Food Chemistry 141 (2013) 2649–2655

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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Total phenolics, antioxidant activity, and functional properties of

‘Tommy Atkins’ mango peel and kernel as affected by drying methods
Dalbir Singh Sogi a,b, Muhammad Siddiq a,⇑, Ibrahim Greiby c, Kirk D. Dolan a,c
a
Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
b
Department of Food Science and Technology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143 005, India
c
Department of Biosystems & Agricultural Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Mango processing produces significant amount of waste (peels and kernels) that can be utilized for the
Received 13 March 2013 production of value-added ingredients for various food applications. Mango peel and kernel were dried
Received in revised form 6 May 2013 using different techniques, such as freeze drying, hot air, vacuum and infrared. Freeze dried mango waste
Accepted 9 May 2013
had higher antioxidant properties than those from other techniques. The ORAC values of peel and kernel
Available online 24 May 2013
varied from 418–776 and 1547–1819 lmol TE/g db. The solubility of freeze dried peel and kernel powder
was the highest. The water and oil absorption index of mango waste powders ranged between 1.83–6.05
Keywords:
and 1.66–3.10, respectively. Freeze dried powders had the lowest bulk density values among different
Mango
Peel
techniques tried. The cabinet dried waste powders can be potentially used in food products to enhance
Kernel their nutritional and antioxidant properties.
Drying Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Antioxidants
Physical properties

1. Introduction
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is one of the most important tropi-
cal fruits consumed in fresh or processed form globally. Storage
under ambient or higher refrigerated temperature leads to sub-
stantial postharvest losses mainly due to moisture loss and/or
microbial activity. Postharvest hot water quarantine treatment
also accelerates the ripening process (Krishnamurthy & Subraman-
yam, 1970). In addition, a large number of non-marketable fruits
are typically discarded thereby creating massive amounts of bio-
waste. Commercial processing of mango into juice, nectar, pulp,
puree, fruit leather, and jam produces 35–60% waste consisting
of peel, kernel, and cull fruit (Larrauri, Ruperez, Borroto, & Saura-
Calixto, 1996).
Mango waste contains significant amounts of phytochemicals,
which makes it suitable to be processed for value-added applica-
tions in functional foods and nutraceuticals. Mango peel is rich in
pectin, cellulose, hemicellulose, lipids, protein, polyphenols and
carotenoids with excellent antioxidant and functional properties
(Ajila, Bhat, & Prasada Rao, 2007). Mango peel flour has enormous
potential as a functional ingredient in developing healthy food
products such as noodles, bread, sponge cakes, biscuits or other
bakery products besides using it in baby foods (Aziz, Wong, Bhat,
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 517 355 8474x151.
E-mail address: siddiq@msu.edu (M. Siddiq).
& Cheng, 2012). Mango peel contains various classes of polyphe-
nols, carotenoids, and vitamins with different health-promoting
properties, mainly antioxidant activity (Manthey & Perkins-Veazie,
2009; Schieber, Berardini, & Carle, 2003). Mango peel fibre with
high hydration capacities has potential in dietary fibre-rich foods
preparation (Koubala, Germain Kansci, Catherine Garnier, Jean-
François Thibault, & Marie-Christine Ralet, 2013). Mango kernels
are rich sources of gallic acid, ellagic acid, ferulic acid, cinnamic
acids, tanins, vanillin, coumarin, and mangiferrin, all having poten-
tial to act as a source of natural antioxidants (Abdalla, Darwish,
Ayad, & El-Hamahmy, 2007a; Soong & Barlow, 2006). Solvent
extraction method produces extracts from mango bio-waste with
high antioxidant capacity (Dorta, Lobo, & Gonzalez, 2012a). Dried
mango peel and kernel products can improve the nutritional, func-
tional and sensory properties, and oxidative stability of oil/oil-rich
product (Abdalla, Darwish, Ayad, & El-Hamahmy, 2007b), however,
the selection of a suitable drying method is important to minimize
quality losses.
Mango waste contains high quantity of water and nutrients,
making it susceptible to decomposition. This solid waste can be
preserved for further food or other uses by drying. A range of dry-
ing techniques are used for dehydration, which have advantages
and disadvantages over the others (Dev & Raghavan, 2012). Static
or forced hot air oven-drying (70 °C) has been shown to impart
the most negative effect on the antioxidant capacity of mango peel
and seeds; however, freeze-drying did not cause such losses

