advantages of revolving field and stationery armature type alternators.
June 2015
In the case of an alternator, the field system is rotating and the armature is stationary. This is because,
in the case of an alternator, having a stationary armature has several advantages, which are listed
below:
1. The generated voltage can be directly connected to the load, so that, the load current need not
pass through brush contacts.
2. It is easy to insulate the stationary armature for high ac generated voltages, which may be as
high as 11kv to 33kv.
3. The sliding contacts i.e. the slip rings are transferred to the low voltage, low power dc field
circuit which can be easily insulated. The excitation voltage is only of the order 110volts to
220volts.
4. The armature windings can be easily braced to prevent any deformation produced by large
mechanical stresses set up due to short circuit and large centrifugal forces that might set up.

UNIT- 6 & 7: VOLTAGE REGULATION AND SYNCHRONIZATION OF ALTERNATORS
1. With the help of neat sketches, explain how the voltage regulation can be determined
Using EMF method from the O.C and S.C.test results. June 2016, Dec 2015


2. A 220 V, 50 Hz 6 pole star connected alternator with armature resistance of 0.06 ohm
/phase gave the following data for open circuit and short circuit characteristics. Find the
% voltage regulation at full load current of 40 amps at a power factor of 0.8 lag by mmf
method. Dec 2014
Field 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.4
Current
O.C. 16.7 33.5 50.2 67 84.3 99.3 112 134 151 164 173.2 179
Voltage/Ph
S.C.Current. 6.6 13.2 20 26.5 32.4 40 46.3 59.0 -- -- -- --

3. What are the conditions to be satisfied when two alternators are connected in parallel?
Derive the expressions for synchronizing power and torque neglecting the effect of Ra.
June 2016, June 2014, Dec 2014, Dec 2015


4. Define voltage regulation alternator. With necessary diagram, explain zero power factor
method to determine the voltage regulation of a alternator.
June 2014, Dec 2015
The regulation of an alternator can be determined by various methods. In case of small capacity
alternators it can be determined by direct loading test while for large capacity alternators it can
be determined by synchronous impedance method.
The synchronous impedance method has some short comings. Another method which is
popularly used is ampere-turns method. But this method also has certain disadvantages. The
disadvantages of these two methods are overcome in a method called zero power factor
method. Another important theory which gives accurate results is called Blondel's two reaction
theory. Thus there are following methods available to determine the voltage regulation of an
alternator,
1. Direct loading method
2. Synchronous impedance method or E.M.F. method
3. Ampere-turns method or M.M.F. method
4. Zero power factor method or potier triangle method
5. ASA modified from of M.M.F. method
6. Two reaction theory
During the operation of the alternator, resistance voltage drop IaRa and armature leakage
reactance drop IaXL are actually emf quantities and the armature reaction reactance is a
mmf quantity. To determine the regulation of the alternator by this method OCC, SCC
and ZPF test details and characteristics are required. AS explained earlier oc and sc tests are
conducted and OCC and SCC are drawn. ZPF test is conducted by connecting the alternator
to ZPF load and exciting the alternator in
such way that the alternator supplies the rated current at rated voltage running at rated speed.
To plot ZPF characteristics only two points are required. One point is corresponding to the
zero voltage and rated current that can be obtained from scc and the other at rated voltage and
rated current under zpf load. This zero power factor curve appears like OCC but shifted by
a factor IXL vertically and horizontally by armature reaction mmf as shown below in figure
42. Following are the steps to draw ZPF characteristics.
By suitable tests plot OCC and SCC. Draw air gap line. Conduct ZPF test at full load for rated
voltage and fix the point B. Draw the line BH with length equal to field current required to

produce full load current on short circuit. Draw HD parallel to the air gap line so as to cut the
OCC. Draw DE perpendicular to HB or parallel to voltage axis. Now, DE represents
voltage drop IXL and BE represents the field current required to overcome the effect of armature
reaction.
Triangle BDE is called Potier triangle and XL is the Potier reactance. Find E from V, IRa, IXL
and Φ. Use the expression E = √(V cosΦ + IRa)2 + (V sinΦ) + IXL)2 to compute E. Find
field current corresponding to E. Draw FG with magnitude equal to BE at angle (90+Ψ) from
field current axis, where Ψ is the phase angle of current from voltage vector E (internal phase
angle).
The resultant field current is given by OG. Mark this length on field current axis. From OCC find
the corresponding E0. Find the regulation.
5. b. A 3-phase star connected, 1000 KVA, 2000 V, 50 Hz alternator gave the following open
circuit and short circuit test readings.
The armature effective resistance/phase is 0.2 ohm. Draw the characteristics curve and determine
the full load percentage regulation at 0.8 p.f. lag using mmf method. June 2015


6. With usual notations derive an expression for synchronizing power and torque when two
Alternators are connected in parallel. June 2014

