Mass Transfer 2 CPB 20104

Experiment 1
COOLING TOWER
______________________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION

When warm liquid is brought into contact with saturated gas or air, part of the
liquid evaporates and the liquid temperature drops. This principle is used in the
operations of cooling towers. In the cooling towers the temperature of the re-circulated
water used for condensers and heat exchangers in chemical plants, is brought down by
cooling using air humidification process. Cooling towers are the cheapest way to cool
large quantities of water. In the cooling tower when the water is distributed over a
packing of a certain height through which the air passes up wards causing evaporation
and hence cooling of the water stream. This packing would be able to make the surface
of air or water contact area as large as possible. Hot water sprayed onto the top of the
tower trickles down through packing or wooden slats, evaporating as it goes. Air is
passed through the packing by forced-draft or induced draft fans or it is drawn by
natural convection.

The reduction in water temperature in the cooling tower comes mainly from
evaporation, although when the air temperature is low, there is also some sensible heat
transfer to the air. However, even when the air is warmer than the water, water can be
cooled by evaporation if the wet bulb temperature is below that of the water. In practice,
the discharge temperature of the water is 3 to 8 degree C above the wet bulb
temperature. The water temperature from inlet to exit is generally 6 to 17 degree C.

The Bench Top Cooling Tower (Model HE 152) has been designed for students’
demonstration and to give them an understanding of the construction, design and
operational characteristics of a modern cooling system. The unit resembles very much
like a full size forced draught cooling tower and it is actually an open system through
which two streams of fluid (in this case air and water) pass and in which there is a
mass transfer from one stream to the another. The unit is self-contained supplied with
a heating load and a circulating pump. Once energy and mass balances are done,
students will then be able to determine the effects on the performance of the cooling
tower by the following parameters:

1) Temperature and flow rate of water

2) Temperature and flow rate of air
3) Cooling load
4) Packing density

Packing characteristics column is designed to facilitate study of water and air

conditions at three additional sections (I, II, III) within the column. This enables driving
force diagrams to be constructed and the determination of the characteristic equation
for the tower.

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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

General Start-up:

1. Check to ensure that valves V1 to V6 are closed and valve V7 is partially

opened.
2. Fill the load tank with distilled water or deionised water. It is done by first
removing the make-up tank and then pouring the water through the opening
at the top of load tank. Replace the make-up tank onto the load tank and
lightly tighten the nuts. Fill the tank with distilled water or deionised water
up to zero mark on the scale.
3. Add distilled water or deionised water to the wet bulb sensor reservoir to the
fullest.
4. Connect all appropriate tubing to the differential pressure sensor.
5. Install the appropriate cooling tower packing for the experiment.
6. Set the temperature set point of temperature controller to 50C. Switch on
the 1.0 kW water heater and heat up the water until approximately 40C.
7. Switch on the pump and slowly open the control valve V1 and set the water
flow rate to 2.0 LPM. Obtain a steady state operation where the water is
distributed and flowing uniformly through the packing.
8. Fully open the fan damper and then switch on the fan. Check that the
differential pressure sensor is giving reading when the valve manifold is
switched to measure the orifice differential pressure.
9. Let the unit run for about 20 minutes for the float valve to correctly adjust
the level in the load tank. Refill the make-up tank as required.
10. Now, the unit is ready to use.

Note:

i) It is strongly recommended that only distilled water or deionised water be

used in this unit. The impurities existing in tap water may cause the
depositing in cover tower.
ii) Check that the pressure tubing for differential pressure measurement are
connected correctly :
a. orifice pressure tapping point to V4
b. Column’s lower pressure tapping point to V6
c. Column’s higher pressure tapping point to V3
d. V5 leave to atmosphere
iii) To measure the differential pressure across the orifice, open valve (V4 and
V5), closed valve (V3 and V6).
iv) To measured the differential pressure across the column, open valve (V3 and
V6), closed valve (V4 and V5).
v) Always make sure that no water is in the pressure tubing for accurate
differential pressure measurement.