0308-8146/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.05.053
2650 D.S. Sogi et al. / Food Chemistry 141 (2013) 2649–2655
(Dorta, Lobo, & Gonzalez, 2012b). Waste drying needs cost effective
techniques for commercially feasible processing without signifi-
cantly compromising its quality. Our objective was to evaluate dif-
ferent drying methods for mango peel and kernel and assess their
impact on nutrients, antioxidants and functional properties.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Market-ripe mangoes (cv Tommy Atkins) were procured from a
local market. Fruits were sorted for maturity and defects, followed
by washing. The whole fruits were sanitized by dipping in Fruit &
Vegetable Wash (3.75 g/L water, SC Johnson Professional, Sturte-
vant, WI, USA) solution for 5 min. Peel and stones were removed
manually using stainless steel knives. The stones were opened to
get kernels. Mango peel were cut into 5 mm strips whereas the
kernels were cut cross-section wise into 5 mm thick slices before
drying.
2.2. Chemicals
Analytical grade chemicals ascorbic acid; 2,6 dichloro indophe-
nol sodium salt dye; sulphuric acid; hexane; sodium sulphate;
methanol; Folin–Ciocalteu reagent; gallic acid; 2,20 -azinobis(3-eth-
ylbenzo thiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS);
2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH); 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetram-
ethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid (Trolox); b-carotene; flourescein;
2,20 -azobis(2-amidino-propane) dihydrochloride (AAPH); sodium
phosphate (mono, dibasic) were procured from Sigma–Aldrich
(St. Louis, MO, USA). Meta-phosphoric acid, sodium carbonate,
and potassium persulphate were procured from W.W. Grainger,
Inc. (Lake Forest, IL, USA) and glacial acetic acid from EM Science
(Gibbstown, NJ, USA). Unless noted otherwise, all extractions/dilu-
tions were made using 80:20 methanol–water (methanol-80).
2.3. Drying of mango peels and kernels
The peels were cut into strips of 5 mm width and the kernels
were cut into pieces of 5 mm width in a cross-section way. Mango
peel and kernel pieces were spread in single layer for drying in dif-
ferent dryers. Four drying techniques were employed to process
mango waste until their weight became constant or the product
texture became brittle:
Freeze drying/Lyophilization – Peel and kernel samples were fro-
zen (20 °C) and dried in a pilot-scale lyophilizer (Vertis Company
Inc., Gardiner, NY, USA) with the condenser temperature and
chamber vacuum at 55 °C and 0.03 torr.
Hot air dying – Samples were dried in a cabinet convective-air
dryer (Proctor and Schwartz Inc., Philadelphia, PA, USA) operated
at 60 ± 2 °C with constant air circulation.
Vacuum drying – Samples were dried in a vacuum oven (Sheldon
Manufacturing Inc., Cornelius, OR, USA) set at 60 ± 2 °C and vac-
uum was maintained at 500 mm Hg.
Infra-red (IR) drying – Samples were dried in a custom-made IR
heating unit consisting of aluminium housing, with two 40-Watt IR
bulbs mounted on a height-adjustable assembly. The samples were
placed under the IR bulbs in round aluminium trays by arranging
in a circle to allow uniform surface treatment. The distance be-
tween the IR source and the samples was 11 cm. The drying time
was variable in different dryers; peels dehydrated in about 2 h in
IR, 4 h in cabinet, 7 h in vacuum and 11 h in freeze drying, whereas
kernels took approximately 3.5 h in IR, 8 h in cabinet, 13 h in vac-
uum and 17 h in freeze drying.
The dehydrated samples from all four methods were ground
using a grinder (Toastmaster Inc., Columbia, MO, USA) to pass
through US Sieve No. 40 (0.5 mm mesh size) and packaged in 3-
mil polyethylene bags and stored at 20 °C until analysed.
2.4. Ascorbic acid, total carotenoids, and total phenolics
Mango peel and kernel powders (2 g) were extracted with
25 mL extraction solution (15 g meta-phosphoric acid: 40 mL ace-
tic acid: 3.7 mL conc. sulphuric acid: 450 mL water) after incuba-
tion in a water bath shaker at 22 ± 1 °C for 1 h. Extracted samples
were centrifuged at 10,000  g for 10 min and the supernatant
was collected. The residues were extracted twice with 10 mL
extraction solution by vortexing and centrifugation (10,000  g,
5 min). The extracts were titrated against indophenol dye (50 mg
dye, 42 mg NaHCO3, and 200 mL water) until a pink colour per-
sisted for 15 s. to determine ascorbic acid content (AOAC, 1991).
For total carotenoids, mango powder (1 g) was extracted thrice
with 10, 5 and 5 ml of hexane:acetone (7:3) solution using a pestle
and mortar. The extracts were combined in a separating funnel and
washed twice with sodium sulphate solution (5 g/100 mL). Non-
aqueous phase was collected, the volume was made to 25 mL with
hexane, and the absorbance read at 450 nm using a spectropho-
tometer (Milton Roy, Pennsylvania, Ivyland, USA) following Davis
et al. (2007). Total carotenoids were determined as b-carotene
equivalent using a standard curve prepared with pure b-carotene
(0.5–2.5 lg/mL hexane).
The total phenolic content was determined as per the method
described by Singleton and Rossi (1965). Briefly, mango peel or
kernel powders (1.0 g) were mixed with 20 mL of methanol-80,
agitated on water-bath shaker for 1 h followed by centrifugation
(10,000  g for 10 min). The supernatant was collected and the res-
idues were re-extracted twice using 10 mL of methanol-80 by vor-
texing (1 min) and centrifugation (10,000  g for 5 min). All three
supernatants were combined, analysed for phenolics, and the re-
sults expressed as mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/100 g.
2.5. Antioxidant properties
The sample extraction protocol for antioxidant assays was the
same as for total phenolics. The antioxidant capacities were ex-
pressed as lmol Trolox equivalent (TE)/g db in all of the following
assays.
2.5.1. ABTS Assay
The ABTS antioxidant activity of mango powder was carried out
using the ABTS+ radical cation decolourization assay with some
modification (Re et al., 1999). Briefly, 7 mM ABTS solution and
2.45 mM potassium persulphate were mixed in 1:1 ratio and al-
lowed to stand in the dark for 12–16 h to produce ABTS radical cat-
ion (ABTS+) stock solution. This solution was further diluted with
methanol-80 to attain absorbance of 0.700 ± 0.020 at 734 nm.
The ABTS+ working solution (3 mL) and 30 lL of blank, standard
or sample were mixed and the absorbance was measured at
734 nm after 6 min using a spectrophotometer. The blank was
run with methanol-80; a standard curve was prepared using Trolox
solution (0.3–1.5 mM).
2.5.2. DPPH Assay
The radical scavenging activity of mango powders was deter-
mined using DPPH solution in methanol following the method of
Brand-Williams, Cuvelier, and Berset (1995). Briefly, one part of
stock solution of DPPH (0.24 g/100 mL methanol) was diluted with
ten parts methanol-80 to get working solution having an absorp-
tion of 1.10 ± 0.02 at 515 nm. Blank, standard or samples (0.6 mL)
and 3.0 mL of DPPH working solution were mixed, kept in the dark
 D.S. Sogi et al. / Food Chemistry 141 (2013) 2649–2655 2651

