Nirmal Traininig RUB The GOLD

“RUB THE GOLD”
A training program on basics of CGD

Network
INTENTION & OUTCOME
INTENTION
To provide gas Engineering basic knowledge
which may take a year by on the job learning.
OUTCOME
Participant becomes an expert in applying
y g
basic gas engineering principles in his day
to day
y work.
GAS PROPERTIES
Gas Properties
GAS PROPERTIES
Gas Properties
• What Is Pressure?
• Force Per Unit Area
• Units Of Pressure?
• Kg/Cm2, Bar, Atmospheres, PSI, mmWC, mmHg
• 1 Atmosphere = 1.013 Bar
• 1 Atmosphere = 1.033 Kg/Cm2
• 1 Atmosphere = 14.7 PSI
• 1 Kg/Cm2 = 10,000 mm WC
• 1 mm Hg = 13.7 mm WC
• Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmosphere Pressure

GAS PROPERTIES
Gas Properties
• Units Of Temperature?
• Degree C, Degree Kelvin, Degree Faranheit, Degree Reinkin
• Degree K = Degree C + 273
• Degree R = 9/5 x Degree C + 491.69
• Degree F = 5/9 x Degree C + 32
• 1 Meter = 3.29 Feet, 1 Meter2 = 10.28 Feet 2

• 1 Meter3 = 35.3 Feet3
• 1 Meter3 = 1000 Litres
• Density = Mass per Unit Volume

• Units:- Kg / M3, Gms / Litre
• Specific Gravity of Gas = Density of Gas / Density of Air

• Specific Gravity of Liquid = Density of Liquid/Density of water
GAS PROPERTIES
Gas Properties
• Molecular Weight of Gas

• Molecular Weight of Methane (CH4) = 16
• Gram Mole:- Mass of gas that occupies 22.4 litres volume at

atmospheric pressure.
• This mass is molecular weight of gas in grams (eg. For Methane
mass of 18 grams is one gram mole).
• Molecular weight of air = 28.9; therefore one gram mole of Air

(which occupies 22.4 litres of volume) has mass of 28.9
• Thus specific gravity of gas can also be found by ratio of molecular

weight of gas to molecular weight of Air
GAS PROPERTIES
Gas Properties
• Exercise
• Convert 1.5 Kg/Cm2 in to mm WC, mm Hg, KPa, MPa, Bar,

Atmospere
• Convert 100 Degree C to ‘F, ‘R,’K
• Convert -40 ‘F to ‘C, ‘R and ‘K
• Gram Mole:- Mass of gas that occupies 22.4 litres volume at

atmospheric pressure.
• This mass is molecular weight of gas in grams (eg. For

Methane mass of 18 grams is one gram mole)
GAS PROPERTIES
Gas Properties
Gas Equation : PV = m RT
Boyles Law : P1V1=P2V2

at Constant temp.
Charles law : V1/T1=V2/T2

at Constant Pressure
GAS PROPERTIES
Gas Properties
NTP - Normal Temperature Pressure

0 Degree C :-Temperature
1 atm :- pressure
STP - Standard Temperature Pressure

60 Degree F :-Temperature
1 atm :-Pressure
GAS PROPERTIES
Gas Properties
Flow 100 NM3/Hr = _______SM3/Hr

Start Case
P1=6 Kg/Cm2,
P2=0, IV is closed
P1 P2 What will be the
pressure indicated
by P1 & P2 when
IV is opened and
1 M3 1 M3 steady state is
reached?
GAS PROPERTIES
Gas Properties
Start Case
P1=5 Kg/Cm2,
P2=0, IV is closed
P1 P2 What will be the
pressure indicated
by P1 & P2 when
IV is opened and
1 M3 3 M3 steady state is
reached?
GAS PROPERTIES
Gas Properties
• A Vehicle comes in to a CNG station

for refueling.
• Water fill capacity of cylinder is 50
litres.
Pg • Initial Pressure indicated by gauge Pg
is 49 Barg.
• After filling Pg indicates 199 Barg.
• Sp. Gravity of CNG is 0.6
• If gas is sold at Rs. 25/Kg, How much
money, the vehicle owner should be
charged / billed by the gas co.?
Vehicle CNG
Cylinder
GAS PROPERTIES
Gas Properties (Velocity)
Flow Units :
NM3 / Hr SCMH SCMD aM3/Hr
Gas Vel. (m/s) = Flow in am³/ s

Pipe cross section Area in m²
GAS PROPERTIES
P1 P2
M1 M2
PRV
• PRV reduces gas pressure P1 = 19 Barg at its inlet to pressure P2 = 4 Barg at

its outlet. Volumetric flow meter, (Turbine or RPD Meter) M1 at inlet of PRV
measures flow of 100 M3/Hr. What will the flow measured by the volumetric flow
meter M2 at the outlet of PRV M2, considering no change in gas temperature?
GAS PROPERTIES
• Find out gas velocity in following cases

a) In the previous example, considering pipe line size of 50 mm
Internal Diameter, both at inlet and outlet of PRV, what will be the
gas velocity at inlet of PRV and what will be the gas velocity at the
outlet of PRV considering gas temperature of 60 Degree F
through out.
b) Gas Flow of 1 MMSCMD through a 10” pipe line having pipe ID of
250 mm; at line pressure = 49 Barg and Gas temperature 20
Degree Centigrade.
c) Find out gas velocity for case b) with gas temperature 40 Degree
C
2. PRESSURE REGULATORS
PRESSURE REGULATORS
• What is Pressure Regulator?

