Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature and Studies

This chapter introduces several related literature and studies essential in constructing

concepts on the study. This is provided upon readings of books and online information which

will serve as the theoretical basis of the research paradigm.

Related Literature

Concrete frame structures are a very common - or perhaps the most common- type of

modern building internationally. As the name suggests, this type of building consists of a frame

or skeleton of concrete. Horizontal members of this frame are called beams, and vertical

members are called columns. Humans walk on flat planes of concrete called slabs. Of these, the

column is the most important, as it is the primary load-carrying element of the building. If you

damage a beam or slab in a building, this will affect only one floor, but damage to a column

could bring down the entire building.

The structure is actually a connected frame of members, each of which are firmly

connected to each other. In engineering parlance, these connections are called moment

connections, which means that the two members are firmly connected to each other. There are

other types of connections, including hinged connections, which are used in steel structures, but

concrete frame structures have moment connections in 99.9% of cases. This frame becomes very

strong, and must resist the various loads that act on a building during its life.

Non-Structural Considerations Associated with Vertical Expansions

Regulatory Considerations
Local zoning code and building code regulations have significant effect on the feasibility and

cost-effectiveness of a vertical expansion. According to the ROBUST report (Lawson et al.

2013), the following zoning issues can have influence on the design.

• Local regulations may impose limitations on aesthetics, height, shape of roofs, as

well as type of use.

• Height is also connected to the natural lighting issue. The geometrical

arrangement of the new building has to preserve natural light for the neighbors.

• The building can be registered as a historical site. In this case, the project has to

take into account the constraints on the appearance of the façades and the roof.

Vertical expansion can be grouped in three categories:

 Category I - This type of expansion was previously planned for when the existing

building was first designed. The original plan set is readily available and foundation and

structural systems have been designed to support a designated amount of additional

stories. Minimal structural analysis and investigation is necessary in order to proceed

with design.

 Category II – In this case, the structure has not been originally designed with the intent of

future vertical expansion. The original plan-set or as-built drawings are available and

reliable. Only minor investigation of existing structural elements is necessary to verify

accuracy of drawings and condition of the structure. Structural analysis is required to

assess the feasibility of the addition.

  Category III– In this case, the structure has not been originally designed with the intent of

future vertical expansion. No drawings are available and significant structural

investigation and analysis is necessary to assess the condition and capacity of the existing

structural system.

Composite columns

Concrete is a material that works well in compression but has negligible resistance in

tension. Hence for structural purposes it traditionally relies on steel reinforcement to carry any

tensile forces (this is the role played by the steel part of a composite cross section, which is

effectively external reinforcement), or must be pre-stressed so that even when subject to tension,

an element is in net compression.

Composite columns may take a range of forms. As with all composite elements they are

attractive because they play to the relative strengths of both steel and concrete. This can result in

a high resistance for a relatively small cross sectional area, thereby maximizing useable floor

space. They also exhibit particularly good performance in fire conditions.

A composite column must be designed for the ultimate limit state. For structural

adequacy, the internal forces and moments resulting from the most unfavorable load combination

should not exceed the design resistances of the composite cross-sections. While local buckling of

the steel sections may be eliminated, the reduction in compression resistance of the composite

column due to overall buckling should be allowed for, together with the effects of residual

stresses and initial imperfections. Moreover, the second order effects in slender column,as well

as the effect of creep and shrinkage of concrete under long-term loading, must be considered if

they are significant.

 According to the Commission on Higher education, school buildings shall be designed

and constructed in conformity with the provisions of the National Building Code. As much as

possible, the school buildings:

(a) Shall be so situated that they are sufficiently far form all fire hazards and that

instruction and study can be conducted without undue interference from neighbors and

passing traffic, and so arranged that activities going on in classrooms, study rooms,

laboratories, or the library do not interfere with each other;

(b) Shall be adequately planned and constructed that in case of fire, typhoon, earthquake,

etc., all students can evacuate the building promptly and safely;

(c) Shall be equipped with fire escapes, fire extinguishers, and other safety devices;

(d) Shall have enough lavatories for both sexes which shall, at all times, be kept clean;

(e) Shall be adequately lighted and ventilated;

(f) Shall contain sufficient space, furniture and fixtures for the general needs of the

administrative staff, faculty and students;

(g) Shall have adequately outfitted laboratories and equipment for the science courses;

(j) Shall have a sufficient area for student personnel services;

(k) Shall have allotted specific areas for home economics and other vocational courses;

(l) Shall be adequately planned that classrooms and laboratories open on to a corridor;

(m) Shall, if a multi-storey building, have at least two staircases with a minimum width
 of two meters, subject to government regulations. Ramps shall be provided for students

with special needs as required by the BP Blg. 344 otherwise known as the "Accessibility

Law".