for 20 min and the absorbance was recorded at 515 nm. Blank
(methanol-80) was used to calculate radical scavenging activity
from a standard curve that was prepared using 50–250 lM Trolox
solution.
2.5.3. FRAP Assay
The ferric reducing ability of dried mango powders was mea-
sured following the protocol by Benzie and Strain (1996). Stock
solutions of 300 mM acetate buffer, 10 mM TPTZ solution in
40 mM HCl, and 20 mM FeCl36H2O solution were prepared. The
fresh working solution was prepared by mixing acetate buffer,
TPTZ solution, and ferric chloride solution in a 10:1:1 ratio, respec-
tively. Blank, standard or samples (0.3 mL) were mixed with 3 mL
working solution and the absorbance was read after 5 min at
595 nm. Methanol-80 and Trolox (50–250 lM) were used for blank
and standard curve, respectively.
2.5.4. Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) assay
The analysis was carried out following Huang, Ou, Hampsch-
Woodill, Flanagan, and Prior (2002). Briefly, 150 lL of flourescein
(20 nM) were added to the wells of a 96-well black plate, followed
by the addition of 25 lL of blank, standard (Trolox 25–100 lM) or
samples. The plate was incubated at 37 °C for 30 min in a Micro-
plate Reader (Biotek Instruments, Winooski, VT, USA). Then,
25 lL of freshly prepared AAPH (153 mM) were added to all the
designated wells. Fluorescence was monitored using 485 nm exci-
tation and 528 nm emissions at 2-min intervals for 180 min.
3.1. Ascorbic acid
The ascorbic acid content varied from 68.49 to 84.74 mg/100 g
db in dried peel powder while 61.22–74.48 mg/100 g db in kernel
(Fig. 1a). The high ascorbic acid content was observed in cabinet
dried peel powder and vacuum dried kernel powder. Lower ascor-
bic acid values were found in the vacuum dried peel and cabinet
dried kernel powders. The ascorbic content of dehydrated mango
peel and kernel in the different types of dryers was statistically
non-significant. The raw and ripe peel of mango cultivar Raspuri
and Badami were shown to contain ascorbic acid at 18.8–31.5
and 34.9–39.2 mg/100 g db, respectively (Ajila et al., 2007). Green
and ripe mango peel, dehydrated in hot air dryer, contained an
ascorbic content of 109.71 and 52.51, respectively (Aziz et al.,
2012). The ascorbic acid values obtained in the present study were
within the ranges of the reported values in the literature but our
study showed comparable ascorbic acid content in the drying tech-
niques employed involving heat in comparison to freeze drying. It
(a)