• What is Self Actuated Pressure Control
Valve?
• What are the types of regulator?
• What are the applications of regulator in your
field?
PRESSURE REGULATORS
Three Essential Elements
• Restricting
g Element
– Valve
• Measuring Element
– Diaphragm, Bourdon Tube, Gauge
• Loading Element
– Person,
Person Weight
Weight, Spring
PRESSURE REGULATORS
PRESSURE REGULATORS
PRESSURE REGULATORS
PRESSURE REGULATORS
PRESSURE REGULATORS
PRESSURE REGULATORS
PRESSURE REGULATORS
PRESSURE REGULATORS
PRESSURE REGULATORS
Direct Acting Regulator

PRESSURE REGULATORS
Typical Direct Acting Regulator - SERIES DM

PRESSURE REGULATORS
Pilot Loading Regulator

PRESSURE REGULATORS
Typical Pilot Loading Regulator – SERIES DP/3000

PRESSURE REGULATORS
Pilot Loading Two-Path Control Regulator

PRESSURE REGULATORS
Pilot Loading Two-Path Control Regulator

REGULATOR TYPES
• DOWNSTREAM PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES

(Pressure Regulators)
• UPSTREAM PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES

(B k P
(Back Pressure R
Regulators)
l t )
TYPES
•Direct
Direct acting
•Pressure loaded
•Pilot operated
• PRESSURE AND VACUUM RELIEF VALVES

• ZERO GOVERNORS & RATIO REGULATORS
• SAFETY SHUT OFF VALVES
TYPES OF ‘NIRMAL’ REGULATORS
DIRECT ACTING REGULATORS

DOWNSTREAM PRESSURE REGULATOR
• DM/SERIES : MEDIUM PRESSURE
• DL/SERIES : LOW PRESSURE
• D61/SERIES : LEVER TYPE LOW PRESSURE
UPSTREAM / BACK PRESSURE REGULATOR
• BP/SERIES : SELF OPERATED BACK PRESSURE

TYPES OF ‘NIRMAL’ REGULATORS
BALANCED TRIM REGULATORS

• DMB/SERIES : INTERNAL IMPULSE SENSING
• DB/SERIES : EXTERNAL IMPULSE SENSING
PILOT OPERATED REGULATORS

DOWNSTREAM REGULATOR
DP/3000-SERIES : SINGLE PILOT OPERATED
• D52/SERIES : TWO STAGE PILOT OPERATED
UPSTREAM / BACK PRESSURE REGULATOR
• PB/SERIES : SINGLE PILOT OPERATED

Working Principles of Regulators
Performance
Set Point
Capacity
Droop Performance:
P f
We can plot the performance of an ideal regulator
such that no matter how the demand changes,
Accuracy
y
our regulator will match that demand (within it’s
it s
capacity limits) with no change in the downstream
Lockup pressure (p2). This straight line performance
becomes the standard against which we can
measure the performance of a real regulator.
Performance
Set Point
Capacity
Droop
Set Point
The constant pressure desired is represented by the
Accuracy
y
set point.
point But no regulator is ideal
ideal. The downward
sloping line on the diagram represents pressure (p2)
Lockup plotted as a function of flow for an actual direct
p
operated regulator.
g The set p
point is determined by
y the
initial compression of the regulator spring.
Performance
Set Point
Capacity
Droop
Accuracy
y Capacity
C
Capacities
i i published
bli h d bby regulator
l manufacturers
f
are given for different amounts of droop.
Lockup
Performance
Set Point
Capacity
Droop Droop
Droop proportional band, and offset are terms
Accuracy
y used to describe the phenomenon of p2 drooping
below set point as flow increases. Droop is the
amount of deviation from set point at a given flow,
Lockup expressed as a percentage of set point. This
“Droop” curve
c r e is important to a user
ser beca
because
se it
indicates regulating (useful) capacity.
Performance
Set Point
Capacity
Droop
Accuracy
Accuracy
y The Accuracy of a regulator is determined by the
amount of flow it can pass for a given amount of
droop. The closer the regulator is to the ideal
Lockup regulator curve (set point), the more accurate it is.
Performance
Set Point
Capacity
Droop
Lockup
Lockup is the pressure above set point that is
Accuracy
y
required to shut off the regulator tight
tight. Some extra
pressure p2 is required to force the soft disc into
Lockup the metalic seat to make a tight seal. The amount
of extra pressure required is lockup pressure
pressure.
Working Principle of Back Pr.

Regulator
Performance
Set Point
Capacity
Built-up Built - up
The regulator maintains the pressure of the fluid at its inlet.
Reset point They do not allow the fluid to pass through them when the
pressure is equal to or less than required pressure. It will
open when it crosses the ‘set point’ and flow through it is
proportional to the rise in pressure above set point. The
percentage rise in pressure
press re for rated flow
flo to take place is
termed as built-up.
Working Principle of Back Pr.

Regulator
Performance
Set Point
Capacity
Built-up
Reset point Tight

g shut off
When the inlet pressure reduces, the flow through the
regulator drops and the regulator closes tight shut-off
when pressure is below the set point. The percentage
drop in pressure below set point can be termed as
blow down accuracy.
Regulators
g Vs Control Valves
REGULATORS CONTROL VALVES

1 C
1. Costt iis llower d
due tto b
built
ilt iin 1 C
1. Costt iis hi
higher
h d due tto external
t l
controller feature controller, transmitter
2. Simple in construction & 2. Complex operation due to
handling is easy various instruments &
handling is difficult
3. Low maintenance due to no 3. Substantial maintenance due
accessory fitted to accessories fitted
4. Set point must be set at 4. Set point is set at controller
regulator location
5. Interchangeability
g y for different 5. Interchangeability
g y between
service condition is not few conditions is possible
possible
6. Remote manual control is not 6. Remote manual control is
possible (now this is possible) possible
Comparison: Pilot operated Vs. Direct Acting
PILOT OPERATED Vs DIRECT ACTING

(SPRING LOADED)
1) Better accuracy-Less droop 1) Poor accuracy - More droop
2) High Flow Capacity for given Size
2) Low Flow Capacity for a given Size
3) Wide set pressure ranges available
with various pilots 3) Limited set pressure range
3. PED/97/23/EC / EN334
COMPLIANCE
First In India to get

CE Marking for
Gas Pressure Regulators –
EN334 &
Slam Shut Valves –
EN14382
3. PED/97/23/EC COMPLIANCE (CE – Marking)
CE MARKING
•A precondition for placing of a product on the market of the