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Experiment A
Investigation of the effect of air velocity on wet bulb approach and pressure drop through
the packing

Objectives:
To investigate the effect of air velocity on:
a. wet bulb approach
b. pressure drop through the packing

Procedures:
1. Prepare and start the cooling tower with according to general start-up
procedures.
2. Set the system under the following conditions and allow stabilizing for about
15 minutes.
Water flow rate : 2.0 LPM
Air flow rate : Maximum
Cooling load : 1.0 kW
Column Installed : Column A (110 m2/m3)
Dimension of Column : 15 cm (w) x 15 cm (d) x 60 cm (h)
3. After the system stabilizes, record a few sets of measurements and then
obtain the mean value for calculation and analysis.
Temperature (T1-T6)
Orifice differential pressure (DP1)
Water flow rate (FT1)
Heater power (Q1)
Pressure drop across packing (DP2)
4. Repeat the test with three different sets of orifice pressure drop values (75% ,
50% and 25% of the maximum value) without changing the water flow rate
and cooling loads.
5. Finally, measure the cross sectional area of the column.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

Discuss all your results. The questions below only serve as a guideline. Your discussion
should not only limited to these questions.

1. Calculate the nominal velocity of air and find the “wet bulb approach”.
2. Plot a graph to show that the relationship between “wet bulb approach” and
packing pressure drops versus nominal air velocity in the same graph.
3. Discuss the effect of nominal air velocity on the approach to wet bulb and
pressure drop through packing.
4. Discuss the relationship between the approach to wet bulb and pressure
drop through packing.

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Table of Results:

Table A

Description unit Air Flow

100% 75% 50% 25%
Packing density m-1 110 110 110 110

Air inlet dry bulb, T1 C

Air inlet wet bulb, T2 C

Air outlet dry bulb, T3 C

Air outlet wet bulb, T4 C

Water inlet temperature, T5 C

Water outlet temperature, T6 C

Orifice differential, DP1 Pa

Water flow rate, FT1 LPM

Heater power, Q1 Watt

Pressure drop across packing, DP2 Pa

Table B

Description Air Flow

100% 75% 50% 25%
Nominal velocity of air (m/s)
Approach to web bulb (K)
Pressure (mm H2O)

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Useful Information:
In order to plot the graph, it is necessary to follow the steps of calculation.

1. Calculate approach to wet bulb.

Approach to wet bulb = Outlet water temperature (T6) – Inlet air wet bulb
temperature (T2)

2. Check the value of specific volume of air at outlet in the humidity chart (plotting
air outlet dry buld and air outlet wet bulb on psychometric chart)
o
3. Calculate the air mass flowrate, m (kg/s)
o h
m  0.0137

h : orifice differential in mm H2O
 : specific volume of air (m3/kg)
o
4. Calculate air volumetric flowrate,  (m3/s)
o o
  m
5. Calculate nominal air velocity,  (m/s)
o


A
A : packing area (m2)

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Experiment B
Investigation of the relationship between cooling load and cooling range

Objective:
To investigate the relationship between cooling load and cooling range

Procedures:
1. Prepare and start the cooling tower with according to general start-up
procedures.
2. Set the system under the following conditions and allow stabilizing for about
15 minutes.
Water flow rate : 2.0 LPM
Air flow rate : Maximum
Cooling load : 0.0 kW
Column Installed : Column A (110 m2/m3)
3. After the system stabilizes, record a few sets of measurements and then
obtain the mean value for calculation and analysis.
Temperature (T1-T6)
Orifice differential pressure (DP1)
Water flow rate (FT1)
Heater power (Q1)
4. Without changes in the conditions, increase the cooling load to 0.5 kW.
When the system stabilized record all the data.
5. Similarly, repeat the experiment at 1.0 kW and 1.5 kW.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

Discuss all your results. The questions below only serve as a guideline. Your discussion
should not only limited to these questions.

1. What is cooling range?

2. Plot the graphs between water inlet temperature and water outlet
temperature as a function of cooling load in the same graph.
3. Based on your result, discuss the relationship between the cooling range and
cooling load.

General Shut down:

1. Switch off heaters and let the water to circulate through the cooling tower
system for 3-5 minutes until the water cooled down.
2. Switch off the fan and fully closed the fan damper.
3. Switch off the pump and power supply.
4. Retain the water in reservoir tank for the following experiment.
5. Completely drain off the water from the unit if it is not in used.