2.6. Physico-chemical and functional properties

Dehydrated mango samples (2.5 g) were analysed for mois-

ture content using IR moisture meter (Denver Instrument, Bohe-
mia, NY, USA). The titratable acidity of dehydrated mango waste
was determined by extracting 1 g sample in 100 mL warm distilled
water (50 °C), after filtration and titrating against standardized
0.1 M NaOH solution using phenolphthalein indicator. The pH of
extract was measured using an Oakton pH meter (Eutech Instru- (b)
ments, Singapore).
Loose and packed bulk density of the mango powder was deter-
mined by following CRA (1998). The solubility of mango peel and
kernel powder was determined using the method of Cano-Chauca,
Stringheta, Ramos, and Cal-Vidal (2005). The water absorption in-
dex (WAI) and oil absorption index (OAI) were determined using
the methods described by Beuchat (1977).

2.7. Statistical analysis

All data were analysed using JMP 9.0 software (SAS Institute,
Inc., Cary, North Carolina, USA). One-way analysis of variance (AN-
OVA) was used to analyse the data on the effects of drying tech-
niques on the physico-chemical and antioxidative properties of (c)
mango peel and kernel powders. Significant difference compari-
sons were made by Tukey’s HSD test; the statistical significance
was defined as p 6 0.05.

3. Results and discussion

Mango peel strips and kernel slices were dried in Cabinet,

Freeze, IR and Vacuum dryers until these become hard and brittle.
The drying time was different for the selected drying techniques.
Mango peel got dehydrated in about 2 h in IR, 4 h in cabinet, 7 h
in vacuum and 11 h in freeze drying, whereas, kernel took approx-
imately 3.5 h in IR, 8 h in cabinet, 13 h in vacuum and 17 h in Fig. 1. Effect of different drying methods on ascorbic acid, total carotenoids, and
freeze drying. The dried and ground peel and kernel samples were total phenolics content of mango peel and kernel (FD – Freeze drying; CD – Cabinet
used for nutrients, antioxidants and functional properties. drying; VD – Vacuum drying; IR – Infrared drying).
2652 D.S. Sogi et al. / Food Chemistry 141 (2013) 2649–2655

