International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 2014, 24, 425  -436

http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2014-0022
© 2014 Human Kinetics, Inc.
www.IJSNEM-Journal.com
Consensus Statement

Nutrition for Recovery in Aquatic Sports

Louise M. Burke and Inigo Mujika

Postexercise recovery is an important topic among aquatic athletes and involves interest in the quality, quan-
tity, and timing of intake of food and fluids after workouts or competitive events to optimize processes such
as refueling, rehydration, repair, and adaptation. Recovery processes that help to minimize the risk of illness
and injury are also important but are less well documented. Recovery between workouts or competitive events
may have two separate goals: (a) restoration of body losses and changes caused by the first session to restore
performance for the next and (b) maximization of the adaptive responses to the stress provided by the session
to gradually make the body become better at the features of exercise that are important for performance. In
some cases, effective recovery occurs only when nutrients are supplied, and an early supply of nutrients may
also be valuable in situations in which the period immediately after exercise provides an enhanced stimulus
for recovery. This review summarizes contemporary knowledge of nutritional strategies to promote glycogen
resynthesis, restoration of fluid balance, and protein synthesis after different types of exercise stimuli. It notes
that some scenarios benefit from a proactive approach to recovery eating, whereas others may not need such
attention. In fact, in some situations it may actually be beneficial to withhold nutritional support immediately
after exercise. Each athlete should use a cost–benefit analysis of the approaches to recovery after different
types of workouts or competitive events and then periodize different recovery strategies into their training or
competition programs.

Keywords: refueling, rehydration, protein synthesis

It is difficult to think of a theme in sports science
over the past 2 decades that has received as much atten-
tion and commercialization as postexercise recovery. It
is not uncommon for athletes to include specific recovery
activities in their training and competition programs,
and the prevailing culture is that a workout has not been
completed until proactive modalities to aid recovery have
been undertaken. The interest in recovery is explained
by the demanding training schedules of modern athletes,
with most elite participants in aquatic sports undertaking
one or more workouts each day, with a typical interval of
4–24 hr between sessions of prolonged or high-intensity
exercise. Recovery is also a challenge in many competi-
tion scenarios with the program of major competitions
involving a series of heats, semifinals, and finals (e.g.,
pool swimming, diving); multiple games (e.g., water polo
tournament); and the potential for athletes to compete in
more than one event on the program (e.g., swimming,
diving, synchronized swimming). The interval between
events may range from a few minutes to 48 hr.
Burke is with the Dept. of Sports Nutrition, Australian Insti-
tute of Sport, Canberra, Australia. Mujika is with the Dept. of
Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Odontology, University of
the Basque Country, Leioa, Basque Country, and the School of
Kinesiology and Health Research Center, Faculty of Medicine,
Finis Terrae University, Santiago, Chile. Address author corre-
spondence to Louise M. Burke at louise.burke@ausport.gov.au.
In this review, we summarizes the current evidence
for dietary strategies to promote recovery between work-
outs and competitive events, noting that best practice
requires an event-specific and individualized plan for each
session. It identifies the desired physiological processes
that should take place after the session and the nutri-
tional support that is required to optimize this outcome.
Guidelines are suggested with a view to the integration of
recovery eating with the athlete’s total nutritional goals
and the practical challenges to food and fluid intake that
may occur in training and competition situations.
Philosophy of Postexercise
Recovery
Although some athletes consider recovery eating to be
a single plan applied universally after each workout or
competition, appropriate postexercise nutrition should
involve a variety of different approaches. An underpin-
ning theme is that recovery between exercise sessions
may have two separate goals with changing priorities
(Burke, 2014):
• Restoration of body losses and changes caused by the
first session to restore performance levels for the next
• Adaptive responses to the stress or stimulus provided
by the session to gradually make the body become
better at the features of exercise that are important
for performance.