European Economic Area (EEA).(EEA)
•Indicates that the product conforms to the legal provisions &
EHSR’s ( Essential Health & Safety Requirements).
•. Conformity to all obligations for the product under relevant
directive or directives.
• Affixed byy the manufacturer,, Is a declaration of the
manufacturer that all legal provisions are fulfilled and for
which he takes full responsibility. Followed by the identification
number of notified body involved in production control phase
phase.
•Affixed on the product / data plate, packaging, documentation.
Direct Acting
g Regulators
g
These regulators operate on simple principle of force balance. A downward

opening force is exerted by the actuator spring,
spring which is balance by the upward
force exerted by the controlled outlet pressure.
Refer Figure :-1, EN-334,
Pilot Operated
p Regulators
g
These regulators comprises of spring actuated pilot regulator that applies loading
pressure on top
p p of the main valve diaphragm.
p g
EN-334 Performance Curve indicating

l k
lock-up pressure zone
Pd Terminology;
Pd : Outlet Pressure
Pds(1+SG/100) Q : Volumetric Flow rate
Pds(1+AC/100) Pds : Set Point
Pds AC : Accuracy Class
Pds(1-AC/100) SG : Lock up Press. Class
SZ : Lock up Press. Zone
Qmin,pu Qmax,pu Q
Key
1 Lock-up pressure zone
EN-334 Performance Curve indicating

lock up pressure zone
lock-up
Lock-uppppressure zone
Zone between the volumetric flow rate Q=0 and the minimum flow rate Qmin,pu
for each corresponding inlet pressure and set point
SZ : Class of lock-up pressure zone

Maximum permissible lock-up pressure zone for specified
- Inlet pressure Pu or inlet pressure range bpu
- Set
S t point
i t Pds
Pd or specific
ifi sett range Wds
Wd or sett range Wd
Which is expressed as the percentage of Qmin,pu to Qmax,pu i.e.
SZ = Qmin,pu
Q ,p x 100
Qmax,pu
EN-334 Family of Performance Curves indicating

maximum
a u accu
accuracy
acy flow
o rates
ates a
and
d minimum
u flow
o
rates (Pds constant, stable conditions)
Terminology;
Pd : Outlet Pressure
Pd
Q : Volumetric Flow rate
Pds : Set Point
AC : Accuracy Class
Pds(1+SG/100) SG : Lock up Press. Class
SZ : Lock up Press. Zone
Pds(1+AC/100)
Pds
Pds(1-AC/100)
Pu min Pu Pu max
Qmax,pu min Qmax,pu Q

Qmin,pu Qmax,pu min Qmax,pu max
Qmin,pu min
= Qmax with the control member at the limit imposed by the mechanical stop
EN-334 Family of Performance Curves indicating

maximum accuracy flow rates and minimum flow rates
(Pd constant,
(Pds t t stable
t bl conditions)
diti )
Pf: Lock up pressure

Pressure that occurs at the measuring point of the controlled variable when the
control member is in the closed position
SG Lock-up
SG: oc up p pressure
essu e cclass
ass
Maximum permissible positive difference between the actual lock-up pressure and
the set point expressed as a percentage of the set point
e.g.
SG = Pf – Pds x 100
Pds
AC : Accuracy Class
Maximum permissible value of the accuracy. (Accuracy is average, expressed as
a percentage of the set point, of the absolute maximum values of the positive and
negative control deviation within the operating range)
Accuracy class - AC
The Regulator shall conform to accuracy requirements relevant to the declared

accuracy class(es) chosen from table 10 of EN 334
Accuracy Class Permissible positive & negative regulation change
AC 1 ±1%a
AC 2.5 ± 2.5 % a
AC 5 ±5%
AC 10 ± 10 %
AC 20 ± 20 %
AC 30 ± 30 %
But not lower than ±1 mbar

Lock-up pressure class - SG
The Regulator shall conform to lock up pressure requirements relevant to the

declared class chosen from table 11 of EN 334
Lock-up Permissible positive regulation change within

pressure Class the lock-up pressure zone
SG 2.5 2.5 % a
SG 5 5%a
SG 10 10 %
SG 20 20 %
SG 30 30 %
SG 50 50 %
But not lower than ±1 mbar

Lock-up pressure zone class - SZ
The Regulator shall conform to lock up pressure zone requirements relevant to the
declared class(es) chosen from table 12 of EN 334
Class of lock-up Limit value of the lock-up pressure zone as a

pressure zone percentage
SZ 2.5
25 25%
2.5
SZ 5 5%
SZ 10 10 %
SZ 20 20 %
EN-334 TYPE TEST RESULTS
SIZE.: 50 NB
Accuracy class & Lock up Pressure class
RATING.: 150 #
OUTLET PRESSURE Pu
2.0000
Pu Max(19 Barg)
1.8000
Pu Avg Increasing
(10.7 Barg)
1.6000
Pu Min (2.5 Barg)
1.4000
Outlet Pressurre Pd in Barg
Pu Avg Decreasing
(10.7 Barg)
1.2000
1.0000
0.8000
Outlet Pressure : 1.5 Barg
0.6000
0.4000 Accuracy Class.:1.01
0.2000
Lock up Pressure Class.:5.14
0.0000
0 50 200 500 800 1000 1200 1500 1700 1900
3
Q in Nm /Hr
EN-334 TYPE TEST RESULTS
SIZE.: 40 NB Accuracy class & Lock up Pressure class Test

RATING.: 300 # INLET PRESSURE Pu
3.5000
Pu Max(49.4 Barg)
3.4000
PuAvg(22.7 Barg)
3.3000
Outlet Pressurre P d in Barg
3.2000 Pu Min (5.0 Barg)
3.1000
Pu (Avg 22.7 Barg)
3 0000
3.0000
2.9000
2.8000 Outlet Pressure : 3 Barg
2.7000
Accuracy Class.:0.855
2.6000
2.5000 Lock Up Class.:3.42

0 50 200 300 500 650 850 1000 1150 1250 1652
3
Q in Nm /Hr
SUMMARY OF TESTS AND REQUIREMENTS

(f G
(for Gas Pressure
P Regulator
R l t as per EN-334)
EN 334)
Sr. No. Requirement Clause TITLE Test Clause
Construction Tests
1 4.1 Dimensional Check and visual inspection 7.7.1
2 4.2 Materials check 7.7.2
Verification of the strength of pressure containing parts and inner metallic partition 7.7.3
3 4.3
walls
4 5.2.1 Shell and inner metallic partition walls strength test 7.7.4
5 5.2.2 External tightness test 7.7.6
Functional Tests
6 6.6 Determination of the flow coefficients 7.7.7.2
7 523
5.2.3 Check
Ch k off iinternall S
Sealing,
li setting,
i llock-up
k pressure and
d simplified
i lifi d test method
h d ffor 7773
7.7.7.3
accuracy class (Routine test)
8 5.3.1.1 AND 5.3.3 Determination of a performance curve and verification of the hysteresis band 7.7.7.4.2
9 5.2.3 Determination of the lock-up pressure and verification of the internal sealing 7.7.7.4.3
10 5.3 Determination of the accuracy class, the locl-up pressure class, the class lock-up 7.7.7.4.4
pressure zone, the maximum accuracy flow rate and the minimum flow rate related to a
given range of inlet pressures.
11 5.3.2.1 Operational check at the limit temperatures of -10 °C or -20 °C and 60 °C 7.7.7.4.5
12 Optional Methods for measuring the sound pressure level 7.7.7.4.6