might be due to thermal degradation of ascorbic acid in the former lack of heat-related damage. In dried peel, the least phenolic con-
and oxidation in the latter technique. tent was observed in vacuum dried samples while for kernel, the
lowest content was found in IR dried samples. Significant changes
in the phenolic content of peel and kernel were observed with re-
3.2. Total carotenoids
spect to the type of drying method used (p 6 0.05). The total phe-
nolic contents of freeze dried peel and kernel of Tommy Atkins
The dried mango peel contained intermediate amounts of
mangoes have been reported previously, as 2513–4858 and
carotenoids, whereas the kernel had negligible amounts (Fig. 1b).
10,749–20,005 mg GAE/100 g db, respectively (Barreto et al.,
The peel colour of Tommy Atkins mangoes was green and red,
2008; Hung, Mason, & Bickerstaffe, 2010). Dorta et al. (2012b) re-
therefore, it contained low carotenoids. The drying methods utiliz-
ported a phenolics content of 9200–9800, 4600–8500 and 4600–
ing heat had significant effect on carotenoids degradation, whereas
7900 mg GAE/100 g db in peel and 7400, 6000 and 3500 mg GAE/
the highest levels were observed in the freeze dried samples
100 g db in ‘Keitt’ mango seed dehydrated in freeze, static and
(p 6 0.05). The total carotenoids content in hot-air dried green
forced air oven, respectively.
and ripe peel have been reported to range from 9.69 to
Our results were in agreement with Barreto et al. (2008) for the
16.06 mg/100 g (Aziz et al., 2012). In the present study, the carote-
phenolic content in peel and kernel, however, Hung et al. (2010)
noids values were lower in the peel compared to those reported
reported higher value for peel and lower values for kernel in the
previously; a possible reason could be that the skin of Tommy At-
same cultivar. The present study reported similar results, i.e. that
kins mangoes does not turn yellow on ripening. The carotenoids
the heating involved in the drying process affected the total phen-
content values were generally within the range of previously re-
olics content in dried mango peel and kernel.
ported values, with the declining trends in values with dryers oper-
ating at higher temperature. In general, carotenoids are thermally
labile (Muratore, Rizzo, Licciardello, & Maccarone, 2008), unstable
3.4. Antioxidant properties
at low water activity (Lavelli, Zanoni, & Zaniboni, 2007) and sus-
ceptible to enzymatic degradation by lipoxygenase (Anese & Sovr-
3.4.1. ABTS Method
ano, 2006). The present results indicated degradation of
The mango kernel had antioxidant capacity in the range of
carotenoids, which could be due to a decrease in the water content
1110.15 to 1724.09 lmol TE/g db, whereas peel had lower values
during drying at elevated temperature.
(Fig. 2a). The highest antioxidant capacity was found in the freeze
dried kernel, followed by vacuum dried, cabinet dried, and IR dried
3.3. Total phenolics samples. It is noted that the freeze drying process is a costly drying
method, nonetheless, it is used widely in research and develop-
The total phenolics content of dried peel and kernel powders ment as a gold standard to compare different drying methods.
were 2032–3185 and 11,228–20,034 mg GAE/100 g db, respec- There was a significant decrease in the antioxidant properties with
tively (Fig. 1c). The results showed that freeze dried peel and ker- the application of heat during drying of kernel (p 6 0.05). The high-
nel powders retained higher phenolics, which might be due to a est antioxidant capacity, i.e., 197 lmol TE/g db in freeze dried,