425
 426  Burke and Mujika
Typically, in the competition scenario, the chief goal
is to address nutrient depletion or to restore homeostasis
as quickly as possible after the first event to promote opti-
mal performance in the next—or at least a performance
level that is better than that of fellow competitors. In the
case of key training sessions, the focus of recovery eating
may shift between the goal of restoration that allows the
athlete to train harder and better with a reduced risk of
illness or injury and the second goal of adaptation. Only
recently has a specific focus of the modulating effects
of nutrition on the muscular adaptation to training been
recognized (Hawley et al., 2011). Sometimes the goals of
restoration and adaptation share the same or overlapping
nutritional approach, but on other occasions, a contrast-
ing nutrition plan is needed. For example, in terms of
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adaptation, there is current interest in the hypothesis that
exercising in an environment of low nutritional support
might stimulate greater adaptation to the same training
stimulus (a “training smarter” approach). Under this
scenario, which mostly involves the manipulation of car-
bohydrate availability, the athlete might actually withhold
nutritional support to prolong the metabolic environment
favoring the exercise-induced adaptations and to allow
training to occur at the next session with low nutrient
support to enhance adaptation via increased metabolic
stress (Burke, 2014). The application of this concept to
aquatic sports, which we briefly mention below, is also
explored in further detail in other reviews (Mujika, 2014).
A further differentiation in recovery eating arises
from the variation in physiological stresses encountered
in each workout or event. Each session differs in how
much it causes the athlete to sweat, depletes muscle fuel
stores, stimulates protein synthesis, or causes damage
and disruption to body tissues. According to the specific
stresses of the session, a complex array of processes helps
to restore homeostasis or allow the body to adapt. The
better-understood processes include restoration of muscle
and liver glycogen stores (refueling), replacement of the
fluid and electrolytes lost in sweat (rehydration), and
protein synthesis for repair and adaptation (rebuilding).
Responses of other systems such as the immune and
antioxidant systems also help the athlete stay healthy but
are less well understood. Therefore, different types and
amounts of nutrients will be needed to restore normal
status. How important it is to deliver those nutrients to
the body as soon as possible will depend on whether these
nutrients are handled differently in the postexercise phase
and how long it will take to achieve restoration.
Finally, recovery eating needs to integrate with the
athlete’s total nutritional goals in terms of energy needs,
desire to manipulate physique, and overall requirements
for nutrients. It must also be manageable within the practi-
cal and logistical constraints that govern the athlete’s food
intake—for example, to be affordable, to fit in with the
daily timetable and social commitments, and to involve
foods and drinks that are acceptable and readily available.
In summary, each session deserves its own recovery
eating plan, and this plan may differ from athlete to ath-
lete and across the periodized training and competition
program. Reviews of the goals and practice of the training
and competition programs of each of the aquatic sports
have been provided elsewhere in this issue (Benardot et
al., 2014; Cox et al., 2014; Robertson et al., 2014; Shaw
et al., 2014a, 2014b). Each has identified specific physi-
ological and nutritional challenges that arise from specific
features of workouts or competitive events, as well as
nutritional issues that accrue across the microcycles and
macrocycles of the periodized sporting calendar. Some
common themes of recovery nutrition were identified,
for which we now explore strategies.
Refueling
Many of the workouts undertaken by aquatic athletes,
particularly those involving prolonged or high-intensity
swimming as commonly undertaken in the preparation for
pool and open-water racing, would be expected to cause
substantial depletion of muscle glycogen stores (Shaw
et al., 2014a, 2014b). After high-intensity exercise that
results in high muscle and blood concentrations of lac-
tate, some recovery of glycogen stores in the absence of
additional carbohydrate feeding is possible, but sustained
muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise is dependent on
provision of a dietary source of carbohydrate (Burke et
al., 2004). Provided that total energy intake is adequate
(Tarnopolsky et al., 2001), increasing carbohydrate intake
promotes increased muscle glycogen storage until an
upper limit for glycogen synthesis is reached (Burke et
al., 2004). The most recent guidelines for postexercise
glycogen storage recognize a scaling of requirements
according to the fuel cost of training or competition and
the athlete’s body size (Burke et al., 2011). Because
the mean hourly rate of glycogen restoration is about
5–6 mmol (or 5–6%), it can take approximately 24 hr
to normalize stores after substantial levels of depletion.
During the 2- to 4-hr period after exercise, there
is a potential for high rates of muscle glycogen storage
(Ivy & Kuo, 1998) as a result of the depletion-activated
stimulation of the glycogen synthase enzyme and exer-
cise-induced increases in muscle membrane permeability
and insulin sensitivity. This potential can be realized only
if carbohydrate is consumed during this period; if not,
refueling rates are very low (Ivy et al., 1988). The concept
of a window of opportunity for glycogen storage during
the early period of postexercise recovery has been created
because refueling rates decrease after this time, even in
the face of continued carbohydrate intake. It should be
appreciated, however, that consuming carbohydrate after
strenuous exercise is most valuable because it provides
an immediate source of substrate to the muscle cell to
start effective recovery rather than simply because of a
few hours of moderately enhanced glycogen synthesis.
The impact of delaying the intake of carbohydrate after
exercise is that there will be very low rates of glycogen
restoration until feeding occurs. Suboptimal refueling is
relevant when the interval between glycogen-depleting
exercise sessions is less than 8 hr (Ivy et al., 1988), as
 Recovery in Aquatic Sports   427

commonly occurs in the high-volume programs under-
taken by pool and open-water swimmers, but catch-up
occurs over longer periods, as long as sufficient carbo-
hydrate is consumed (Parkin et al., 1997).
Guidelines for carbohydrate intake to achieve refuel-
ing targets should include attention to the early restoration
phase if needed, as well as total intake over the entire day.
Recommendations to maximize glycogen storage in the
first couple of hours after exercise are to consume about
1 g/kg of the athlete’s body mass per hour; this amount
is higher than that suggested by early studies and may be
further enhanced when it is consumed in serial feedings
(Jentjens & Jeukendrup, 2003). Targets for total daily
carbohydrate intake can range from 3 to 12 g/kg body
mass, depending on the fuel cost of the athlete’s training
or competition program (see Table 1 and Figure 1; Burke

Table 1  Guidelines for Postexercise Refueling

Strategies to Maximize • Start consuming carbohydrate soon after the session finishes. Aim for a recovery snack or meal
Refueling providing carbohydrate equal to approximately 1 g/kg body mass (e.g., about 50 g for a 50-kg
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female, 80 g for an 80-kg male).