Related Studies

Over the past several decades, engineers and researchers have been putting a great deal of

effort into understanding how pre-1970s reinforced concrete structures will behave under seismic

loads (Henkhaus et al., 2013; Murray et al., 2013). Numerous simulations have been focused on

various aspects of how reinforced concrete structures under seismic loadings will fail (Henkhaus

et al., 2013; Murray et al., 2013). While much has been learned about failure modes that occur in

reinforced concrete structures, these tests are often complicated in terms of their loading

conditions and data acquisition, and it is difficult to address many of the research questions

related to non-ductile design in an individual test program (Li et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2013).

Therefore, simulations have been broken up into smaller, more manageable sub-sets that allow

data collection where each portion addresses a specific concern of the researcher. These test sub-

sets include such concerns as loading distribution (Jiang, 2013), progressive collapse (Mirzaei et

al., 2011), and retrofitting of the existing structure (Sasani et al., 2010).

Analytical simulations have been developed that model a structure after initial damage

has occurred and resulted in partial or complete column removal; this damage may be

attributable to seismic load, explosions, or collisions and result in load redistribution (Levy and

Salvadori, 1992) (Sasani et al., 2008). The results of these simulations have brought attention to

how we design our structures (Abruzzo et al., 2006). Column failure can also lead to increases in

bending moments, axial compression, and tension forces. This phenomenon is referred to as
progressive collapse and can be seen in many different events such as the Oklahoma City

bombing in 1995 where a central point of damage eventually led to almost complete collapse of

the structure (Val et al., 2006).

According to Sagiroglu and Sasani, column removal and subsequent load redistribution

be easy to conceptualize, it can be difficult to simulate in a controlled lab setting. In the specific

case of the RC Frames project, four years of extensive preparation was necessary for both the

analytical model and experimental test to capture the behavior researchers wanted to examine.

The ability to model collapse with respect to different failed elements is essential in furthering

the capability of current structural analysis programs such as OpenSees, SAP2000, and Mastan2

that are used for new design and to evaluate existing structures. The objective of the RC Frames

project, as a whole, is to further the ability to predict progressive collapse that results from

column failure. The intended outcome is advanced models that allow engineers to take action to

either retrofit susceptible structures or come up with designs that are not vulnerable to this type

of failure (Sagiroglu and Sasani, 2014).

While the ability to predict this failure is important, it is equally critical to understand

effective methods to retrofit pre-1970s buildings to alleviate issues related to non-ductile

structural systems (Alaee and Karihaloo, 2003). Numerous techniques, such as beam or column

isolation, have been implemented to resolve these problems. However, current solutions are not

regulated by any code (Gould et al., 2006). While there are guidelines that engineers can

reference in designing and detailing retrofits, there is need for codes supported by laboratory

research and in-field testing that standardizes the way that the structures are retrofitted (Gould et

al., 2006).
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
 INPUT
I. Problems
a. Need for additional laboratory
facilities

II. Knowledge Required

a. Research design
b. Guidelines and specifications
for school facilities
c. National Building Code

III. Design Requirement

a.USD method in accordance to
NSCP Specification

PROCESS
I. Data Gathering
II. Computation of Seismic Load
III. Design of Structural
Elements
IV. Cost Estimates of the
building
V. Architectural layout

OUTPUT

I. A design of expansion of
engineering laboratory building.
II. Estimated Cost
 The research paradigm represents the diagram showing the theoretical framework. In the

framework shown, the input, process and output are formulated. It shows the input needed, the

process on how it succeeds and achieves its output. The inputs of the study are the problems,

knowledge and design required. Second is the process on how to accomplish the objective of the

study. This includes the data gathering, computation of seismic loads, design of structural

elements and the design of the building. Then, outputs are the design of second floor extension

of engineering laboratory building and cost estimate of materials.