13 5.4 Final visual inspection after type test 7.7.8.1
14 7.7.8.2 Final Visual inspection after routine tests and production surveillance 7.7.8.2
SAFETY SHUT OFF DEVICE
The device
Th d i whoseh ffunction
ti isi tto stay
t ini the
th open position
iti under
d normall
operating conditions and to shut-off the gas flow automatically and completely
when the monitored pressure exceeds the pre-set values (over-pressure and/or
p
under-pressure) )
Main components of device comprises of controller, trip mechanism,

actuator, closing member and relatching device permitting the manual
opening of device

Accuracy Group : Maximum permissible absolute value of trip pressure deviation.

Trip Pressure Deviation : Deviation of the actual value of the trip from its set value
as a percentage of the set value
The trip pressure deviation for device shall conform to following accuracy groups as
per EN 14382
Accuracy Group Permissible deviation
AG 1 ±1%a
AG 2.5 ± 2.5 % a
AG 5 ±5%a
AG 10 ± 10 % a
AG 20 ± 20 % b
AG 30 ± 30 % b
a Or 1 mbar, whichever is greater
b For set value < 200 mbar only
SUMMARY OF TESTS AND REQUIREMENTS

(f G
(for Gas Safety
S f t shut-off
h t ff ddevices
i as per EN
EN-14382)
14382)
Sr. Requirement
TITLE Test Clause
No. Clause
Construction Tests
1 4.1 Dimensional Check and visual inspection 7.1
2 4.2 Materials check 7.2
3 4.3 Verification of the strength of pressure containing parts and inner metallic partition walls 7.3
4 4.1.10 Verification of the strength of parts transmitting actuating forces 7.4

Functional Tests
5 5.2.1 Shell and inner metallic partition walls strength test 7.5
6 5.2.2 External tightness Test 7.7
7 5.2.3 Internal Sealing test 7.8
8 5.3 Test at ambient temperature 7.9.2
9 5.3 Test at the limit temperature -20 °C or -10 °C or 60 °C 7.9.3
10 5.3 Verification of the upper limit of highest set range 7.9.4
11 5.4 Response time 7.10
12 5.5 Relatching difference and unlatching 7.11
13 5.6 Closing force 7.12
14 5.7 Endurance and accelerated ageing 7.13
15 5.8 Verification of the strength of the trip mechanism, valve seat and closing member against dynamic 7.15
impact
16 5.9 Determination of the flow coefficient 7.9.5
17 5.10 Final visual inspection after type test 7.16.1
18 7.16.2 Final visual inspection after routine test and production surveillance 7.16.2
Other Regulator Manufacturers
• Emerson Process Management

• RMG, Germany y
• Pietro Fiorentini, Italy
• Gorter Controls
Controls, Netherlands
• Valvitalia, Italy (Tormene)
• Dresser Controls, USA
Difference between Top entry &
Axial flow Regulators
Axial Flow Regulator

Top Entry Regulator 1 High capacity (Cg)
1.
1.Easy maintenance
2. Low Diff. pressure & Droop
2. Higher Diff. Pressure
3. Low cost
Pietro Fiorentini, Italy
Products range:
- Full range of top entry,
integrated slam shuts,
integrated monitors, low
noise, high accuracy
Reflux 819
R
Regulators
l t Aperflux
851
-Commercial &
domestic range of
Regulators
Dival 250
Reval 182 Norval

RMG, Germany
Transmission / City Gate / Town Border Station
RMG 512 RMG 503 RMG 502 RMG 505

Regulator Selection
Considerations
• Cost (initial vs. life cycle)
• Reliability-maintenance interval
• Stability/turndown capability
• Ease of maintenance
• Pressure rating, inlet & outlet
• Shutoff class & reliability
• Accuracyy & speed
p requirements
q
• Appropriate fail action
• Options materials, noise trims
Options—materials
Factors Affecting Regulator
Reliability
• Gas qquality
ypparticles, water, heavy
y
hydrocarbons
• High inlet and diff. pressure
• Pressure and load swings
• Noise
N i generationti
• Station design
• Protective equipment
• Regulator design
Noise – Importance for
g
Regulators
• N
Noise:
i Hi
High
h flflow & llarge pressure d
drops
• Regulator is the main source of Noise & Expansion
Area
at more is to be taken while selecting the

regulators.
Obstructions
• Noise above 110 dBA not recommended

Changes In
To Flow
Flow Direction
turb
for regulators
• In India general acceptance of noise
upto 85 dBA at 1 meter distance
distance. Generation Coupling
Radiation
• Velocity across regulator seat should be

less than 150 m/s
Propagation
Noise Reduction Techniques
• Source Treatment
– Staged Reduction (multiple
drops / plates and diffusers)
– Internal Trim (frequency shift)
• Path Treatment
– Silencer or Acoustic Filter
– Bury Piping
– Sound Barriers
– Distance
Path treatment is most widelyy used method in

Regulators due to cost advantage
Over Pressure Protection
• Relief Valves
– Vent gas to atmosphere
– Never shuts off customer
– Automatically resets if pressure event ends
– Size to wide open flow / allow for buildup and set point
• Slam Shuts
– No gas to atmosphere
– Over and under protection
– Shuts off the customer
– Manually reset
– Set outside Accuracy Class (AC) of regulator
Monitors Regulator
• Wide Open & Working Monitors

– Monitor
M it ttakes
k over if working
ki regulator
l t fails
f il
– Working monitors both regulators operating
– Decreases regulator capacity
• Mixing Monitors and Slam Shuts
– Increase safetyy in minimal space
p
REGULATOR
SIZING & SELECTION