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 2. Effect of drying techniques on the antioxidant properties of mango peel and kernel (FD – Freeze drying; CD – Cabinet drying; VD – Vacuum drying; IR – Infrared
drying).
 D.S. Sogi et al. / Food Chemistry 141 (2013) 2649–2655
followed by 192 (IR dried), 187 (cabinet) and 168 (vacuum dried)
were found in dehydrated mango peel powder. Statistical analysis
did not show any significant difference among the four dryers used
in the study for peel drying. The radical scavenging capacity of
679.21 and 559.35 lmol TE/g db has been reported in the metha-
nolic extract of peel and seed, respectively (Dorta et al., 2012b).
The mango kernel had antioxidant activity of 1397 lmol/g db in
terms of ascorbic acid equivalent using the ABTS assay (Soong &
Barlow, 2004). An ABTS activity of 770–10,300 lmol TE/g db was
observed in sun and oven dried mango kernel (Maisuthisakul &
Gordon, 2009). The values obtained for antioxidant capacity as
Trolox equivalent were within the range of reported results. The
use of heat during drying had detrimental effect on antioxidant
capacity, with this effect being more evident in kernel powder.
3.4.2. DPPH Method
The mango kernel had higher antioxidant or scavenging activity
ranging from 1310.70 to 1799.54 lmol TE/g db (Fig. 2b). Freeze
drying best preserved the antioxidant properties, whereas cabinet
drying method was found to exert the most negative effect. Statis-
tical analysis revealed that the antioxidant capacity in the kernel
changed significantly with the drying techniques employed
(p 6 0.05). The mango peel showed lower activity than the kernel,
and varied from 176 to 219 lmol TE/g db. No significant differ-
ences were observed in the antioxidant values obtained from the
four dryers for mango peel. Previous study reported a radical scav-
enging capacity of 599 and 479 lmol TE/g db in the methanolic ex-
tract of peel and seed at 25 °C, respectively (Dorta et al., 2012a).
The DPPH value in the green and ripe peel was 217 and 173, and
in the pulp mango it was 49 and 39 lmol TE/g db, respectively
(Aziz et al., 2012). The previously reported values support the pres-
ent data for dried Tommy Atkins mango peel. Values reported in
the present study for kernel were much higher than those reported
in the literature.
3.4.3. FRAP Method
The values obtained in term of Trolox equivalent were lower
than those obtained by the ABTS or DPPH assay methods but the
overall trend was similar (Fig. 2c). The highest FRAP value
(134 lmol/g db) was observed in freeze dried samples followed
by IR dried (128 lmol/g db), cabinet dried (126 lmol/g db),
whereas the vacuum dying method gave the lowest antioxidant
values (112 lmol/g db). The mango kernel had antioxidant or scav-
enging activity ranging from 666 to 942 lmol TE/g db. The freeze
dried method best preserved the antioxidant properties whereas
the cabinet drying method was found to be the most detrimental.
Statistical analysis indicated a significant change in the FRAP val-
ues of the kernel with the different types of drying (p 6 0.05).
The FRAP value in green and ripe peels has been reported to be
281.79 and 261.37, respectively (Aziz et al., 2012). Soong and Bar-
low (2004) reported that the mango kernel had antioxidant activity
of 36.6 and 2572 lmol/g db in terms of ascorbic acid equivalent
using the FRAP assay. The observed values of antioxidant activity
for peel in the present study were lower than those reported pre-
viously, whereas, the kernel powder had values within the range.
3.4.4. ORAC Method
The antioxidant activity measured by ORAC for kernel and peel
were 1547–1819 and 418–776 lmol TE/g db, respectively (Fig. 2d).
The antioxidant capacity of mango kernel was similar to that from
ABTS and DPPH methods. However, the values obtained for peel
were significantly higher than those obtained from the other meth-
ods. The highest ORAC value was observed in the freeze dried ker-
nel samples followed by IR dried (1790.8 lmol/g db), cabinet dried
(1600 lmol/g db), whereas the vacuum dying method gave the
lowest antioxidant values (1547 lmol/g db). Statistical analysis
2653
did not show significant differences in the ORAC values of the ker-
nel with the types of drying. The IR drying method was the best to
preserve the antioxidant properties of the mango peel powder
whereas the vacuum drying method was found to exhibit the most
negative effect. Statistical analysis indicated a significant change in
the ORAC values of peel with the different dryers used. The ORAC
values for dehydrated mango waste could not be traced in the
literature.
This study indicated that there was a decrease in the antioxida-
tive properties of the mango waste when using drying techniques
involving high drying temperatures. This decline might be due to
effect of heat on the compounds responsible for the antioxidative
properties such as phenolic compounds, ascorbic acid and carote-
noids. Dorta et al. (2012b) also observed that oven-drying with
forced air decreased the antioxidant activity of mango seed, possi-
bly due to thermal and oxidative degradation of phenolic com-
pounds. Thus, low temperature drying is better process to retain
higher antioxidant properties in mango waste.
3.5. Physico-chemical properties
3.5.1. Moisture content
The initial moisture contents of the peel and kernel were 83.37%
and 55.56%, respectively. On drying by the four types of drying the
final moisture content varied from 5.19–9.37 in peel and 3.84–
10.33% in kernel (Table 1). The results revealed that the freeze
dried peel and kernel had higher moisture content than the other
techniques. The variation in the final moisture was statistically sig-
nificant in the two mango waste products studied (p 6 0.05). This
might be due to the subjective method used to evaluate the prop-
erties of dried product to terminate the drying process. The results
were therefore given on a dry-basis (db) to offset the variation due
to moisture. Previous studies reported that peel had 79.8% mois-
ture (Ng et al., 2011) whereas the mango kernel had 41.3–47.4%
moisture (Elegbede, Achoba, & Richard, 1996). The initial moisture
content values reported in the literature were lower than those ob-
served in the present study, which might be due to the ripeness of
mango used and the method of analysis employed.
3.5.2. pH and Titratable acidity
The pH of dried mango peel and kernel is an important param-
eter for blending with pH sensitive food, such as milk and other
dairy products. Peel and kernel had pH in the range of 4.18–4.42
and 4.63–5.79, respectively (Table 1). The highest value of pH
was found in the vacuum dried peel, followed by cabinet, freeze
and IR dried powders. The freeze dried kernel powder had the
highest pH value followed by cabinet, IR and Vacuum dried pow-
der. Different drying methods were shown to affect the pH of the
final product significantly (p 6 0.05). The titratable acidity of ker-
nel and peel powders varied from 2.4–3.67% to 1.99–2.98% db,
respectively. The acidity of the peel and kernel decreased in sam-
ples heated during drying as compared to the freeze dried samples.
The heat might induce Maillard reaction involving acid and pro-
teins resulting in slight decrease in acidity. Statistical analysis re-
vealed that cabinet and vacuum dried peel powder had
significantly lower acidity values than freeze and IR dried samples
(p 6 0.05). The freeze drying method resulted in a significantly
higher titratable acidity than the vacuum and IR drying followed
by cabinet drying, in mango kernel.
3.5.3. Solubility
The results indicated higher solubility values in the mango peel
(53–64%) than in the kernel (20–42%) powders (Table 1). The solu-
bility was low in kernel possibly due to higher starch and lipids.
The highest value of solubility was observed in the freeze dried
peel, followed by cabinet, IR and vacuum dried ones. In the mango
2654 D.S. Sogi et al. / Food Chemistry 141 (2013) 2649–2655