Suitable Choices
for Proactive Refueling
Benefits
When Should Proactive
Refueling be Practiced?
Disadvantages
When is it Expendable?
Note. Adapted from Burke 2014)
• Continue with more snacks, drinks, or meals to achieve a carbohydrate target of 1 g/kg per hour
for the first 4 hr of recovery, then resume an eating pattern that meets overall fuel and energy
goals.
• Target carbohydrate requirements according to fuel cost of training or events, with general
ranges being as follows:
o Low-intensity or skill-based activities: 3–5 g/kg/d
o Moderate exercise (e.g., about 1 hr per day): 5–7 g/kg/d
o Endurance program (e.g., 1–3 hr/day moderate–high intensity): 6–10 g/kg/d
o Extreme commitment (e.g., >4–5 hr/day moderate–high intensity) 8–12 g/kg/d
Nutritious carbohydrate-rich selections include• Breads (including rolls, wraps, bagels, muffins,
and pizza bases)
• Cereals (porridge, packaged cereals, and Bircher muesli)
• Grains (rice, pasta, noodles, quinoa, and couscous)
• Sweetened dairy (flavored milk, flavored yogurt, and custard)
• Fruits, starchy vegetables (potatoes), and legumes (baked beans, kidney beans, and lentils)
Compact forms of carbohydrate (useful when appetites are low, the gut is full or uncomfortable,
or it is impractical to prepare or eat real foods)
• Sports drinks, liquid meals, gels, and bars
• Flavored milk drinks and smoothies, liquid meals
• Sugary items including confectionery
• Juices and soft drinks
• Maximizes muscle fuel for next demanding workout or event
• After races or fuel-depleting training sessions when the athlete is backing up for the next session
in 8 hr or less
• When total fuel needs are high—high-volume training, demanding competition schedule
• May encourage the athlete to eat more energy than needed (leading to weight gain) or a pattern
of eating that is more risky for dental health
• May encourage the athlete to choose nutrient-poor foods because these are more accessible or
easy to eat immediately after exercise
• When sessions are light or low in intensity and muscle glycogen is not likely to become depleted
or limit performance
• When the available recovery eating choices are low in nutritional value, and it makes more sense
to wait a little until the athlete can have a more nutritious meal or snack
• When the athlete has periodized some train-low sessions into the training program that may
require a delay in refueling in the attempt to prolong the adaptation to the session just done or
commence the next session with depleted glycogen stores
 428  Burke and Mujika
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Figure 1 — Daily carbohydrate intakes for aquatic athletes should be periodized according to a number of changing factors. Factors identi-
fied with a solid black arrow represent the major factors that determine carbohydrate intake targets, and those identified with an unfilled arrow
represent factors that may modify carbohydrate intakes.
et al., 2011). Even so, these guidelines are considered to
be ballpark figures that must be fine-tuned according to
the athlete’s total energy needs, overall nutritional goals,
and feedback about his or her performance and recovery.
The effects of the type, form, and pattern of con-
sumption of carbohydrate-rich choices on glycogen stor-
age have been studied but typically under conditions of
adequate intake of carbohydrate and energy. A common
factor in these themes is the ability to enhance blood
glucose availability or increase insulin concentrations. It
was proposed that the glycemic index of carbohydrate-
rich foods, more so than their structural composition
as starches or sugars, could affect the rate of glycogen
restoration. Indeed, moderate and high glycemic index
carbohydrate-rich foods and drinks were found to pro-
mote greater glycogen storage over 24 hr of recovery than
an equivalent amount of carbohydrate from low glycemic
index choices (Burke et al., 1993). However, the mecha-
nism underpinning these observations probably involves
the malabsorption of low glycemic index foods, reduc-
ing the actual amount of available carbohydrate, rather
than differences in the glycemic–insulinemic responses
per se (Burke et al., 1993). Under conditions of optimal
refueling, there is no difference in glycogen synthesis
between liquid or solid forms of carbohydrate (Keizer et
al., 1987) or if carbohydrate is ingested in large meals or
spread over frequent smaller snacks (Burke et al., 1996;
Costill et al., 1981). In general, it seems that, over longer
recovery periods (24 hr) when the athlete can consume
adequate energy and carbohydrate, the types, pattern,
and timing of carbohydrate-rich meals and snacks can
be chosen according to what is practical and enjoyable.
Whether there are better food choices and feeding
patterns to promote refueling from a suboptimal intake
of carbohydrate has not been systematically addressed
but might be of importance to aquatic athletes who have
reduced energy budgets to accommodate their physique-
maintenance goals (e.g., some divers, synchronized
swimmers, female swimmers). At the present time, the
most important dietary strategy to enhance glycogen

