theophanyEncountering the Divine Bible Old Testament Jewish Studies

theophany iEncountering the Divine Bible Old

Testament Jewish Studies

ABBREVIATIONSAB Anchor BibleABD Anchor Bible

DictionaryAEM Archives epistolaires de MariANET Ancient
Near Eastern Texts Related to the Old Testament, ed.J.B.
Pritchard, 3rd. ed. Princeton: Princeton UniversityPress,
1969ARN Avot deRabbi NatanAV Authorized VersionBASOR
Bulletin of the American Schools for Oriental ResearchBDB
A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament,
ed.Frances Brown, Samuel R. Driver, Charles A. Briggs.BM
Bet MiqraBT Babylonian TalmudBZ Biblische
ZeitschriftBZAW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fur die
alttestamentlicheWissenschaftCAD Chicago Assyrian
DictionaryCBQ Catholic Biblical QuarterlyCBQMS Catholic
Biblical Quarterly Monograph SeriesDeut. Rab.
Deuteronomy RabbahEl Eretz IsraelEJ Encyclopedia
JudaicaEM Encyclopedia Miqra'itExod. Rab. Exodus
RabbahGen. Rab. Genesis RabbahFOTL Forms of Old
Testament LiteratureGKC Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar, ed.
E. Kautsch, trans. A. E.CowleyHAR Hebrew Annual
ReviewHTR Harvard Theological ReviewHUCA Hebrew
Union College AnnualICC International Critical
CommentariesJAAR Journal of the American Academy of
ReligionRRM
viiiEncountering the DivineJANES Journal of the
Ancient Near Eastern Society of ColumbiaUniversityJAOS
Journal of the American Oriental SocietyJBL Journal of
Biblical LiteratureJCS Journal of Cuneiform StudiesJJS
Journal of Jewish StudiesJNSL Journal of the Northwest
Semitic LanguagesJPS The Holy Scriptures, Jewish
Publication Society, 1917JQR Jewish Quarterly ReviewJR
Journal of ReligionJSJ Journal for the Study of JudaismJSOT
Journal for the Study of the Old TestamentJSOTS Journal
for the Study of the Old Testament SupplementSeriesJTS
Journal of Theological StudiesKJV King James VersionLXX
SeptuagintLXXL The Lucianic recension of the
SeptuagintMish. MishnahMid. Teh. Midrash TehillimMT
Masoretic TextNJPS Jewish Publication Society TanachOTL
Old Testament LibraryOTS Oudtestamentische StudienPR
Pesikta RabbatiPRE Pirkei DeRabbi EliezerRB Revue
BibliqueRSV Revised Standard VersionSam. Samaritan
PentateuchSBL Society of Biblical LiteratureSJOT
Scandinavian Journal for the Old TestamentTarg.
TargumTDOT Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament
ed. G. J.Bottenweck and H. RinggrenTos. TosephtaVT Vetus
Testamentum.VTS Vetus Testamentum SupplementsWBC
Word Biblical CommentaryWCJS World Congress of Jewish
StudiesZA W Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche
WissenschaftSSsSjssTLT
INTRODUCTION
This study is a result of thinking about the unusual
ways in which contactbetween the human and the divine is
addressed in the Bible. More than tenyears ago, in a course
entitled 'Strange Encounters in the Bible', I began
toexamine some of the texts discussed here. What at first
seemed to be simplya collection of odd stories gradually
took shape in my mind as reflectionsof an overarching
pattern of communication between God and man/woman
in the Bible. I am not speaking of techniques of divination,
nor amI referring to the notion of prophecy; itself a hugely
complex anduncommon means of divine-human
communication. Rather, I am alludingto texts which speak
of visitation, of actual meeting between human anddivine.
While such matters are always of interest to students of
religion,these particular narratives deserve special
consideration insofar as theyreveal something about both
actors, about the possibility for interactionbetween the
two spheres, and about the effects of the one upon the
other.Much of the study of theophany has concerned itself
with the mythic origins of theophany motifs in biblical
poetry, and their suggested originsin the language and
imagery of the Divine Warrior in the Ancient NearEast.
