Chapter 10 : Human Physiology

IR. AHMAD RASDAN ISMAIL

 Work Physiology

 Concerned with energy and metabolism.

 Physical demands of work are within a persons ability to produce
energy.
– Body’s ability to do work
 Ability to bring oxygen and nutrients to muscles.
 Muscles ability to convert energy to create movement

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 Anology Human Body Approach

 The body generates energy with the functioning of a combustion

engine.
 Fuel (Food) combusted with the present of O2. Combustion
produce energy that moves parts mechanically.
 The fueling and cooling system (blood vessel) moves supplier
(oxygen, carbohydrates) to the combustion site (muscle and
organ) and remove combustion by products (lactic acids, CO,
water and heat (surface of skin and lung)
 Body processed governed by complex control systems.

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 Respiratory system

 The primary function of the respiratory system is to supply the

blood with oxygen in order for the blood to deliver oxygen to all
parts of the body.
 The respiratory system does this through breathing.
 It provides O2 for the energy metabolism and dissipates by
products.
 This exchange of gases is the respiratory system's means of
getting oxygen to the blood.

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 Metabolic system

 Provides the chemical processes in the body, particularly that

yield energy.
 “Metabolism” refers to all chemical processes in the living body.
 Energy transformation in human body involves 2 opposite
chemical reactions:
1. Catabolism – exergonic/exothermic – breakage of molecular
bond.
2. Anabolism – endergonic/endothermic – formation of molecular
bond.

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 Energy Release

 Energy stored in our bodies must be extracted.

 Utilization of energy in human body achieved by catabolism.
 Accomplished by aerobic metabolism where organic molecules
are broken down and release their internal bond energies.
 For example, glucose can be oxidized according to the formula:

 However oxidation also occurs and this process is anaerobic and

yield much less energy than the aerobic reactions.

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 Energy Use

 Living muscle cells stored quick release energy in the form of

ATP. ATP broke down by hydrolisis to ADP.
 The anaerobic reaction,

 ATP must be resynthesized for continuous operation.

 This is done through creatine phosphate (CP), which transfers
a phosphate molecule to the ADP.
 Energy must be supplied for this endergonic reaction to occur:

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 Energy Use

 The energy needed for the rebuilding of ATP from ADP is

liberated in the breakdown of the complex molecules to simpler
ones, ultimately CO2 and H2O.
 First, glucose is used, then glycogen, and, finally, fats (and
possibly proteins).
 Thus, the "combustion of foodstuffs" is the ultimate source of the
body's energy, keeping the ATP-ADP conversion going.

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 Muscular Work

 The mitochondria are the "cellular power factories" of muscle.

 They provide chemically stored energy in the form of ATP and
release it, as just described, so that muscle can contract, thereby
converting chemical into mechanical energy.
 Very beginning of muscular effort, breaking the phosphate bond of
ATP releases "quick energy" for muscular contraction. ( 2 sec.)
 The next source of immediate energy is CP, which transfers a
phosphate molecule to the just-created molecule of ADP, turning
the ADP back into ATP.(10 sec.)
 After about 10 seconds energy must be supplied to sustain the re-
formation of ATP.
 The energy absorbed from the foodstuffs comes into play: Glucose
(then glycogen, then fat) is broken down, releasing energy for the
re-creation of ATP.

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 Muscular Work

 While releasing energy, the breakdown of glucose (generating

carbon dioxide"'and water) is not complete, but other metabolic
by-products are generated also, particularly lactic acid (If this
metabolic by-product is not resynthesized within about a minute in
the presence of oxygen, the muscles simply cannot continue to
work further.)
 In long-lasting work, the energy demanded from the muscles is so
low that the oxygen supply at the mitochondria level allows
"aerobic" energy-conversion,
 Meaning that sufficient oxygen is available to maintain the energy-
conversion processes without the generation of metabolic
byproducts that would lead to fatigue and force termination of the
work.
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 Aerobic and Anaerobic Metabolism

 Without oxygen, a molecule of glucose yields 2 molecules of ATP.

 With oxygen, the glucose energy yield is 36 molecules of ATP.
 Because the energy yield is so much more efficient under aerobic
conditions, in which no metabolic by-products (that cause fatigue
and exhaustion) are generated, one can keep up a fairly high
energy expenditure, as long as ATP is replaced as fast as it is
used up and no metabolite such as lactic acid is developed.
 Many of the single intermediate steps in the metabolic reactions
are, in fact, anaerobic; but finally, oxygen must be provided.
 Thus, overall, sustained energy use in the human body aerobic.