storage from lower carbohydrate intakes is the addition
of protein to the recovery meal. Initially, debate on the
effect of protein intake on glycogen storage has been
considerable, with studies showing conflicting results
of either a positive (Zawadzki et al., 1992) or absent
(Jentjens et al., 2001) effect. However, a meta-analysis of
the literature was able to resolve the confusion by provid-
ing evidence that when carbohydrate intake is below the
amount necessary for optimum glycogen storage during
the first 4 hr of recovery (i.e., <1 g/kg/hr), the coinges-
tion of approximately 20–25 g protein can aid refueling
(Betts & Williams, 2010). This effect is trivial at higher
carbohydrate intakes.
It is of practical interest to consider whether other
activities undertaken during the recovery period after
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aquatic activities might affect glycogen synthesis. This
could either alter the athlete’s decision to undertake
these activities or create interest in dietary strategies
to compensate for the effects. Two frequently observed
activities of opposite intention merit comment: cold
therapies that are commonly used to promote recovery or
alleviate symptoms of exercise-induced muscle damage
and excessive intake of alcohol that often accompanies
postcompetition celebrations or commiserations. There
are contrasting opinions about the effect on refueling of
therapies that alter local muscle temperature. Reduced net
glycogen storage over 4 hr of recovery was found in a leg
exposed to intermittent application of ice compared with a
control leg (Tucker et al., 2012), whereas in a companion
study by the same researchers, the application of heat to
a leg was associated with greater refueling than a control
leg (Slivka et al., 2012). Altered blood flow to the muscle
secondary to temperature changes was presumed to play
a role in these findings, although a reduction in muscle
enzyme activities was also suspected to be a factor in
explaining the outcomes of ice therapy. However, another
study of cold water immersion after exercise failed to
find evidence of impaired glycogen storage during the
recovery period (Gregson et al., 2013). Further research
is warranted. Meanwhile, the direct effect of consumption
of excessive amounts of alcohol on glycogen synthesis
is unclear, but it is likely to interfere with refueling via
the indirect effect of distracting the athlete from follow-
ing guidelines for the appropriate intake of carbohydrate
(Burke et al., 2003). Alcohol intake typically exerts its
major disadvantage by increasing the likelihood of the
athlete making poor choices, which includes high-risk
behavior as well as the abandonment of sound nutrition
practices (Cox et al., 2014).
Finally, we include a brief mention of the emerging
interest in situations in which carbohydrate intake might
be deliberately restricted in the recovery after exercise.
Although the current sports nutrition guidelines (Burke et
al., 2011) recognize that work- and skill-based attributes
of performance are enhanced when exercise is under-
taken with high carbohydrate availability, studies of the
molecular basis of adaptation to exercise have found that
when exercise is undertaken with low muscle glycogen
content, there is enhanced transcription of a number of
Recovery in Aquatic Sports   429
genes that underpin the training adaptations to enhance
skeletal metabolism of fats and carbohydrate (Philp et
al., 2011). This has led to a paradigm that athletes could
periodize workouts involving deliberate training with low
glycogen stores (i.e., train low) into their program during
phases or for specific workouts in which high-quality or
high-intensity exercise is not important (Burke 2010).
Withholding carbohydrate during the recovery period
after a training session might play a role in preparing
to undertake the next workout with depleted glycogen
stores. However, as we subsequently discuss, “recover
low” may play a separate role in promoting training
adaptations.
At the end of a prolonged intense exercise bout,
athletes present with low muscle glycogen stores and
an elevation in blood fatty acid concentrations. These
high circulating lipid levels have also been shown to
positively affect markers usually associated with training
adaptations (Garcia-Roves et al., 2007). However, the
consumption of carbohydrate immediately after exercise
rapidly alters this metabolic state. Indeed, the time course
of the return to baseline levels of the exercise-induced
transcription of many genes occurs in a manner that seems
correlated with the restoration of muscle glycogen stores
(Hawley et al., 2011). This suggests that withholding
carbohydrate intake for several hours after a prolonged
or intensive session, maintaining elevated fatty acid levels
and low muscle glycogen stores, might prolong this effect
of the exercise stimulus. Further research is needed to
investigate whether this strategy can be incorporated into
the periodized training program of an aquatic athlete with-
out interfering with other goals and thus lead to greater
training adaptations and performance improvement.
The range of issues related to postexercise refueling
including suitable food and fluid choices when a proactive
approach to glycogen resynthesis is needed are summa-
rized in Table 1. The concepts of train low and recover
low have also been included in the recommendations.
In addition, a visual representation of the range of daily
carbohydrate intake targets that may be suitable for the
needs of different aquatic athletes is presented in Figure
1; this illustrates the main characteristics that underpin
carbohydrate requirements as well as factors that may
modify such intakes.
Rehydration
Observations of fluid intake and fluid balance during