7. Explain briefly the capability curves of synchronous generator. June 2014
Capability Curves Before studying what are capability curves of synchronous generator, let us
first discuss about rating of generators and its compounding curves. The heating is a key factor
in deciding the rating of alternators, transformers etc. The heating is caused by losses so
ultimately rating of machine depends on losses. These losses are independent of load pl. as 12R
losses depend on current while core losses are dependent on voltage. Thus the rating of a.c.
equipments is decided by the volt-amperes of the load it can supply and not on load power
only. In case of turbines and boilers in hydroelectric and thermal stations, their sizes, water and
fuel requirements depend on output power. The rating of synchronous generators is specified
interims of maximum apparent power in kVA and MVA load at a specified power factor
(normally 80, 85 or 90 percent lagging) and voltage for which they are designed to operate
under steady state conditions. This load is carried by the alternators continuously without
disturbing it.
8. Define voltage regulation of an alternator and explain ASA method of findings the
voltage regulation. June 2015


9. Derive power angle equation for salient pole machine. June2016, June 2014

10. Explain the operation of a synchronous generator delivering constant load with variable excitation.
June 2015
In a d.c. motor, the armature current Ia is determined by dividing the difference between V and
Eb by the armature resistance Ra. Similarly, in a synchronous motor, the stator current (Ia) is
determined by dividing voltage-phasor resultant(Er) between V and Eb by the synchronous impedance
Zs. One of the most important features of a synchronous motor is that by changing the field excitation,
it can be made to operate from lagging to leading power factor. Consider a synchronous motor having
a fixed supply voltage and driving a constant mechanical load. Since the mechanical load as well as the
speed is constant, the power input to the motor (=3 VIa cos phi) is also constant. This means that the
in-phase component Ia cos f drawn from the supply will remain constant. If the field excitation is
changed, back e.m.f Eb also changes. This results in the change of phase position of Ia w.r.t. V and
hence the power factor cos phi of the motor changes. Fig. (11.9) shows the phasor diagram of the
synchronous motor for different values of field excitation. Note that extremities of current phasor Ia lie
on the straight line AB.(i)
(i) Under excitation
The motor is said to be under-excited if the field excitation is such that Eb < V. Under such conditions,
the current Ia lags behind V so that motor power factor is lagging as shown in Fig. (11.9 (i)). This can
be easily explained. Since Eb < V, the net voltage Er is decreased and turns clockwise. As angle
q (= 90°) between Er and Ia is constant, therefore, phasor Ia also turns clockwise i.e., current Ia lags
behind the supply voltage. Consequently, the motor has a lagging power factor.
(ii) Normal excitation

The motor is said to be normally excited if the field excitation is such that Eb = V. This is shown in
Fig. (11.9 (ii)). Note that the effect of increasing excitation (i.e., increasing Eb) is to turn the phasor Er
and hence Ia in the anti-clockwise direction i.e., Ia phasor has come closer to phasor V. Therefore, p.f.
increases though still lagging. Since input power (=3 V Ia cos f) is unchanged, the stator current Ia
must decrease with increase in p.f.

11. A 3 phase, 50 Hz, star-connected, 2000 kVA, 2300 V alternator gives a short circuit current of
600 A for a certain field excitation with the same excitation, the open circuit voltage was 900
V. The resistance between a pair of terminals was 0.12 ohm. Find the full load regulation at i)
UPF and ii) 0.8 PF lagging. Dec 2014

12. A 1200 KVA, 6600V 3-phase, 8 pole, 750rpm, synchronous generator is operating on 6000 V
bus bars. The synchronous reactance is 6 ohm/ phase. Find the synchronizing power and torque
per mechanical degree at full load and 0.8 p.f lag. June 2015

UNIT-8: Synchronous Motor
1. Explain why a Synchronous motor is not self-starting. Briefly explain the following starting
methods in detail. i) Auxiliary motor starting ii) Induction motor starting.
June 2016, June 2014, Dec 2014

2. Briefly explain the effect of varying excitation on armature current and power factor.
Dec 2015

3. What are V and inverted V curves. Sketch them and explain their significance.
June 2016, Dec 2015
Graphs of armature current vs. field current of synchronous motors are called V curves and
are shown in Figure below for typical values of synchronous motor loads. The curves are related to
the phasor diagram shown in figure below, and illustrate the effect of the variation of field
excitation on armature current and power factor. It can be easily noted from these curves that
an increase in shaft loads require an increase in field excitation in order to maintain the power
factor at unity.
The points marked a, b, and c on the upper curve corresponds to the operating conditions of the
phasor diagrams shown. Note that for P = 0, the lagging power factor operation is electrically
equivalent to an inductor and the leading power factor operation is electrically equivalent to a
capacitor. Leading power factor operation with P = 0 is sometimes referred to as synchronous
condenser or synchronous capacitor operation. Typically, the synchronous machine V-curves are
provided by the manufacturer so that the user can determine the resulting operation under a given
set of conditions

Fig 8.3: Plots of power factor vs. field current of synchronous motors are called inverted V
curves and are shown in Figure above for different values of synchronous motor loads