Table 1
Effect of different drying methods on the physico-chemical parameters of dried mango peel and kernel.

Parameters Mango peel Mango kernel

FD CD VD IR FD CD VD IR
Moisture (g/100 g) 9.37 ± 1.42b 6.77 ± 0.60ab 5.19 ± 1.10a 6.91 ± 1.61ab 10.33 ± 0.94b 5.10 ± 0.59a 3.84 ± 0.69a 5.32 ± 1.37a
pH 4.29 ± 0.12ab 4.28 ± 0.03 ab 4.42 ± 0.04a 4.18 ± 0.02b 5.79 ± 0.05a 5.54 ± 0.02b 4.63 ± 0.05c 4.64 ± 0.04c
Titratable acidity (g/100 g db) 2.98 ± 0.23a 2.28 ± 0.12b 1.99 ± 0.11b 2.90 ± 0.13a 3.67 ± 0.29a 2.40 ± 0.10c 3.01 ± 0.19b 3.35 ± 0.16ab
Solubility (g/100 g db) 64.14 ± 0.66a 60.77 ± 1.84a 53.04 ± 4.68b 57.51 ± 1.70ab 41.77 ± 1.61a 26.76 ± 0.55b 20.62 ± 2.53b 19.61 ± 5.32b
Water Abs. Index, WAI (g/g db) 4.98 ± 0.20b 6.04 ± 0.20a 6.05 ± 0.29a 4.68 ± 0.43b 2.35 ± 0.14a 2.06 ± 0.04ab 1.83 ± 0.11b 2.24 ± 0.17a
Oil Abs. Index, OAI (g/g db) 3.10 ± 0.20a 2.08 ± 0.20b 1.75 ± 0.15b 1.66 ± 0.37b 2.30 ± 0.19a 1.69 ± 0.13b 1.84 ± 0.09b 1.81 ± 0.01b
Bulk density, loose (g/mL) 0.25 ± 0.01c 0.60 ± 0.02a 0.58 ± 0.03a 0.49 ± 0.02b 0.25 ± 0.01b 0.47 ± 0.03a 0.47 ± 0.01a 0.48 ± 0.02a
Bulk density, packed (g/mL) 0.42 ± 0.01b 0.77 ± 0.04a 0.74 ± 0.04a 0.69 ± 0.04a 0.50 ± 0.01c 0.74 ± 0.02b 0.85 ± 0.09a 0.78 ± 0.00b

FD – Freeze drying; CD – Cabinet drying; VD – Vacuum drying; IR – Infrared drying.