aquatic sports have suggested that sweat losses and
overall rates of dehydration are lower than seen in land-
based sports (Cox et al., 2002; Garth & Burke, 2013).
Nevertheless, Leiper and Maughan (2004) assessed
whole-body water turnover in young swimmers during
training and found a M ± SD daily water turnover of 3.7
± 1.2 l compared with a value of 1.7 ± 1.4 l in sedentary
controls. There was no difference between groups in daily
urine output, suggesting that sweat losses may have been
substantial. In apparent contrast to these observations,
 430  Burke and Mujika
Maughan et al. (2009) showed that M ± SD sweat loss of
nationally ranked swimmers in a training session lasting
105 min amounted to only 548 ± 243 ml. Higher sweat
rates will occur during sessions in hot environments,
including poorly air-conditioned indoor pools and pools
or open water at temperatures higher than 30 ºC or during
workouts involving sustained high-intensity intervals
(Cox et al., 2014). They may also occur during dry-land
workouts that are incorporated into the training programs
of many aquatic athletes. Therefore, in some scenarios,
the athlete can expect to finish a workout or prolonged
competition event (e.g., open-water swim in hot condi-
tions) with a reasonable fluid deficit and may need to
undertake proactive rehydration strategies to return to
fluid balance before commencing the next exercise ses-
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sion. Although this might be the exception rather than
the rule for most aquatic athletes, it can be useful to have
a rehydration plan when the postexercise fluid deficit is
equivalent to more than 2% body mass (e.g., 1.5 L for a
75-kg man) and the rehydration period is less than 6–8 hr.
The success of rehydration strategies depends on
how much the athlete drinks and on how much of this
fluid is retained and reequilibrated within body fluid
compartments. Because sweating and obligatory urine
losses continue during the rehydration phase, athletes
must replace more than their postexercise fluid deficit
to achieve fluid restoration. Typically, a volume of
fluid equivalent to 125%–150% of the deficit must be
consumed to compensate for these continued losses and
ensure that fluid balance is achieved over the first 4–6 hr
of recovery (Shirreffs et al., 1996). The intake of sodium
in or with a fluid helps to preserve thirst, thus increasing
spontaneous intake (Nose et al., 1988). The temperature
and flavoring of drinks also affect palatability and intake,
with studies reporting greater fluid intake during postex-
ercise recovery with sweetened drinks than with plain
water (Carter & Gisolfi, 1989).
Consumption of large amounts of fluid in a single
bolus (Archer & Shirreffs, 2001) or in the absence of the
replacement of large sweat electrolyte losses (Shirreffs et
al., 1996) will result in large urine losses. By contrast, the
addition of sodium to rehydration fluids has been shown
to better maintain equilibrium between plasma volume
and plasma osmolality, reduce urine losses, and enhance
net fluid balance at the end of 6 hr of recovery (Shirreffs
et al., 1996). This strategy may be useful in the relatively
rare situations in which an aquatic athlete requires rapid
rehydration strategies to efficiently replace substantial
fluid losses. Minimizing the urine losses associated with
postexercise hydration may also be of practical value in
reducing the risk of interrupted sleep when workouts or
competitive events take place late in the day. The optimal
sodium level in a rehydration drink appears to be close to
the sodium content of sweat (Shirreffs & Maughan, 1997)
and thus may be as high as 50–80 mmol/L; this is higher
than the sodium concentration of typical sports drinks and
is close to the level found in oral rehydration solutions
manufactured for the treatment of diarrhea. Alternatively,
sodium may be consumed simultaneously with fluids by
drinking and with meals that contain sodium-rich foods
or have had salt added in their preparation (Maughan et
al., 1996). Of course, the use of salt-replacement practices
should be commensurate with sweat sodium losses and
should consider the community health issues related to
excessive salt intake.
Because alcohol increases diuresis, consumption
of alcohol-containing beverages during the rehydration
period may result in greater fluid losses than other fluids
(Shirreffs & Maughan, 1997). Athletes are also often told
that caffeine-containing beverages such as tea, coffee,
and cola or energy drinks are diuretics and should be
avoided in situations in which there is a risk of develop-
ing dehydration. However, the effect of caffeine on urine
losses or dehydration is overstated and may be minimal
in people who are habitual caffeine users (Armstrong,
2002; Killer et al., 2014). There is also unlikely to be a
significant diuretic effect at caffeine doses of less than
about 250–300 mg (Maughan & Griffin, 2003). There-
fore, choices of postexercise fluids should be directed
by overall nutritional goals (need for energy and other
nutrients contained in beverages), but also perhaps by
the avoidance of characteristics that might interfere with
sleep in the period after a training session (e.g., caffeine
or large volumes that will stimulate the need to urinate).
The range of issues related to postexercise rehydration,
including suitable choices of fluids and occasions when
a proactive approach to fluid restoration is needed, are
summarized in Table 2.
Protein Synthesis
for Repair and Adaptation
Muscle protein synthesis plays a large role in the adapta-
tion to or recovery from most exercise bouts because it
encompasses the synthesis of new myofibrillar tissue in
response to resistance exercise, the repair of damaged
tissue, and the synthesis of sarcoplasmic and mitochon-