While these traditions have clear reflexes in poetic texts
such as Hab.3, Ps. 18, and elsewhere, the attempt to
connect all expressions of biblicaltheophany to this warrior
model has led to some rather forcedinterpretation.
Although some of the imagery of theophany in a text
likeExod. 19 is similar to what is found in traditions related
to the storm god,most of the Sinai traditions lack these
images. Beyond the abbreviatednarrative of Josh. 5.13-15
it is difficult to find traces of this militaristictheme in the
theophany narratives themselves. Attempts have also
beenmade to tie together theophany images under the
rubric of the thronevision, with its description of judgment
in the divine council. While this issuited to texts like Isa. 6
and Dan. 7, one is hard pressed to find this motifin most
other theophany stories, which are about initiation,
promise,intercession and annunciation. A third avenue of
approach has beenoffered by the form-critical study of the
prophetic call narratives, whichsees the origin of these
texts in the pattern of commissioning a messengeror in the
election of a leader. While this model is appropriate to
certain call
2 Encountering the Divinenarratives, it is not successful
in explaining the differences between thewide variety of
texts which fall under the rubric of theophany
narratives.Whatever their antecedents may have been, it
seems that the biblicalwriters have created something
quite new and different. Using dreamreports, mythic
depictions of theophany and the upheaval of
nature,promises of divine guidance, and prophetic oracles,
the literary genius ofthe biblical narrative developed a new
way of discussing the interactionbetween the human and
the divine, in a way which reflected the biblicalconcern
with the special relationship between YHWH and Israel. In
orderto accomplish this, the writers had to negotiate the
tension between divinetranscendance and
anthropomorphism. On the one hand, the
Diety'sautonomy was carefully guarded, by the
suddenness and unpredictabilityof the Deity, and by the
absolute nature of the Deity's decisions. Thetheophany
was most often left to the discretion of the Deity
regardingplace, time, and the form of manifestation. There
developed as well anumber of unique strategies for the
depiction of the visual presence of theDeity, reflecting a
religious sensibility which abhorred graven images
yetclung to the idea of divine immanence. At the same
time the second part ofthe equation, YHWH's concern for
the individual and for Israel wasexpressed in various ways.
The approach to the individual was made in agraduated
fashion which allowed for a process of recognition.
Thereactions of the individual to theophany were taken
into account, andobjections and responses of doubt and
skepticism were treated carefully. Inaddition, the societal
effects of the theophany were also given their due, asthe
connection between the theophanic encounter and larger
societalconcerns was developed. The divine-human
encounter was not describedsimply to enhance a
particular individual, but was always done with
largersocietal (and covenantal) concerns in mind. The
results of these efforts andconcerns was the development
of a unique literary structure, thetheophany narrative,
which brought together these disparate elements ina way
which expressed both the writer's respect for the
autonomy andpower of the Deity, and his perceptive
depiction of the dynamics ofinteraction between the
human and the divine.The bulk of this study is given over
to exploring these theophanynarratives as a literary
category in themselves. Chapter One lays out theliterary
model of the type-scene as the schema for the analysis of
thetheophany narratives. The next four chapters flesh out
the implications ofthis analysis with a close reading of the
texts under discussion, suggestingstrategies which are
employed by the narrator to address certain
problems.Rather than read each text in its entirety, we
have chosen to treat eachtype-scene element separately in
order to gain a greater understanding ofthe dynamics of a
given element, and not simply an understanding of asingle
text. Chapter Two will discuss the question of preparations
fortheophany, both the narrator's literary mise en scene as
well as the question
Introduction 3of human initiative. Chapter Three will
deal with strategies for the visualdepiction of YHWH in
these texts. A central issue is the degree offlexibility
regarding the delineation of the distance between YHWH
andhumans, and the bridging of that gap. We will explore
the restrictionsplaced upon the visual representation of
the numinous, and the diversemechanisms for dealing
with these limitations. We will restrict ourdiscussion
primarily to the visual aspect and pass over the
verbalrevelation, as this element has been the subject of
the many studies whichare concerned more with the
content of the revelation than with theprocess described.