REFERENCES

1. Perry, R.H., Green, D.W. and Maloney, J.O., “Perry’s Chemical Engineering
Handbook”. 6th edition, McGraw Hill, 1984.

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Table of Results:

Table A

Description unit Cooling Load

0.5kW 1.0kW 1.5kW
Packing density m-1 110 110 110

Air inlet dry bulb, T1 C

Air inlet wet bulb, T2 C

Air outlet dry bulb, T3 C

Air outlet wet bulb, T4 C

Water inlet temperature, T5 C

Water outlet temperature, T6 C

Orifice differential, DP1 Pa

Water flow rate, FT1 LPM

Heater power, Q1 Watt

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Experiment 2
TRAY DRYER
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INTRODUCTION

A large number of manufacturing processes necessitate the Drying of a product

or material and the equipment used in these industrial operations depends on the
particular process and type of material being dried. For example, the requirements for
Food Processing are more stringent than for Agricultural Fertilizer materials, and the
design of Driers for these purposes will be dictated by the relative importance of such
factors as Heat Sensitivity, Porosity, Bulk Density and Particle Size of the dried
material. In fact, since the Dried Solid is generally a valuable product, it shape, colour,
stability, stickiness and hence its overall sale ability, all depends upon the Drying
processes to which it has been subjected.

Although there are many different types and operating characteristics of

Industrial Driers, the SOLTEQ Tray Drier (Model: BP 772) has been designed to
provide an experimental facility based on one of the most fundamental designs. Drying
involves the transfer of liquid from a Wet Solid to an unsaturated gas phase such as air,
and the solid itself can exert a considerable influence on the Drying process. The
equipment enables the Basic Principles of Drying to be investigated and students of
Process Engineering may examine the problems of Fluid Mechanics, Surface Chemistry,
Solid Structure and Mass Heat Transfer associated with general Drying behavior.

Immediately after contact between the Wet Solid and the Drying Medium, the solid
temperature will adjust until it reaches a Steady State. The solid temperature and the
Rate of Drying may increase or decrease to reach the Steady State condition. At Steady
State, the temperature of the Wet Solid surface is Wet Bulb Temperature of the Drying
Medium. Temperature within the Drying Solid also tends to equal the Wet Bulb
Temperature of the gas but lag in movement of mass and heat result in some deviation.
Once the Stock Temperatures reach the Wet Bulb Temperature of the gas, they are
quite stable and the Drying Rate also remains constant. This is the constant Rate
Drying period, which ends when the solid reaches the Critical Moisture Content.
Beyond this point, the Surface Temperature rises, and the Drying Rate falls off rapidly.
The falling rate period can take a far longer time than the constant rate period even
though the moisture removal may be less. The Drying Rate approaches zero at some
equilibrium Moisture Content which is the lowest Moisture Content obtainable with the
Solid under the Drying condition used the Moisture Content ( X ) of a Wet Solid is
measured in terms of the weight of moisture per unit weight of Dry Material. When a
Wet Material of initial Moisture Content, Xi is dried in a Tray Dryer, the typical variation
of Moisture Content with time is as shown in the diagram below.

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The equipment of SOLTEQ Tray Drier (Model: BP 772) comprise of an air duct
mounted on a floor standing frame to give a comfortable working height for the
operator. Air is drawn into the duct through a Mesh Guard by a motor driven axial flow
Fan Impeller whose speed can be controlled to produce a range of air velocities up to
2.0 m/s in the duct. The air passes over an electrically heated element controlled by a
power regulator to provide a variation in air temperature up to a maximum of 80°C at
low air velocities.

The air passes into the central section of the duct where trays of material to be
dried are suspended in the air stream. The trays are carried on a support frame, which
is attached to a digital balance, mounted above the duct and on which the total weight
is continuously indicated. The trays are inserted or removed from the duct through a
latched side door with a glass panel for viewing purpose.

After passing over Drying Trays, the air is discharged at atmosphere through an
outlet duct section where a Vane Anemometer can be position. Wet and Dry Bulb
temperatures of the air are measured using a DC powered aspirated Psychrometer.
Access points for the Psychrometer are provided both upstream and downstream of the
Drying Trays and are covered by flaps when not in use. A Process Flow Diagram for
Tray Drying Process Unit is as shown below.