drial proteins in response to endurance or intermittent
high-intensity exercise (Burd et al., 2009). Although most
of the research has concentrated on resistance exercise,
it is assumed that a similar response also occurs to other
forms of exercise, with the ensuing cascade of protein
synthesis targeting the specific proteins that contribute
to that particular activity. In the period immediately after
exercise, there is a substantial increase in rates of muscle
protein synthesis, especially in trained individuals (Tang
et al., 2008), that may persist until at least 24 hr afterward
(Burd et al., 2011). However, although exercise reduces
the degree of negative protein balance that occurs between
meals, the response remains negative (i.e., breakdown >
synthesis) unless the athlete consumes a source of protein
(Biolo et al., 1997) or, more specifically, the essential
amino acids (Tipton et al., 1999). Dose–response stud-
ies have identified that the maximal protein synthetic
response to a resistance exercise bout is achieved with the
intake of approximately 20–25 g of high-quality protein
(Moore et al., 2009), although this figure might need to
 Table 2  Guidelines for Postexercise Rehydration
Strategies • Have a supply of fluids on hand that are palatable, suited to the conditions, and suited to other recov-
to Maximize ery nutrition needs of the athlete
Rehydration • When the fluid deficit is moderate to large (e.g., >2 L) and the rehydration period is less than 6–8 hr,
have a planned fluid intake based on the deficit that needs to be replaced.
o Typically, the difference between preexercise and postexercise weight provides a quick guide to
the fluid deficit (approximately 1 kg = 1 L), although there are some variations to this guideline if
the athlete commenced the exercise session over- or underhydrated or if the session was sufficiently
lengthy to involve loss of body mass from fuel substrates (glycogen, fat).
o It may require the intake of a volume of fluid that is approximately 125% of the estimated deficit
to allow for ongoing fluid losses (urine losses, continued sweat losses)
• Start to consume fluids soon after the session finishes and aim to consume the target volume over
the next 2–4 hr. When practical, it is best to spread fluids over this period rather than drink large vol-
umes quickly. Such a pattern is better for gastrointestinal comfort as well as to maximize retention via
smaller urine losses.
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• Replace the electrolytes lost in sweat at the same time as consuming fluids because this will maintain
thirst and also maximize fluid retention via smaller urine losses. This can be achieved either by choos-
ing fluids with added electrolytes (principally sodium) or by consuming salt-rich foods at the same
time.
• Avoid excessive intake of alcohol because it is counterproductive to recovery goals and the diuretic
effect of alcohol is likely to reduce the effectiveness of rehydration
Suitable Choices Fluid preferences should be personalized to the individual athlete; useful ideas include the following:
for Proactive • In the case of recovery from prolonged exercise, choosing flavor variants that are different from
Rehydration those offered during the session (offers an alternative to flavor fatigue)
• In the case of extreme conditions, serving fluids at a palatable temperature (e.g., cool fluids in hot
weather; warm fluids in cold conditions)
When the athlete’s total energy needs are low, low energy fluids include
• Water, low-energy soft drinks, and mineral waters
If simultaneous electrolyte (salt) replacement is needed to help minimize urine losses and replace
large sweat electrolyte losses (note that it is unnecessary to consume excessive amounts of salt;
rather, add a small amount scaled to the salt loss from sweat)
• Fluid can be consumed with meals or snacks that include salt-rich foods (e.g., breads, breakfast
cereals, crackers, cheese, preserved meats) or have been seasoned with added salt.
• Fluids containing salt include oral rehydration solutions or specialized high-electrolyte sports
drinks.
Other recovery nutrients may be provided via fluid choices:
• Protein (milk and sweetened milks, protein shakes, fruit smoothies, soups containing milk or
meats)
• Carbohydrate (sweetened milks, fruit smoothies, liquid meal supplements, soups containing pasta
or legumes, fruit juices, sports drinks)
Because cola drinks, tea, and coffee can provide a valuable source of fluid, and low levels of caffeine
have minimal impact on hydration, it is unnecessary to totally avoid these drinks.
Benefits • Quickly restores hydration status for next demanding workout or event
When Should it be • After sessions that cause large sweat losses when the athlete is backing up for another session in 8 hr
Undertaken? or less and will be exercising in hot conditions
Disadvantages • May encourage the athlete to consume more energy than needed (leading to weight gain) if the
energy content of fluids is not accounted for
• May cause gastrointestinal discomfort or the need for urination if large volumes of fluid are con-
sumed quickly. Excessive rehydration at the end of the day may cause interruption to sleep if the ath-
lete needs to urinate during the night.
• May cause the athlete to overconsume salt in contradiction to community health guidelines if unnec-
essary sodium replacement is undertaken to promote fluid retention
When is it • Just before bed; otherwise the athlete risks interrupting sleep because of overnight toilet visits. It may
Expendable? be preferable to drink a little before bed, then rehydrate in the morning
• When fluid losses are mild and further sessions are undertaken in cool conditions.
Note. Adapted from Burke (2014).