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 Neuromuscular Physiology

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 Work Physiology

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 Assessment Of Energy Expenditures At Work

 The ability to perform physical work is different from person to

person and depends on
– age,
– body size,
– health,
– environment,
– motivation.

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 Energy Requirement

 Match a person work capacity with the requirements of a job.

 Need to know individual’s energy capacity and how much the job
demands from this capacity.

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 Energy Requirements

 Basal Metabolism
– Minimum amount of energy needed to keep the body
functioning. Energy used only to sustain the vital circulatory
and respiratory functions.
 Resting/Digestive Metabolism
– (Easier To Measure) 10 -15 % higher than basal metabolism.
energy used for digestion
 Work/Activity Metabolism
– Increase in metabolism when you go from rest to work the
amount of energy needed to perform work is called the work
metabolism
– energy associated with physical activity

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 Total Metabolic Rate

 Daily metabolic rates:

TMRd = BMRd + AMRd + DMRd

 TMRd – total daily metabolic rate, kcal/day

 BMRd – daily basal metabolic rate, kcal/day
 AMRd – daily activity metabolic rate, kcal/day
 DMRd – daily digestive metabolic rate, kcal/day

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 Factors

 For our purposes we will use the following values for weight and
gender, and then apply an age correction to these values.
 Note that the values are hourly rates (BMRh):
 For a 20-year-old male, BMRh/kg = 1.0 kcal/hr per kg of body
weight
 For a 20-year-old female, BMRh/kg = 0.9 kcal/hr per kg of body
weight
 As a person ages, his or her basal metabolism rate declines
slowly, so the age correction is simply to subtract 2 % from the
preceding values for each decade above 20 years (we ignore
people significantly younger than 20 because they are not in the
workforce).

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 Basal Metabolic Rate

 Depends on:
– Weight
– Gender
– Age
– Heredity
– Percentage of body fat

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 Example: Daily Basal Metabolism Rate

 Determine the daily basal metabolism rate for a 35-year-old

woman who weighs 130 lb.

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 Solution

 The hourly basal metabolism rate must be adjusted for the

woman's age.
 Given that she is 1.5 decades older than 20 years, the age
correction is 1.5(0.02) = 0.03.
 The adjusted BMRh/kg value is 0.9(1 - 0.03) = 0.873 kcal/hr per kg
of body weight.
 Her weight of 130 lb must be converted to kilograms using the
equivalency that 1 kg = 2.2 lb.
 Thus, her weight = 59 kg.

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 Solution

 For 24 hours,

 This can be converted to equivalent BMR value per minute by

dividing the number of minutes in a 24 hr period = 24(60) = 1440
min/day,

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 Daily Rate of Digestive Metabolism

 The daily rate of digestive metabolism is estimated to be about

10% of the combined rate of basal and activity metabolism [12].
That is,

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 Muscular Effort and Work Physiology

 Capacity of human body to use energy and apply forces

depends on :
1. Capacity of cardiovascular and respiratory systems to
deliver required fuel and oxygen to muscles and carry
away waste products
2. Muscle strength and endurance
3. Ability to maintain proper heat balance within the body

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 Work Activity and Energy Expenditure

Energy expenditure,
heart rate, and
oxygen consumption
for several
categories of work
activity

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 Cardiovascular/Respiratory Capacity and Energy
Expenditure

 Oxygen consumption and heart rate are proportional to energy

expenditure in physical activity
– 4.8 kcal of energy expenditure requires an average of one liter
of O2
 As physical activity becomes more strenuous, energy expenditure
increases, and so does oxygen consumption and heart rate
– ERm = BMRm + AMRm
ERm = energy expenditure rate of the activity, kcal/min; and
BMRm + AMRm = sum of basal and activity metabolic rates,
kcal/min

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 Conditions

 The energy expenditure rates in Table 23.4 are assumed to be for

a person who weighs 72 kg (160 lb ).
 If a person's weight differs from 72 kg (160 lb), then an adjustment
should be made by multiplying the ER value in the table by the
ratio W/72 if the weight is given in kg (or W/160 if the weight is
given in lb), where W = the person's body weight.

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 Example: Daily Total Metabolic Rate for Various Activities

 The 35-year old female worker in previous Example expends

energy during various times of the day as follows:
(1) sleeps for 8 hr,
(2) walks to and from work for 1 hr at an assumed pace of 4.5 km/hr,
(3) stands for 2 hr,
(4) performs soldering work while seated for 6 hr,
(5) Watches TV and rests for 7 hr.
Determine her total metabolic rate for the 24-hour period.