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OBJECTIVE
To produce drying and drying rate curves for a wet solid being dried with air of fixed
temperature and humidity.

MATERIALS AND ANCILLARY EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

a) Materials Required.
 Dry Sand.
 Water

b) Ancillary Equipments Required:

 One 2000ml beaker
 Empty Tray.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

General Start-up:
1. Check that mains switch and other switches are in the OFF positions. Connect the
equipment to the electrical supply.
2. Remove the fan casing from the main body of the aspirated Psychrometer (in the
following diagram). Fill the wick chamber with distilled water and make sure that
the wick is immersed. Reassemble the fan casing to the main body.
3. Insert the Psychrometer into the Upstream slot and connect the plug to the DC
socket at the control panel. Check that the electrical fan within the Psychrometer
operates and observe that the Dry and Wet Bulb Temperatures are indicated
satisfactorily on the Thermometers.
4. Remove the plug from the DC socket and check that the electrical fan switches off.

Note:
In Normal Operation, the Inlet Duct of the Psychrometer is inserted into the tunnel
through aperture Upstream or Downstream of the working section. These apertures are
shielded to prevent loss of air when the Psychrometer is not in use.

 Close the tunnel access door. Press the fan ON/OFF switch, rotate the fan speed
control knob clockwise and check that the fan speed adjusts accordingly.

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 Switch on the Digital Anemometer and read the Air Speed in different units.
Switch off the Digital Anemometer.
 With the fan operating, press the Heater ON/OFF switches, rotate the power
control knob clockwise and check that the air is heated by the electrical
elements Downstream of the fan.
 Set the fan and heater switches to the OFF position. Press the ON/OFF button
on the Digital Balance and observe the digital reading. Check operation of the
tare (without any weight, blank) control of the balance and adjust to give a
simple number on the display. Open the access door and place a suitable weight
on the Sample Trays. Check correct operation of the balance. Remove the weight
from the Sample Tray and check balance returns to original reading.

Note:
It is recommended that the laboratory be well ventilated to ensure that warm moist air
discharge from the Drier does not affect the original inlet conditions during the period of
the experiments.

Procedures:
1. Fill the tray to a depth of about 10 mm of dry sand and measure the weight of
the sand accurately.
2. Spray water until the sand is saturated with water.
3. Remove the sand from the tray and drain of excess free water before being
loaded evenly a smoothly into the drying trays, taking care to avoid spillage.
4. Record accurately the total weight of wet sand.
5. At some arbitrary time (t = 0), switch on the fan and set the speed control to mid
position.
6. Switch on the heater and set the power control to maximum, letting them
remain constant throughout the experiment.
7. Record the total weight of sand in the tray at regular time intervals which is for
every 5 minutes in the provided table of results until the reading is constant or
the drying is complete.

General Shut – Down:

1. Remove the tray with the dried sand from the tray.
2. Switch off the fan and heater.
3. Switch off the power supply.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Discuss all your results. The questions below only serve as a guideline. Your discussion
should not only limited to these questions.

1. Calculate free moisture content and drying rate.

2. Plot the drying curve relating Total Moisture Content as a function of Time.
3. From the curve, produce the drying rate versus free moisture content curve.
4. Based on the results, identify the critical moisture content, equilibrium moisture
content, constant rate period and falling rate period.
5. Comment upon the results obtained and relate the curves to the mechanism by
which drying occurs

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Table of Results:

Table A

Description Unit Value

Weight of empty tray g
Weight of dry sand + tray g
Weight of dry sand g
Weight of wet sand + tray g
Weight of wet sand g
Air velocity m/s

Table B

Time Mass of wet Inlet (oC) Outlet (oC)

(min) sand (g) Dry bulb Wet bulb Dry bulb Wet bulb
0

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Table C

Time (min) Mass of wet Total Free moisture Drying rate, R

sand (g) moisture content, X
content, XT
0

USEFULL INFORMATION

1. Total moisture content, XT

m  ms
XT 
ms
m : mass of wet sand
ms : mass of dry sand

2. Free moisture content, X

X  XT  X *

X* : equilibrium moisture content

3. Drying rate, R

m s dX m X  X2
R  s 1
A dt A t 2  t1

A : area of tray (540 cm2)

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Experiment 4
PLATE AND FRAME FILTER PRESS
______________________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION

Filtration is the removal of solid particles from a fluid by passing the fluid
through a filtering medium on which the solids are deposited. Industrial filtrations
range from simple straining to highly complex separations. The fluid maybe a liquid or a
gas, the valuable stream from the filter may be the fluid or the solids or both. In
industrial filtration the solids content of the feed ranges from a trace to a very high
percentage.