431
 432  Burke and Mujika
be scaled to the varying body sizes of athletes (i.e., 0.3
g/kg body mass). Protein consumed in excess of this
threshold stimulates increased rates of irreversible protein
oxidation and is considered wasteful (Moore et al., 2009).
Consuming protein immediately after resistance exercise
achieves an increase in muscle protein synthesis that is
still evident in the 24-hr picture of net protein balance
(Tipton et al., 2003), and even when total protein intake
over the day is the same, the optimal timing of postexer-
cise protein intake achieves greater increases in lean mass
and strength (Hartman et al., 2007; Josse et al., 2010). The
preferred pattern of intake over the rest of the day should
probably involve a series of meals or snacks every 3–5 hr
providing about 20–25 g of protein rather than frequent
feedings of smaller protein doses or infrequent meals
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with larger protein doses (Areta et al., 2013). Consuming
protein just before bed may also be valuable because it
can increase muscle protein synthesis at a time when it
would otherwise be low (Res et al., 2012).
The important characteristics of protein-rich foods
appear to be the digestibility of the food and its content
of essential amino acids, especially leucine. High-quality
protein-rich foods such as milk (or whey), eggs, and meat
are all associated with significant increases in muscle
protein synthesis after exercise (Tang et al., 2009). In
the period immediately after exercise, at least, there
is superior muscle protein synthesis with the intake of
proteins that are rapidly digested to provide a rapid rise
in plasma leucine concentrations; this includes whey pro-
tein, a rapidly digested (“fast”) protein and liquid protein
forms (West et al., 2011). However, there may be other
alternatives such as an earlier timing of intake of more
slowly digested proteins and an increased serving size
to achieve higher plasma leucine concentrations from a
flatter digestion response (Burke et al., 2012). More work
is needed to characterize the response to real foods and
mixed meals. Again, in considering the effect of other
activities often undertaken after exercise, there is recent
evidence that the acute intake of alcohol impairs muscle
protein synthesis (Parr et al., 2014). The issues related
to postexercise protein synthesis, including suitable food
and fluid choices, are summarized in Table 3.
Staying Healthy and Injury Free
A single bout of exercise causes immune, inflammatory,
and antioxidant responses, with chronic exercise (i.e.,
training) promoting adaptations in the systems involved.
Unlike the previously discussed issues of postexercise
recovery, specific nutritional strategies to promote or
preserve optimal antioxidant and immune function in
athletes are not well described. Because of the lack of
specific guidelines on nutrient goals for inflammatory
responses and antioxidant health, this article is limited to
a few brief comments. The reader is referred to the Pyne
et al. (2014) article for further discussion of immune
system support.
The body’s antioxidant system is a complicated
arrangement, with exercise causing an acute increase
in oxidative stress, which stimulates an upregulation of
the endogenous antioxidant system, whereas excessive
oxidative stress can cause an acute impairment of exercise
capacity or performance (Reid, 2008). However, attempts
to enhance recovery by supplementation with additional
antioxidants, at least when the approach is to take large
doses of single antioxidants such as vitamins C and E,
may actually have detrimental rather than useful effects.
For example, there is potential for antioxidant supple-
ments to behave as pro-oxidants if taken in excess or in
ways that unbalance the antioxidant network. Chronic
supplementation with vitamin E (Teixeira et al., 2009) or
vitamin C (Gomez-Cabrera et al., 2008), in combination
with endurance training, has been shown to increase the
oxidative stress or damage or the inflammatory response
to a single or chronic exercise scenario. In addition, if
adaptations to the training stimulus are achieved through
pathways involving oxidative processes (i.e., free radical
production), antioxidant supplementation may reduce the
magnitude of the response. Indeed, several studies have
shown that supplementation with vitamins C and E can
blunt the response to training (Gomez-Cabrera et al.,
2008; Ristow et al., 2009).
Recent recognition that vitamins and other food
chemicals interact with the cellular events that underpin
training adaptation has stimulated several new areas of
research. Such interest has largely been driven by the
discovery of a broad range of bioactive but non-nutritive
substances in plant sources, including fruits, vegetables,
grains, herbs, and spices; these include compounds such
as quercetin, resveratrol ,and epigallocatechin-3-gallate.
Collectively, these compounds are known as phytochemi-
cals, and although many are well recognized for their
antioxidant properties, their bioactivity may be achieved
via a multitude of mechanisms. To date, the literature
involving the effect of supplementation with individual
phytochemicals on recovery and adaptation to training
is mixed, although supplementation with cocktails or
mixtures of these chemicals may provide more encourag-
ing results. Therefore, at the present time, the only sup-
portable guideline is that athletes should consume diets
high in food sources of phytochemicals and antioxidants
including a range of highly colored fruits and vegetables.
Finally, exercise that is unusually prolonged, strenu-
ous, or both typically leads to muscle damage, delayed-
onset muscle soreness, and a temporary loss of muscle
function. This outcome is well described after eccentri-
cally based muscle contraction, as found in the resistance
training and other land-based cross-training activities
included in the programs of many aquatic athletes.
Despite the relative absence of an eccentric component
in swimming activities, muscle soreness is also a typical
complaint of aquatic athletes during periods of heavy
training or competition. Several dietary strategies have
been suggested to try to prevent or treat muscle damage
or soreness and enhance the return of function. Protein
 Recovery in Aquatic Sports   433