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 Energy Expenditure Rates

 Sleeping BMRm
 Standing (not walking) 2.2 kcal/min
 Walking at 4.5 km/hr 4 kcal/min
 Jogging at 7.2 km/hr 7.5 kcal/min
 Soldering work (seated) 2.7 kcal/min
 Mowing lawn (push mower) 8.3 kcal/min
 Chopping wood 8 kcal/min
 Shoveling in front of furnace 10 kcal/min

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 Solution

 From the previous example, her basal metabolic rate is 0.86

kcal/min.
 The calculation of TMRd is summarized in the next table.
TMRd = 2330 for the 24-hour period, using ERm values from Table
23.4.

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 Solution : Total Metabolic Rate – TMR

Activity Time ER Weight Total energy

factor
Sleeping 480 min 0.86 (no 413 kcal
kcal/min correction)
Walking 60 min 4.0 130/160 = 194 kcal
kcal/min 0.81
Standing 120 min 2.2 130/160 = 214 kcal
kcal/min 0.81
Soldering work 360 min 2.7 130/160 = 787 kcal
kcal/min 0.81
Other activities 420 min 1.5 130/160 = 510 kcal
kcal/min 0.81
1440 min BMRd + AMRd= 2,118 kcal
Digestive 0.10(BMRd + AMRd) = 212 kcal
metabolism
TMRd = 2,330 kcal

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 Oxygen Debt

Difference between amount of oxygen needed by muscles

during physical activity and amount of oxygen supplied
– Occurs at start of physical activity after body has been
at rest
– There is a time lag before the body can respond to
increased need for oxygen
– Glycolysis is anaerobic during this time lag
– Oxygen debt must be repaid, so when activity stops,
breathing and heart rate continue at high levels

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 Oxygen Debt Illustrated

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 Recommended Energy Expenditure

Physiological measure Male worker Female

worker
Energy expenditure rate of the physical activity (maximum 5.0 kcal/min 4.0 kcal/min
ER m
time-weighted average during shift)
Energy expenditure of the physical activity for the entire 8 2400 kcal 1920 kcal
hr shift ER8h
Heart rate (maximum time-weighted average during shift) 120 beats/min 110 beats/min
HR
m

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 Value of Energy Expenditure

 The values of energy expenditure rate and heart rate in previous

Table are time-weighted average values during the shift, which
means that there may be periods when these values are
exceeded so long as they are averaged with other periods at
lower energy expenditure rates that are long enough to
compensate for those high values.
 The following equation can be used to compute the time-weighted
average energy expenditure rates during a time period of interest:

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 Value of Energy Expenditure

 ER = time-weighted average energy expenditure rate, kcal/min;

 Ti = duration of time period i during total time period of interest,
min; and
 ERi = energy expenditure rate during time period i; and the
summation is carried out over all of the individual periods in the
total time period.

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 Example: Calculation of Time Weighted Average of
Energy Expenditure Rates

 A male worker performs a repetitive task for 4 hr during the

morning that requires an energy expenditure rate of 7.5 kcal/min.
Each hour he works 40 min at this task and then takes a 20 min
rest break. During the rest breaks, his energy expenditure rate is
estimated to be 1.5 kcal/min.
 Compute the Time Weighted Average of Energy Expenditure
Rates, ER.

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 Solution

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 Rest Periods

 Common in industry
– Paid for by the employer as regular work time
– Rest breaks usually included in allowance factor built into the
time standard
– Relatively short duration - 5 to 20 minutes
– Meal periods - not included

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 Rest Period Time

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 Example : Determine Rest Period for Given Work Time

 A male worker performs physical labor that has an energy

expenditure rate of 8.2 kcal/min for 20 min.
 How long a rest break should the worker be allowed at the end of
this work period?

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 Solution

 From Table 23.5, the recommended average energy expenditure

rate is 5.0 kcal/min; the expenditure rate while the worker rests is
1.5 kcal/min, according to Table 23.4.
 Using equation , the appropriate duration of the rest break is
determined as follows:

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 Alternative of Rest Period Equation

 It uses the total time TT rather than the actual work time Twrk .
This formula can be stated as follows:

 TT = Twrk + Trst = total time that includes both work time and rest
time, min.
 For example, the total time might be the number of hours in the
shift.