Values are given as Mean ± SD. Means sharing different letters in rows are significantly different from each other for each product type (p 6 0.05).

kernel, the freeze dried powder had the highest solubility value fol-
lowed by cabinet, vacuum, and IR dried samples. The solubility of
the dried mango peel and kernel powders differed significantly
with respect to the drying method used (p 6 0.05). The solubility
of mango flesh powder was observed to be 89.70, 94.38, 95.31
and 90.79 g/100 g in freeze, drum, spray and refractive window
dryers, respectively (Caparino et al., 2012). The solubility values
for mango peel and kernel could not be traced, however values ob-
served in the present study were lower than the reported values of
mango pulp in the literature.
3.5.4. Water and oil absorption index (WAI, OAI)
The WAI indicates the mass of the water uptake per unit mass of
dried powder. The WAI was higher in peel (4.68–6.05) than kernel
(1.82–2.35) powder (Table 1). This might be due to differences in
the chemical composition of the mango waste. Cabinet and vac-
uum dried peel powder had higher WAI values followed by freeze
and IR dried powder. The kernel powder produced by freeze drying
had maximum WAI whereas IR, cabinet and vacuum dried sample
showed lower values. Statistical analysis revealed WAI varied sig-
nificantly with the types of drying methods used in peel and kernel
(p 6 0.05). Giami, Okonkwo, and Akusu (1994) reported the water
absorption capacity of raw and heat treated wild mango seed flour
to be 3.6 and 4.2 g/g db. The present results revealed lower water
absorption values for kernel as compared to previously reported
values.
The OAI of dried peel and kernel varied from 1.66 to 3.10
(Table 1). In peel, the highest value of OAI was found in the freeze
dried, followed by cabinet, vacuum and IR dried samples. In the
kernel, the freeze dried powder had the highest OAI values
whereas the cabinet dried had lower values. Statistical analysis
showed that dried peel and kernel powders had significantly differ-
ent OAI with the type of drying method used (p 6 0.05). Giami et al.
(1994) reported the oil absorption capacity of raw and heat treated
wild mango seed flour to be 1.5 and 2.4 g/g db. Somewhat similar
values were observed in the present study.
3.5.5. Bulk density
The loose and packed bulk density values (g/mL) were lower for
the freeze dried powder of peel (0.25, 0.42) and kernel (0.25, 0.50)
as compared to other drying methods, indicating a fluffy product
(Table 1). Other drying techniques involving heat yielded products
with higher bulk density values, which might be due to excessive
tissue shrinkage during dying process. The packed and loose bulk
density can be correlated with solubility. The results indicated that
lower density products had more solubility. The bulk density of
mango powder was observed to be 0.44, 0.76, 0.46 and 0.68 g/mL
in freeze, drum, spray and refractive window dryers, respectively
(Caparino et al., 2012). The bulk density of green and ripe mango
pulp dehydrated in hot air dryer was 0.69 and 0.68 while that of
peel was 0.69 and 0.68 g/mL, respectively (Aziz et al., 2012). The
values of bulk densities in the present investigation were compara-
ble to those reported in the literature (Aziz et al., 2012; Caparino
et al., 2012).
4. Conclusions
Mango peel and kernel obtained from cull fruits or processing
waste can be preserved by dehydration. The total phenolics,
carotenoids and antioxidant properties of dehydrated powders
were lower when hot air, vacuum and IR drying were used com-
pared to freeze drying. The solubility, water and oil absorption val-
ues of the dried mango waste powders were adequate for their
utilization. The colour properties of freeze and cabinet dried prod-
ucts were acceptable. The cabinet dehydrated mango waste can be
utilized in several food applications due to their content of phyto-
chemicals that exert antioxidant properties. Future studies could
focus on the quality evaluation of such products and on optimizing
various quality parameters.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the Fulbright Program of United
States Department of State for granting a Senior Research Fellow-
ship to D.S. Sogi to complete these studies at Michigan State Uni-
versity, USA. Partial support of Project GREEEN of Michigan State
University for the purchase of lab supplies and chemicals is also
acknowledged.
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