Table 3  Guidelines for Postexercise Protein Synthesis

Strategies to Maximize • Consume a high-quality protein-rich food providing approximately 20–25 g of protein soon after
Muscle Protein Syn- the exercise session has finished. These targets might need to be expanded (e.g., 15–40 g) to account
thesis for the extreme range in athlete body size and muscle mass.
• Plan a pattern of snacks and meals to suit energy needs and other nutritional goals and lifestyle
needs that incorporates this optimal protein serving every 3–5 hr.
• Include a protein-rich snack or meal before bed to allow protein synthesis to remain optimized
overnight.
Suitable Choices Food sources of high-quality protein (providing approximately 10 g protein) include
for Proactive Muscle • 2 small eggs
Protein Synthesis
• 25 g skim milk powder
• 300 ml milk (full fat, reduced fat, skim)
• 30 g (1.5 slices) of reduced fat cheese or 70 g cottage cheese
• 200-g carton low-fat fruit yogurt or 100–120 g Greek-style yogurt
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• 250 ml low-fat custard

• 35–40 g lean beef, lamb, chicken, or pork (cooked weight)
• 50 g grilled fish or canned tuna or salmon
• 120 g tofu or soy meat
• 400 ml soy milk
Sports foods and supplements providing 10 g protein include
• 10-15 g high protein powder or protein hydrolysate
• 120–150 ml liquid meal supplement
• 20–30 g high-protein sports bar
Rapidly digested protein sources (liquid based, high in whey) that are particularly suitable for a
postexercise protein boost include
• Milk, flavored milk, milk shakes, dairy–fruit smoothies (especially skim-milk boosted)
• Yogurt and custard
• Whey-based protein drinks or liquid meal supplements
Benefits • Maximizes muscle protein synthetic response to exercise to promote adaptations to the training
stimulus. Note that the elevated response lasts at least 24 hr
When Should Proactive • After competitive events or key training sessions (resistance sessions, high-intensity sessions) in
Protein Nutrition be which there is a major exercise stimulus or the occurrence of muscle damage
Practiced? • When gains in muscle mass and size are a priority
Disadvantages • May encourage the athlete to think that expensive protein supplements are necessary
• May require a reorganization of eating practices because most Western diets tend to be heavily
loaded with protein at the evening meal rather than equally spread over the day.
When is it Expendable? • When sessions are light or low in intensity and unlikely to promote great adaptation, and it does
not suit the athlete’s practical opportunities or energy restraints to include another food opportunity.
In such a case, the athlete may not need to schedule a specific protein snack immediately after the
session but may still continue with an even spread of protein over the day to suit larger goals.
• If maximized protein-based recovery is desired but restricted energy requirements do not allow
extra intake of food in the day, the athlete should consider changing the timing of training so that
an existing meal can be consumed just after the workout to promote the enhanced protein synthetic
response.
Note. Adapted from Burke 2014)

intake immediately after the session, or even during the
workout, might reduce this phenomenon, with mecha-
nisms including a reduction in protein catabolism and an
increase in postexercise muscle protein synthesis. Such
investigations have included both positive (Cockburn et
al., 2008) and unremarkable (Wojcik et al., 2001) results
because of, at least in part, differences in the exercise
stress, markers of muscle damage and inflammation,
time course of recovery, and protocols to measure muscle
function and performance. Other approaches include
supplementation with phytochemical substances includ-
ing those found in spices (e.g., curcumin; Davis et al.,
 434  Burke and Mujika
2007) and various exotic species berries and cherries
(Bell et al., 2013). Again, it is premature to make defini-
tive recommendations, and the literature recognizes a
complex interplay between anti- and proinflammatory
responses that underpin the recovery from and adapta-
tion to training.
Conclusions
Recovery after strenuous exercise involves an array of
processes that are influenced by the timing and quantity
of intake of key nutrients. In some cases (e.g., protein
synthesis), the stimulus for recovery is strongest in the
period immediately after exercise and a lack of nutritional
support at this time will reduce the total response to exer-
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cise. In other cases, there is no effective recovery until
the nutrients are supplied and when the rate at which the
recovery process is slow (e.g., glycogen synthesis), and
there is a limited time period between exercise sessions,
the delay in supplying nutrients may cause a substantial
reduction in the return to optimal function for the subse-
quent session. Guidelines for postexercise practices that
optimize refueling, rehydration, and protein synthesis can
be given, but must be customized to each session and to
the goals of the individual athlete. Future research may
identify similar guidelines for other processes involved
in recovery, such as antioxidant, inflammatory, and
immune responses. The fascinating idea that adaptation
to an exercise stimulus and restoration of optimal func-
tion are overlapping but different processes may also
lead to a different set of nutrition practices to promote a
smarter way to train.
Acknowledgments
We declare no conflicts of interest in the preparation of this
article. The contribution of Gregory Cox, Greg Shaw, and Trent
Stellingwerff in the development of Figure 1 is acknowledged.
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