Term Definition

Pathogen Disease causing organism

Types of organism that can cause disease in humans

Bacteria/Virus/Fungi/Protista/Flatworm/Roundworm

Describe the cause, transmission and effect of a bacterial disease

- Tuberculosis
- M tuberculosis
- Droplet infection
- Infected person coughs out droplets containing bacteria that others breathe in
- Lumps in the lung
- Coughing of blood
- Fever
- Loss of weight

- Gonorrhoea
- N gonorrhoea
- Sexual transmission
- During sexual intercourse genitals rub together passing bacteria from infected to uninfected
person
- Inflammation of penis/vagina
- Discharge of pus
- Cholera
- Vibrio cholerea
- Contaminated water
- Diarrhoea
- Extreme dehydration

State an example of an infectious disease caused by…

- Virus: Flu
- Bacteria: Cholera
- Fungi: Athlete’s foot
- Protozoan: Malaria

Describe how human skin and mucous membrane act as barriers to

pathogens
Skin: Lower pH, Fatty acids, Physical barrier to prevent entry
Bacteria on skin prevent other bacteria from growing, Antimicrobial in sweat and saliva to keep
bacteria growth in check
Mucous membrane: Mucous traps bacteria, Cilia sweep mucous up to be swallowed to kill
bacteria, Contain macrophages
Compare human skin and mucous membrane as barriers against
pathogens
Skin Mucous membrane

Mechanical barrier Mechanical barrier

Thick Thin

Surface cells tends to be dead Surface cells tend to be alive

Defends external areas Defends internal areas

Contains biochemical defences Contains biochemical defences

Skin is relatively dry Moist as tears/saliva/mucous can wash away

pathogens

Pathogens can penetrate breaks Pathogens can penetrate breaks

Never ciliated Sometimes ciliated

Describe action of phagocytic leucocyte

- Phagocytic leucocyte occurs in blood and body tissue fluids
- Go into body tissues
- Phagocytic leucocyte detects pathogens
- Phagocytes concentrate at sites of infection
- Leucocyte engulfs pathogens by endocytosis
- Membrane forms around pathogen to form a vacuole
- Lysosomes digest content of vacuoles

Role of fibrinogen
- Soluble substance which can be converted to insoluble substance
- Fibrinogen is converted to fibrin
- Helps to form a clot to prevent more blood loss

Process of blood clotting

- Tissue is damaged
- Damaged cells releases clotting factor
- Causes the producing of thrombin
- Blood plasma contains soluble fibrinogen
- Prothrombin to thrombin which catalyses fibrinogen to fibrin
- Forms a mesh trapping blood cells
- Forming a clot
- Cascades of reaction
Difference between antigens and antibody
- Antigen is a molecule that causes antibody formation
- Antibody is a globular protein/polypeptide that recognises an antigen

Describe the production of antibodies

- Antibodies are produced by B lymphocytes
- Many types of lymphocytes exist in the body
- Each recognises one specific antigen from foreign body
- Antigen binds to proteins in plasma membrane of specific lymphocytes
- Activates the lymphocytes
- Lymphocytes clone through mitosis
- To produce many identical lymphocytes
- Which secrete the specific antibody against the antigen
- Antibodies are proteins made through protein synthesis

Describe how the body can defend itself against pathogens

- Skin/mucus membranes act as barriers
- Sebaceous glands secrete sebum to make surface of skin acidic
- Acid prevents growth of many pathogens
- Lysozyme in mucus can kill bacteria
- Pathogens caught in sticky mucus is removed from body
- Inflammation can cause swelling
- Phagocytes identify pathogens as foreign matter
- Phagocytes ingest pathogens
- Specific lymphocytes recognise one specific antigen
- Lymphocytes clone themselves through mitosis
- Lymphocytes produce antibodies
- Antigen-antibody complex formed and stimulates destruction of pathogen
Explain why antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not virus
- Antibiotics block specific metabolic pathways in bacteria
- Viruses reproduce using the host cell metabolic pathways
- Host cell’s pathways are not affected by antibiotics
- Viruses do not have metabolic pathways

Explain how antibiotic resistance develops in bacteria

- Some bacteria are resistant to an antibiotic
- Includes antibiotic resistance
- Genes for antibiotic resistance originate as mutations
- Transfer of resistance genes can occur from strain to strain
- Bacteria that are resistant survive when an antibiotic is used and other die
- Resistant bacteria pass on their genes for resistance to offspring
- Proportion of resistant bacteria increases in each generation in the population
- Natural selection for bacteria that are resistant

Explain the cause, transmission and social implication of AIDS

Cause
- Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
- Caused by HIV
- Low number of T-helper cells
- Less antibodies produced
- Body vulnerable to pathogens
Transmission
- Transmission through body fluids
- Through sexual intercourse
- Sharing of needles
- Across placenta
- Blood transfusions
Social implications
- Families and friends suffer grief
- Loss of employment
- Great costs
- Discrimination
- Increase in number of orphans

Evaluate the drug tests that Florey and Chain carried out on penicillin
- Tested penicillin on mice before testing on humans
- Only once before risking use in humans
- Results of test were very clear
- First humans given penicillin were close to death
- Initial samples of penicillin were very impure
- Could have been toxic substances in the samples