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 Example: Determining the Appropriate Rest Proportion for an 8-
hour Shift

 A male worker performs hard physical labor interspersed with rest

breaks for fatigue during an 8-hour shift. The physical work has an
energy expenditure rate of 8.2 kcal/min.
(a) How should the 8-hour shift be divided between work periods and
rest breaks?
(b) Is this division consistent with the rest period value computed in
previous Example
(c) As a check, is the time-weighted average energy expenditure rate
for the shift within the recommended 5 kcal/min?

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 Solution(a)

(a) Using the recommended average energy expenditure rate of 5.0

kcal/min and the rest break expenditure rate of 1.5 kcal/min the
proportion of total time that should be devoted to rest breaks is

 This leaves 0.5224 or 52.24% of the shift as working time of the 8-

hour shift, rest time accounts for 0.4776(8.0) = 3.821 hr, and work
time accounts for 0.5224(8.0) = 4.179 hr.

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 Solution(b)

(b) The total work-rest time cycle in previous Example is TT = 20.0 +

18.29 = 38.29 min.
 The proportion of rest time to total time is

 This is the same proportion (within round-off error) calculated in

part (a).
 Therefore, the division between work and rest is consistent with
the rest period value computed in previous Example.

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 Solution(c)

(c ) The time-weighted average energy expenditure rate during the 8-

hour shift is

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 Muscle Strength and Endurance

 Static strength – human subject applies as high a force as

possible against an immovable object
– Duration of test is short (e.g., a few seconds)
– Results influenced by joint type (arm vs. leg) and joint angle
 Dynamic strength – tested under conditions that involve changes
in joint angles and motion speed

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 Static vs. Dynamic Muscular Activities
Static muscular activity
Description Sustained contraction
Examples Holding a part in a static
position
Squeezing a pair of pliers
Physiological Reduced blood flow to tissue
effect restricts oxygen supply and
waste removal.
Lactic acid is generated.
Metabolism is anaerobic.
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Dynamic muscular activity
Rhythmic contraction and
relaxation
Cranking a pump handle
Turning a screwdriver
Adequate blood flow allows
oxygen supply and waste
removal needs to be
satisfied.
Metabolism is aerobic.
 Factors Affecting Strength

 Size (e.g., height, body weight, build)

 Gender
 Age
– Maximum strength at age 25 to 35
– About 80% of peak in mid-fifties
 Physical conditioning
– Physical exercise can increase strength by as much as 50
percent

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 Muscle Endurance

 Muscle endurance is defined as the capability to maintain an

applied force over time
– Ability to maintain maximum static force lasts only a short time
– After about 8 to 10 minutes, a person can only apply about
25% of maximum static force achieved at beginning of test
– Finding supports the use of a mechanical workholder rather
than requiring worker to grasp work unit

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 Muscle Endurance

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 Work Metabolism

 1st minutes of physical work, there is a discrepancy between

oxygen demand and available oxygen. (anaerobic)
 Oxygen deficit must be repaid during rest after work.
 Amount deficit depend on the kind of work performed.
 The oxygen debt repaid is twice the oxygen deficit incurred.

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 Work Metabolism

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 Fatigue

 If work is not designed to allow adequate rest or to avoid

prolonged static muscle contractions.
 Fatigue can result in accumulations of potassium and lactic acid.
 Length of time a person endures anaerobic work depend on
motivation.
 When severe exercise brings about a continuously growing
oxygen deficit and an increase in lactate content in the blood
because the anaerobic metabolic processes, a balance between
demand and supply cannot be achieved.
 How the body avoid fatigue is through some activities.

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 Fatigue

 This phenomenon is best researched in regard to maintained

static (isometric) muscle contraction.
 If the effort exceeds about 15 percent of a maximal voluntary
contraction (MVC), blood flow to the muscle is reduced.
 Insufficient blood flow brings about an accumulation of potassium
ions, and a depletion of sodium, in the extra cellular fluid.
 Combined with an intracellular accumulation of phosphate (from
the degradation of ATP), these biochemical events perturb the
coupling between nervous excitation and muscle-fiber contraction.

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 Recovery of Fatigue

 The resulting fatigue can be counteracted by the insertion of rest

periods.
 Given the same ratio of "total resting time" to "total working time,"
many short rest periods have more "recovery value" than a few
long rest periods.
 To avoid fatigue:
– Allow short bursts of dynamic work, and avoid long periods of
static effort.
– Keep energetic work and muscle demands low.
– Encourage taking many short rest pauses; this is better than
taking a few long breaks.

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