Fluid flows through a filter medium by a virtue of a pressure differential across

the medium. Filters are also classified, therefore into those that operate with pressure
above the atmospheric level on the upstream side of the filter medium and those that
operate with atmospheric pressure on the upstream side and a vacuum on the
downstream side. Pressures above the atmospheric level may be developed by a pump
or blower. Many industrial filters are pressure filters, vacuum filters or centrifugal
separators. Filters are divided into 3 types: cake filters, clarifying filters and cross flow
filters. Cake filters separate relatively large amounts of solids as a cake of crystal or
sludge.

Filter presses are pressure filters designed to de-water chemically conditioned

sludge on a batch basis using mechanically applied pressure to achieve high solid
content sludge cakes. The filter consists of a series of parallel plates, each dressed with
a filter cloth and rigidly held together in a structure frame. The filter plates are placed
between the stationary and moving platens.

In operation, the hydraulic closing device compresses the plate pack. The
recessed chamber between the individual plates forms the cake space in which the
suspended solids are then retained. The slurry to be filtered is fed by slurry pump
which pressure subjected to the allowable pressure needed for filtration. During the
filtration cycle, the filtrate passes through the filter cloth and drains along a grooved rib
of the plates while the solid is retained within the cake chamber. Once the filtration
pressure is reached and the filtrate discharge is reduced, the compressed air is
introduced to inflate the membrane to speed up the filtration process. Once the filtrate
is reduced to droplets the compressed air is released, releasing the hydraulic pump
then opens up the press and shifting the filter plates either manually or mechanically
discharges the cake.

In industrial filtration a common filter medium is canvas cloth. Synthetic fabrics

such as nylon, polypropylene and various polyesters are also highly resistant
chemically. Filter aids are used in the filtration of very fine solids or slimy to increase
the porosity of the cake to permit the passage of the liquor at a reasonable rate. Filter
aids are diatomaceous silica, perlite or other inert porous solids. The filter aids are
percoated on the filter medium. Precoats prevent gelatinous solids from plugging the
filter medium as well as giving a clearer filtrate.

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OBJECTIVES

 To study the operation of filter press for filtration of calcium carbonate slurry.
 To determine filter medium resistance and specific cake resistance from filtration
data obtained.

MATERIALS AND ANCILLARY EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

a) Materials
 Calcium Carbonate powder (commercial grade)
 Water in the tank 100 litres for making calcium carbonate slurry
b) Ancillary Equipments
 2 beakers of at least 5 litres capacity
 2 stop watches for recording time

Dissolve 3.0 kg of calcium carbonate in a container and transfer it to the slurry tank. In
100 litres of water it will be 3% wt calcium carbonate slurry.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

Procedures:
1. Open the air regulator outlet valve
2. Check the pressure gauge setting
3. Release the hydraulic pump air valve and operation valve (knob)
anticlockwise to release the hydraulic pressure.
4. Pack the filter press by pushing it towards the stationary platen. At the same
time dress up the filter cloths with creases.
5. Move the moving platen towards the filter plate pack.
6. Lower down the trust bar and alignment it inline with the hydraulic piston.
7. Move the hydraulic piston towards the trust bar by pumping the hydraulic
pump using the lever.
8. Check the filter pack alignment and the cloths to ensure no crease is formed.
In order to have a proper good sealed compression.
9. Pull the PVC drip tray towards the stationary platen at the bottom of the
filter pack. To contain any dripping during filtration process if occur.
10. Start pumping the hydraulic ram until it reach to the require working
pressure. Then lock it by turning the operation valve (knob) clockwise.