INPUT DATA
ESSENTIAL INPUT DATA IS DIVIDED IN TWO CATAGORIES

¾PROCESS DATA
FLIUD & STATE
INLET PRESSUE (MAX & MIN) i.e. P1
OUTLET PRESSURE i.e. P2
FLOW RATE
FLOW
SET PRESSURE
SET PRESSURE RANGE
SET
TEMPERATURE
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
INPUT DATA
¾VALVE DATA
LINE SIZE
END CONNECTION
RATING
FACING & FINISH
BODY MATERIAL
TRIM MATERIAL
IMPULSE CONNECTION (INT & EXT)
SEAT LEAKAGE
REGULATION
Cv : Co-efficient of Flow
Definitions
C : Flow
Cv Fl off water
t ini USGM through
th h the
th valve
l when
h
Pressure drop across the valve is 1 Psi
Kv : Flow of water in M3/Hr through the valve when

Pressure drop across the valve is 1 Kg/cm2
Kv : 1.1684 x Cv
Cg : C1 x Cv
C1 : Valve recovery coefficient

Cg CALCULATION
FORMULAE
Sizing & Selection
Case Study
INPUT DATA
Service Media : Natural Gas ((Sp.
p Gravity
y : d = 0.6))
Inlet Pressure Pu : 15 Barg (16 BarA)
Outlet Pressure Pd : 3 Barg (4 BarA)
Temperature tu : 40°C
Flow rate Q : 20000 Nm³/hr
Nm /hr
Calculate Cg with critical condition as ∆P is 12 which is greater

than 0.5 Pu i.e. 8) thus use formulae
Cg = 2xQx d (tu + 273) _

13.57 x Pu
= 2 x 20000 x 13.70 _
= 2524
13.57 x 16
Sizing & Selection
Case Study
Our calculated Cg = 2524
Based on Cg available model to select is SERIES D53
Referring to catalogue select Cg higher than calculated
check with Table 1

Next higher Cg available is 3000 &
corresponding size of regulator is 3”
From Table 2 exact Model configuration

g is to be selected
Thus, D53/E-1-080-150 is selected for the given parameters

BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
PIPING ELEMENTS
The p
piping
p g system
y is the inter-connected p
piping
p g subject
j to
the same set of design conditions. The piping system
involves not only pipes but also the fittings, valves and other
specialties.
p These items are known as p
piping
p g components.
p
Code specifies the piping components as mechanical
elements suitable for joining or assembly into pressure-tight
fluid-containingg p
piping
p g systems.
y
Components include …
1. Pipes
2. Fittings
3. Flanges
4 Gaskets
4.
5. Bolting
6. Valves
7. Specialties
Piping
p g element is defined as anyy material or work required
q to
plan and install the piping system. Elements of piping include
design specifications, materials, components, supports,
fabrication, inspection and testing.
Piping specification is a document specifying each of the

components.t Different
Diff t material
t i l specifications
ifi ti are segregated
t d in
i
different “Piping Class”. Identification of the “Piping Classes”
depends on each Designer.
Designer
The selection of piping material requires knowledge of corrosion
properties, strength and engineering characteristics, relative cost and
availability.
The Piping Designer selects/designs the piping components based on the

mechanical properties such as the following.
a. Yield strength
b. Ultimate strength
c. Percentage
g elongation
g
d. Impact strength
e. Creep-rupture strength
f. Fatigue endurance strength
PIPING ELEMENTS
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MATERIAL OF

CONSTRUCTION
Metallic Non-Metallic Lined
Ferrous Materials Non-Ferrous Materials

MSGL MSRL MS MS MS MS MS MS FRP
PTFE PP PVDF Cement Lead Ceramic PP
Lined Lined Lined Lined Lined Lined Lined
Copper Aluminium Nickel Lead

+ + +
Copper Aluminium Nickel
Alloys Alloys Alloys
Cast Carbon Alloy Stainless Special PVC CPVC PP HDPE UHMW-HDPE FRP PTFE LDPE LLDPE Glass Ceramic Cement
Iron Steel Carbon Steel Alloys
Steel
PIPING ELEMENTS
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION

Metallic
Ferrous Materials Non-Ferrous Materials
Copper Aluminium Nickel Lead

+ + +
Copper Aluminium Nickel
Alloys Alloys Alloys
Cast Carbon Alloy Stainless Special

Iron Steel Carbon Steel Alloys
Steel
Non-Metallic
PVC CPVC PP HDPE UHMW-HDPE FRP PTFE LDPE LLDPE Glass Ceramic Cement
Lined
MSGL MSRL MS MS MS MS MS MS FRP

PTFE PP PVDF Cement Lead Ceramic PP
Lined Lined Lined Lined Lined Lined Lined
CODE
A group of general rules or systematic procedures for
design, fabrication, installation and inspection prepared in such a
manner that it can be adopted by legal jurisdiction and made into
law.
STANDARDS
Documents pprepared
p by
yapprofessional g
group
p or
committee which are believed to be good and proper engineering
practice and which contain mandatory requirements.
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
Documents prepared by professional group or committee indicating

good engineering practices but which are optional. Companies also develop
Guides in order to have consistency in the documentation
documentation. These cover various
engineering methods which are considered good practices, without specific
recommendation or requirements.
Codes and standards as well as being regulations, might be

considered as “design aids” since they provide guidance from experts. Each
country has its own Codes and Standards
Standards. On global basis
basis, American National
Standards are undoubtedly the most widely used and compliance with those
requirements are accepted world over. In India, other than American Standards,
British Standards and Indian Standards are also used for the design and
selection of equipment and piping systems.
MAJOR ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDS
Sr. No. Country Organization Abbreviation
1. USA American National Standards ANSI

Institute
2. Canada Standards Council of Canada SCC
3
3. France Association Francaise AFNOR
4. United British Standards Institute BSI

Kingdom
5. Europe Committee of European CEN

Normalization
6. Germany Deutsches Institute fur Normung DIN
7. Japan Japanese Industrial Standards JISC

Committee
8. India Bureau of Indian Standards BIS
9. Worldwide International Organization for ISO

Standards
ISO is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies from some 100 countries,
countries one from each country.
country
AMERICAN STANDARDS
1. American Petroleum Institute (API)
2. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
3. American National Standard Institute (ANSI)
4. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
5. American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM)
6. American Welding Society (AWS)
7. American Water Works Association (AWWA)
8
8. Manufacturers
M f t St d di ti Society
Standardization S i t off Valves
V l and
d
Fitting Industry - Standard Practises (MSS-SP)
The American National Standards Institute’s standards used in the design of
the Piping System are as listed. ASME B 31. Code for Pressure piping is at
present a non-mandatory
d code
d ini USA,
USA though
h h they
h are adopted
d d as legal
l l
requirement.
1)ASME
) B 31.1 - Power Piping
p g
2)ASME B 31.2 - Fuel Gas Piping
3)ASME B 31.3
31 3 - Process Piping
4)ASME B 31.4 - Pipeline Transportation