Chapter Four will explore the range of human responsesto
the encounter with the divine, from positive
acknowledgement of thepower of the numinous to the
various expressions of hesitation andanxiety. The emphasis
here will be on the interactive elements of thetheophany,
and will include discussion of YHWH's 'response to
theresponse'. Chapter Five will take up the question of
how the protagonist istransformed by the experience. In
some texts the protagonist makes a self-reflective
statement about the experience, as does Ezekiel in Ezek.
3:15 orDaniel in Dan. 7. But in most cases we must resort
to other means forevaluating what the implication of the
theophany are for the protagonist.The most productive
means will be the examination of the ways in whichthe
protagonist rejoins the society he has left temporarily, and
what hisnew role in that society will be. Included in this
discussion are ritualreflections of the theophany, the
emergence of the prophet, and the birth ofthe promised
son. We wish to ask how these texts allow for 'continuity'
ofthe experience, i.e., the transformation of the revelatory
experience intocommunal structures for ongoing
communication with the divine.The final three chapters
will take up a number of issues which emergefrom the
analysis of the motifs. Chapter Six will address the
question of thepotentially (and actually) lethal nature of
encounters with YHWH. Whatis the connection between
the threat of danger as a theme in othertheophany
narratives and its actualization in these texts? We will
analyzethe appearance of subjective factors in assessing
the lethal quality of theencounter, and suggest
explanations for the absence of this concern inother texts.
Chapter Seven will explore the intertextual implications of
ouranalysis, with particular attention to the use of allusion,
as seen in therelationship between Elijah's theophany at
Horeb in 1 Kgs. 19 and Moses'Sinai theophany in Exod. 33.
The final chapter will discuss directions takenby the
theophany narrative in late biblical and post-biblical
literature,most noticeably in its transformation within
apocalyptic literature (e.g.Daniel and 1 Enoch), in the
development of inspired interpretation, theapocalyptic
theophany as seen in Daniel and 1 Enoch, and the
emergenceof the tour of heaven as a new literary
genre.Many people have contributed to this project since
its inception. Firstamong equals are the long-time
members of my weekly study group, Henry
4 Encountering the DivineAbramowitz, Shlomo Naeh,
Jonathan Price and Eliezer Schwartz, whoover the years
have been a regular source of intellectual support, and
haveengaged in specific discussion of some of the texts
analyzed in this book.The Schechter Institute has provided
me with a comfortable base fromwhich I was able to work
productively, and gave me the opportunity toteach much
of the material contained in this study over the past six
years. Iowe much to my colleagues and students for their
assistance and theirfeedback. Sections of the book were
read and helpful comments offered byDiane Sharon,
Penina Galpaz Feller and David Frankel. I am alsothankful
for the assistance of a fellowship from the Kekst
Foundation,which enabled me to devote more of my time
to writing than wouldotherwise have been possible. A
different version of the first chapter waspresented at the
World Congress for Jewish Studies in Jerusalem inAugust,
2001, and was published in Proof texts in 2003. I thank the
editorsfor permission to reproduce some of that material
here. I would also like tothank the editors of the series for
their willingness to publish this study,and Rebecca
Vaughan- Williams and Slav Todorov of T & T Clark fortheir
help and expertise in preparing the manuscript for
publication.Conversations with a number of people
contributed substantially toshaping this study, and to
firming up my ideas about the texts and issuesdiscussed
here. My sincere thanks to Jack Feldman, Art Green,
EdGreenstein, Lori Lefkowitz, David Levine, Adi Savran,
Yossi Turner, EliWeisstub, and others who I may have
forgotten to mention.Most of all I owe an innumerable
debt to my wife and partner in allthings, Bella, who offered
me constant support and feedback, bothintellectual and
emotional. Without her steady help the completion of
thisproject would have been much more prolonged and
difficult.JerusalemGeorge SavranFOR BELLA drgsaakjnuire3