4. What are the methods for starting the synchronous motors? Explain them. Dec 2014


5. Define direct axis synchronous reactance and quadrature axis synchronous reactance of a
synchronous machine and briefly mention how these are evaluated for a machine.
June 2014, June 2015
Determination of Xd and Xq by slip test:
The direct and quadrature axis reactances Xd and Xq can be of a synchronous machine can be
experimentally determined by a simple test known as slip test. Basic circuit diagram for conducting
this test is shown in figure 49. Here the armature terminals are supplied with a subnormal voltage
of rated frequency with field circuit left open. The generator is driven by a prime mover at a slip
speed which is slightly more or less than the synchronous speed. This is equivalent to the condition
in which the armature mmf remains stationary and rotor rotates at a slip speed with respect to the
armature mmf. As the rotor poles slip through the armature mmf the armature mmf will be in line
with direct axis and quadrature axis alternately. When it is in line with the direct axis the armature
mmf directly acts on the magnetic circuit and at this instant the voltage applied divided by
armature current gives the direct axis synchronous reactance. When the armature mmf coincides
with the quadrature axis then the voltage impressed divided by armature current gives the
quadrature axis synchronous reactance. Since Xd > Xq the pointers of the ammeter reading the
armature current will oscillate from a minimum to a maximum. Similarly the terminal voltage will
also oscillate between the minimum and maximum.

6. What is hunting what are the factor causes hunting, what are the effects hunting?
June 2016, Dec 2015
Sudden changes of load on synchronous motors may sometimes set up oscillations

that are Superimposed upon the normal rotation, resulting in periodic variations of a very low
frequency in speed. This effect is known as hunting or phase-swinging. Occasionally, the trouble is
aggravated by the motor having a natural period of oscillation approximately equal to the hunting
period. When the synchronous motor phase-swings into the unstable region, the motor may fall out
of synchronism.
Effects of Hunting in Synchronous Motor

 It may lead to loss of synchronism.
 Produces mechanical stresses.
 Increases machine losses and cause temperature rise.
 Cause greater surges in electric current and power flow.
Reduction of Hunting in Synchronous Motor
Two techniques should be used to reduce hunting. These are –
 Use of Damper Winding: It consists of low electrical resistance copper / aluminium brush
embedded in slots of pole faces in salient pole machine. Damper winding damps out hunting by
producing torque opposite to slip of rotor. The magnitude of damping torque is proportional to
the slip speed.
 Use of Flywheels: The prime mover is provided with a large and heavy flywheel. This
increases the inertia of prime mover and helps in maintaining the rotor speed constant.
 Designing synchronous machine with suitable synchronizing power coefficients.

Eee-V-dcmachines and Synchronous Machines (10ee54) - Solution

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DC Machines & Synchronous Machines 10EE54

Question Bank Solutions

1. With a neat sketch explain the construction of Dc machine. June 2016

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 1

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 2

Let,  = Flux / pole in webers

 Change in flux d = P webers

Z = Total number armature conductors

= Number of slots x Number of conductors per slot

P = Number of poles ; A = Number of parallel paths in the armature.

N = Rotational speed of armature in revolutions per minute (r.p.m)

 Time taken to complete one revolution = 60/N sec.

E = e.m.f induced / parallel path in armature.

Generated e.m.f Eg = e.m.f generated /parallel path

By Faraday‟s Laws of Electromagnetic induction W K T ,

For Simplex Lap-Wound Generator:

Number of parallel paths, A = P.

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 3

Dec 2014, June 2015,

Fig1. Critical Field Resistance of a Dc Shunt Generator

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 4

Dec 2014, June 2016

6. What is meant by commutation? Briefly explain the steps involved in commutation

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 5

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 6

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 7

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 8

2. Wave winding is used for high voltage low current machines.

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 9

(i) The main flux is distorted.

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 10

Demagnetizing and Cross-Magnetizing Conductors

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 11

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 12

Sol: Depends upon the field winding connected to the armature

(1) DC Shunt Motor

(b) Short shunt

(ii) Differential Compound Motor

(a) Long shunt

(b) Short shunt

DC Shunt Motor: Ish = V/Rsh and

Ia = I– Ish. Where I is the line current

A.R.D is the armature reaction drop

2. DC Series Motor: Ia = I = Ise

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 13

Eb= V - Ia(Ra +Rse) – B.C.D – A.R.D.

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 14

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 15

5. Derive torque equation of a DC motor. June 2014

Torque Equation of a D.C. Motor

Then angular speed of the wheel is w = 2πN/60 rad/sec

So work done in one revolution is, W = F x distance travelled in one revolution

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 16

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 17

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 18

8. Explain the torque-Armature Current characteristics of shunt and series motors.

June 2015, Dec 2014

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 19

9. Explain in brief the Ward-Leonard speed control of DC motors. June 2014

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 20

Department of EEE, SJBIT Page 21

11. Write a short notes on Permanent Magnet DC Motors. Dec 2013