System for liquid hydrocarbon
and
d other
h LiLiquids
id
5)ASME B 31.5 - Refrigeration Piping
6)ASME B 31.8 - Gas Transmission and
Distribution Piping
Systems.
7)ASME B 31.9 - Building Services
Piping
8)ASME B 31.11 - Slurry Transportation
Piping Systems
9)ASME B 31.G
31 G - Manual for determining
the remaining strength
of corroded piping -A
supplement to ASME
B31.
Of the above, the most commonly used code is ASME B31.3. Refineries and
chemical plants are designed based on the same. All power plants are designed as
per ASME B31.1.
The latest editions of code available as of now are
B31.1 2007
B31.2 1968 (see note)
B31.3 2008
B31.4 2006
B31.5 2006
B31.8 2007
B31.9 2008
B31.11 2002
Note : USAS B31.2-1968 was withdrawn as an American National Standard

on February 18,
18 1988.ASME
1988 ASME will continue to make available USAS 31.2
31 2 1968
as a historical document for a period of time.
SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS ACCEPTED BY
ASME B 31
1 ANSI - American National Standard

Institute
2 API - A
American
i P t l
Petroleum I tit t
Institute
3 ASCE - American Society of Civil Engineers
4 ASME - American Society of Mechanical

Engineers
5 ASNT - American Society for Non

destructive Testing
6 ASTM - American Societyy for Testing

g
Materials
8 AWS - American Welding Society
9 CDA - Copper Development Association
10 CGA - Compressed Gas Association
11 EJMA - Expansion Joint Manufactures

Association
12 ICBO - International Conference of Building

Officials (Earlier known as UBC –
Uniform Building Code)
13 MSS - Manufacturers Standardization Society

of the Valve and fitting Industry
14 NACE - National Association of Corrosion

Engineers
15 NFPA - National Fire Protection Association
16 NIST - National Institute of Standards and

Technology (Earlier known as NBS
- National Bureau of Standards)
17 PFI - Pipe
p Fabrication Institute
18 PPI - Plastic Pipe Institute
19 SAE - Society of Automotive Engineers

API STANDARDS
The generally referred API standards by the Piping Engineers are :
1) API 5L - Specification for Line Pipe
2) API 6D - Pipe line Valves,

Valves End closures
closures,
Connectors and Swivels.
3) API 6F - Recommended Practice for Fire Test for

valves.
valves
4) API 593 - Ductile Iron Plug Valves – flanged

ends.
5) API 598 - Valve Inspection and Test.
6) API 600 - Steel Gate Valves
7) API 601 - Metallic Gasket for Refinery piping

8) API 602 - Compact Design carbon steel Gate.
9) API 603 - Corrosion Resistant Gate Valves
10) API 604 - Ductile Iron Gate Valves – flanged

ends.
11) API 605 - Large Diameter Carbon Steel Flanges
12) API 607 - Fire test for soft-seated ball valves
13) API 609 - Butterfly valves
14) API 1104- Standard for welding pipeline and

facilities.
AISI STANDARDS
The American Iron and Steel Institute Standards specifies the material by its chemical
and physical properties. When specific model of manufacture of the element is not to
be specified,
specified then the material can be identified by the AISI standards.
standards The most
commonly used AISI specifications are:
1) AISI 410 - 13% Chromium Alloy

Steel
2) AISI 304 - 18/8 Austenitic

Stainless Steel
3) AISI 316 - 18/8/3 Austenitic

Stainless Steel
ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE
Sections:
Sec.1. Power Boilers

Sec.2. Materials
Part A- Ferrous Materials
Part B- Now Ferrous Materials
Part C-
C Welding Electrodes & Filler Materials
Part D- Properties
Sec.3. Nuclear power plant components
- Subsection NCA - General Requirements for Division 1 and Division 2
Division - 1-
Subsection NB - Class 1 Components
Subsection NC - Class 2 Components
Subsection ND - Class 3 Components
S b
Subsection
ti NE - Class
Cl MC C
Components t
Subsection NF - Supports
Subsection NG - Core Support Structures
Subsection NH - Class 1 Components in Elevated
Temperatures
Division 2 - Code for Concrete Reactor Vessel and Containments.
Division 3 - Containment systems for storage and transport

packagings of spent Nuclear Fuel and High Level
radioactive material and waste.
Sec.4. Heating boilers

Sec.5. Non destructive examination
Sec 6 Recommended rules for care and operation of heating
Sec.6.
boilers
Sec.7. Recommended guidelines for care of power
boilers
Sec.8. Pressure Vessels

Division –11
Division –2 Alternative Rules
Division - 3 Alternative Rules for
Construction of high pressure
vessels
l
Sec.9. Welding and brazing qualifications
Sec.10. Fibre reinforced plastic pressure vessels
Sec.11. Rules for in service inspection of nuclear power

plant components
ASME DIMENSIONAL STANDARDS
Major ASME standards referred for the piping engineers are:
1) ANSI B 1.1
11 - Unified Inch Screw Threads
2) ASME B 1.20.1- Pipe Threads general purpose – (Ex ANSI

B2.1))
3) ASME B 16.1 - Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
4) ASME B 16.3 - Malleable Iron Threaded Fittings.
5) ASME B 16.4
16 4 - Cast Iron Threaded Fittings
6) ASME B 16.5 - Steel Pipe flanges and Flanged Fittings

7) ASME B 16.9 - Steel Butt welding Fittings
8) ASME B 16.10 - Face to face and end to end dimensions

of Valves
9) ASME B 16.11 - Forged steel Socket welding and

Threaded fittings
10) ANSI B 16
16.20
20 - Metallic
M t lli G
Gaskets
k t for
f pipe
i flanges
fl – ring
i
joint, spiral wound and jacketed flanges
11)) ASME
S B 16.21
6 - Non
o Metallic
eta c Gasket
Gas et for
o pipe
p pe flanges
a ges
12) ASME B 16.25 - Butt Welding Ends