Check to ensure that the slurry tanks had enough slurry before operating the
pump, never run the pump in a dry condition even for a few revolutions or the
stator will be damaged.

11. On the control panel, press the feed pump “start” button and the RUN light
will light. This indicates that the process of feeding the slurry into the filter
press has started.
12. When feeding of the slurry into the filter press had reached the preset timing
or pressure by the consolidation timer and feeding pressure gauge. Which
ever come first the pump will be stopped and RUN light will be off.

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Caution:
Do not release the hydraulic pump pressure before operating the squeeze process. Also,
ensure that the feed process is completed. Do not inflate the rubber membrane when
there is no solids in the filter pack.

13. Close the air regulator valve and SLOWLY open the inlet valve. This will let
the compressed air in so as to inflate the rubber membrane SLOWLY. These
processes will squeeze the water out of the filtrate or cake.
14. Upon completion, close the air regulator inlet valve and open the outlet valve
slowly to deflate the rubber membrane slowly.
15. Do not release the hydraulic pump pressure until the compress air outlet
valve is fully opened.
16. Shift the drip tray away from the bottom of the filter pack.
17. Release the hydraulic pump pressure by turning the operation valve (knob)
anticlockwise. The hydraulic piston will retract back to the body.
18. Swing the trust bar back to the stopper and hold.
19. Push the moving platen back towards the hydraulic piston.
20. Move the end filter plate i.e the one next to moving platen towards the
hydraulic piston.
21. Let the solid cakes drop onto a receptable at the bottom of the filter press.
Subsequently unpack the rest of the filter plate one by one.
22. Clean the residue from the filter cloth by mean of a plastic scrapper.
Do not use any sharp object to clean the filter cloth; it can damage the
filter cloth.
23. Ensure that all the sealing edges are clear of residues especially the bottom
area. It is to prevent any improper sealing during the next filtration
compression process.
24. Upon completion, for the next filtration process subsequently repeat the
operating process.

Data:
 The volume of filtrate collected, V in litres collected at different time intervals are
recorded at a given pressure drop. Record all the data in the data sheet.
 Filter area in cm2 is noted down. The mass of solid per unit volume of filtrate is
also noted.
 Note down the weight of wet cake.
 Dry the wet cake in the oven, overnight and note down the weight of the dry
cake.

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Table of Results:

Weight fraction of calcium carbonate in slurry : _________________ %

Weight of wet cake Tray 1 : _________________ g

Tray 2 : _________________ g
Tray 3 : _________________ g

Weight of dry cake Tray 1 : _________________ g

Tray 2 : _________________ g
Tray 3 : _________________ g

Weight ratio of wet cake to dry cake (

mF ) : _________________
mc
Viscosity of filtrate (  ) : _________________ Pa.s
Density of filtrate (  ) : _________________
Density of calcium carbonate : 2.93 g/cm3
Total active filter area : 47 cm x 470 cm
Pressure drop (ΔP) : _________________
Total filtration time : _________________ s
Total volume of filtrate : _________________ litre

Filtrate Volume, V (L) Time, t (s)

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
100

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

Discuss all your results. The questions below only serve as a guideline. Your discussion
should not only limited to these questions.

1. Plot the data relating t/V versus V to obtain a straight line graph.
Kc 1
2. The slope of each line is in seconds per litre and from the intercept
2 qo
of the line.
3. Obtain the value of filter medium resistance (Rm) and cake resistance (  )
from the equations below:

1 Rm

q o A( P)
c
Kc 
A 2 P
Where  = viscosity of filtrate
A = filter area
P = pressure drop
c = mass of solid deposited in the filter per unit volume of
filtrate (kg/L)

4. Explain briefly how filter medium resistance can affect the pressure in
filtration process.
5. Explain three advantages and disadvantages of plate and frame filter press.

REFERENCES

1. Svarovsky, L. “Solid-Liquid separation” Butterworths, 3rd Edition (1990).

2. Rushton, A. “Mathematical models and design methods in solid-liquid
separation” Martinus Nijhoh, (1985).
3. Geankoplis, Transport process and unit operation 3rd Edition, Prentice Hall
(1993).
4. McCabe, Smith and Harriott, Unit operations of Chemical Engineering,
McGraw Hill 6th edition (2000).

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