13)ASME B 16.28 - Short Radius Elbows and Returns
14)ASME B 16.34 - Steel Valves, flanged and butt welding ends.
15)ASME
) B 16.42 - Ductile Iron Pipe
p Flanges
g & Flanged
g
Fittings –Class 150 and 300
16)ASME B 16.47 - Large Diameter Steel Flanges – NPS 26-60
17)ASME B 18.2 1 & 2 - Square and hexagonal head Bolts and Nuts
(in & mm)
18)ASME B 36.10 - Welded and seamless Wrought Steel Pipes
19)ASME B 36.19
36 19 - Welded and Seamless Austenitic Stainless
Steel Pipes.
INDIAN STANDARDS
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) have so far not developed an

Indian standard for the design of Piping Systems. Hence, ANSI
standards ANSI B 31.1/31.3/31.8 are widely referred for the design.
These standards also accept materials covered in other standards.
standards
Unlike American Standards, Indian Standards cover dimensions and
material specifications under the same standard. There are also no
groupings
g p g done based on the series/branch of engineering
g g as well.
BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
PIPING COMPONENTS
The basic material or the generic material of construction is
specified by the Process Licensor for the process fluids. The
Piping Engineer is expected to detail out the same based on
the Codes and Standards.
The Piping Design Criteria originates from the Line List which
specifies design conditions with respect to pressure and
temperature.
p
In absence of this data,
data the Piping Engineer considers the
following for strength calculations
• Design
D i Pressure
P as 10% higher
hi h than
th the
th maximum
i
anticipated operating pressure.
• Design
g Temperature
p as 25° above the maximum
anticipated operating temperature.
The selection of materials in general shall follow the
norms below:
a) Carbon steel shall be used up to 800oF

(425oC).
b)) Low temperature
p steel shall be used below
-20oF (- 29oC)
c) Alloy carbon steel shall be used above 8000F
(425oC).
C)
d) For corrosive fluids, recommendations from the
Process Licensor to be followed.
Stainless steel pipes are available in schedule 5S, 10S,
40S and 80S whereas carbon steel pipes are available
in schedule 10
10, 20
20, 30
30, 40
40, 60
60, 80
80, 100
100, 120
120, 140
140, 160
160,
STD,XS, XXS.
The figures indicated in these standards are the nominal

thickness and mill tolerance of ± 12.5% is applicable to
those values.
Pipe Ends
Based on the material of construction and the pipe to pipe joint,
joint the
ends of the pipes are specified as follows.
• Bevelled ends
• Plain ends
• Screwed
S d ends
d
• Flanged ends
• Spigot/Socket ends
• Buttress ends
BUTT WELD PIPE JOINTS
Advantages
a) Most practical way of joining big bore piping
b) Reliable leak proof joint
c) Joint can be radiographed
Disadvantages
a) Weld intrusion will affect flow
b) End preparation is necessary
SOCKET WELD PIPE JOINTS
Advantages
a) Easier Alignment than butt welding

b) No weld metal intrusion into bore
Disadvantages
a) The 1/16"(1.5 mm) recess pockets liquid
b)) Use not permitted by code iff Severe
S Erosion
or Crevice Corrosion is anticipated.
SCREWED PIPE JOINTS
Advantages
a) Easily made at site

b) Can be used where welding is not permitted due to fire hazard
Disadvantages
a) Joint may leak when not properly sealed

b) Use not permitted by code if severe erosion,
erosion
crevice corrosion, shock or vibration are anticipated.
c) Strength of pipe is reduced as threads reduce wall thickness
d) Seal welding may be required
e) Code specifies that seal welding shall not be
considered to contribute for strength of joint
FLANGED PIPE JOINTS
Advantages
a) Can be easily made at site

b) Can be used where welding is not permitted due to
material properties or fire hazard.
c) Dismantling is very easy
Disadvantages
a) It is a point of potential leakage

b) Cannot be used when piping is subjected to high
bending moment.
Types Of Pipes
Based on the method of manufacture pipes could be classified as;
• Seamless
• Welded
o Electric
El t i Resistance
R i t W ld d (ERW)
Welded
o Electric Fusion Welded (EFW)
o Spiral Welded
o Furnace Butt welded
o Double Submerged Arc Welded
• Forged and Bored

Pipe Materials
1. ASTM A53 : Welded and Seamless Steel

Pipe Black and Galvanized
2
2. ASTM A106 : Seamless CS Pipe for High
Temp. Services
3. ASTM A120 : Black and Hot Dipped Zinc
coated (Galvanized) welded
andd seamless
l pipe
i for
f ordinary
di use
4. ASTM A134 : Electric fusion welded steel
plate pipe (Sizes ≥ 16” NB)
5. ASTM A135 : Electric resistance welded pipe
pp
6. ASTM A155 : Electric fusion welded steel
pipe for high temperature service
7. ASTM A312 : Seamless and welded
Austenitic stainless steel pipes
8. ASTM A333 : Seamless and welded steel
pipe for low temperature
service
9. ASTM A335 : Seamless ferric alloy steel
pipe for high temperature
service
10. ASTM A358 : Electric fusion welded
Austenitic chrome-nickel steel
pipe
i ffor high
hi h ttemperature
t
service
11. ASTM A369 : Carbon and ferric alloy steel
forged
g and bored for high g
temperature service
12. ASTM A376 : Seamless austenitic steel pipe
for high temperature central
station service
13. ASTM A409 : Welded largeg diameter
Austenitic steel pipe for
corrosive or high temperature service
14. ASTM A426 : Centrifugally cast ferric alloy
steel pipe for high temperature service
15. ASTM A430 : Austenitic steel forged and
bored pipe for high temperature service
16. ASTM A451 : Centrifugally cast austenitic
steel pipe for high temperature service
17. ASTM A452 : Centrifugally cast austenitic
steel cold wrought pipe for high
temperature service
18. ASTM A524 : Seamless carbon steel pipe for
atmospheric and low temperature services
19. ASTM A587 : Electric welded low carbon steel
pipe for the chemical industry
20. ASTM A660 : Centrifugally cast carbon steel
pipe for high temperature service
21. ASTM A671 : Electric fusion welded steel pipe for
atmospheric and low temperature service
(Sizes ≥ 16” NB)
22. ASTM A672 : Electric fusion welded steel pipe for high pressure
service at moderate temperature services
(Sizes ≥16"NB)
23. ASTM A691 : Carbon and alloy steel pipe,
electric fusion welded for high
pressure service at high
temperatures (Sizes ≥ 16" NB)
24. ASTM A731 : Seamless and welded ferritic
stainless steel pipe
25. ASTM A790 : Seamless and welded ferritic/
austenitic stainless steel pipe
26. ASTM A813 : Single or double welded
austenitic stainless steel pipe
27. ASTM A814 : Cold worked welded austenitic
stainless steel pipe
28. ASTM F1545 : Plastic Lined Ferrous Pipe
29. API 5L : Line pipe
30 IS 1239
30. : Steel pipes for general purposes
(Sizes ≤ 6" NB)
31. IS 1536 : Centrifugally cast iron pipe
32. IS 1537 : Vertically cast iron pipe
33. IS 1978 : Line pipe
34. IS 1979 : High test line pipe
35. IS 3589 : Steel pipe for general services
36 IS 4984
36. : HDPE pipe
37. IS 4985 : PVC pipe
THICKNESS OF STRAIGHT PIPE UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE
ASME B 31.3,
31 3 the Process Piping Code,
Code in clause 304
304.1.1
1 1 gives
minimum thickness as follows:
Tm = T + C
PD
Where, T =
2 (SE + PY)
Where,
P = Internal Design gauge pressure psig
(kg/mm2g)
D = Outside Diameter of pipe
inch (mm)
S = Allowable Stress from
Appendix A – 1 psi (kg/cm2)
E = Joint Quality factor from Table A – 1B
Y = Coefficient from 304.1.1
C = C1 + C2
C1 = Corrosion Allowance
= 1.6 mm in general for carbon steel
= 0 ffor stainless
t i l steel
t l
C2 = Depth of thread (used only upto 1½” NB)
The calculated thickness to be corrected
to consider the mill tolerance of - 12.5%
12 5% as
8 PD
Tm = + C1 + C2
7 2(SE + PY)
The use of the above equation
q is best illustrated by
y means of the
following example.
Example:
p
A 12" (300 mm) NB pipe has an internal maximum
operating pressure of 500 psig (35kg / cm2g) and temperature of
6750F. The material of construction o f the pipe is seamless
carbon steel to ASTM A106 Gr B. The recommended corrosion
allowance is 1/8" (3mm). Calculate the thickness of pipe as per
ASME B 31 31.3
3 and select the proper schedule
schedule.
PD
Tm = + C
2 (SE + PY)
P = 10% higher than the MWP
= 1.1 x 500 = 550 psig
p g
D = 12.75" (OD of 12" NB pipe)
Design temperature = 675 + 25 = 7000 F
S = 16500 psi
((Refer ASME B 31.3 Appendix
pp ‘A’ Table A-1))
E = 1 (Joint Quality factor. Refer ASME B31.3, Appendix ‘A’ Table A-
1B)
Y = 0.4 (Refer Table 304.1.1)
C = 0.125" (Specified)
( p )
500 x 12.75
Tm = + 0.125
2(16500x1 + 550x0.4)
= 0.2097” + 0.125”
= 0.335”
Hence, considering the mill tolerance of 12.5%, the nominal thickness for a min.
thickness of 0.335" will be
0.335
t = = 0
0.383"
383"
0.875
EMPIRICAL FORMULA FOR PIPE THICKNESS
SCH. NO = 1000 PS/SS = 2000 t/d
PS = Internal working pressure psi
SS = Allowable stress psi
t = Wall thickness in inches
d = Nominal pipe size

STANDARD PIPE FITTINGS
END CONNECTIONS
SOCKETWELD SCREWED BUTTWELD FLANGED SPIGOT/SOCKET BUTTRESS
Type
ELBOWS 180o TEES CROSS CAPS REDUCERS STUBENDS COUPLINGS SWAGE NIPPLE UNIONS SPECIAL
RETURNS FITTINGS
EQUAL REDUCING
45o 90o SR. LR. CROSS CROSS LONG SHORT CONCENTRIC ECCENTRIC
ELBOWS ELBOWS STUBENDS STUBENDS
CONCENTRIC ECCENTRIC
EQUAL REDUCING REDUCERS REDUCERS
TEES TEES
LR ELBOWS SR ELBOWS
FULL HALF REDUCING
COUPLINGS COUPLINGS COUPLINGS
WELDOLET SOCKOLET THREADOLET ELBOWLET SWEEPOLET NIPOLET LATROLET

PIPE FITTINGS
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON END CONNECTIONS - SOCKET

WELD/SCREWED FITTINGS
(DIMN STD ASME B16.11/BS 37 99)

Classification based on the maximum Cold non-shock
Working pressure
pressure.
a. 2000 # Class – only for SCRD fittings

b. 3000 # Class
c. 6000 # Class
d. 9000 # Class – only for SW fittings
Class Type of fitting Pipe used - Rating
Designation based
of fitting SCH No Wall
Designation
2000 Threaded 80 XS
3000 Threaded 160 --
6000 Threaded -- XXS
3000 Socket Welding 80 XS
6000 Socket Welding 160 --
9000 Socket Welding -- XXS
SW/SCRD FITTING MATERIALS
1 ASTM A105 - Forged Carbon Steel
2 ASTM A181 - Forged Carbon Steel for General Purposes
3 ASTM A182 - Forged Alloy Steel and Stainless Steel
4 ASTM A234 - Wrought Carbon Steel and

Alloy Steel pipe fittings for
moderate and elevated temperatures
p
5 ASTM A350 - Forged Alloy Steel for Low

Temperature Services
Beveled end fittings are covered under ASME B 16.9, B16-28 and BS 1640.
Thickness to suit pipe thickness.
BW FITTING MATERIALS
1. ASTM A 234 - Carbon Steel and Alloy steel pipe

fittings
2. ASTM A 403 - Austenitic Stainless Steel fittings
3. ASTM A 420 - Alloy Steel for low temperature

Services
Flanged fittings are covered under ASME B 16.5 and BS 1650 for carbon and
alloy steel piping and ASME B 16.1 for cast iron fittings.
FLANGED END FITTING MATERIALS
1. ASTM A 216 - Carbon Steel Castings
2
2. ASTM A 351 - Stainless
St i l St
Steell C
Castings
ti
3. ASTM A 352 - Alloy Steel Castings
4. ASTM F 1545 - Plastic Lined Fittings
5. IS 1538 - CI Fittings
ELBOWS
45o 90o
ELBOWS ELBOWS
Fig. 2
Fig 2.4
4
Fig. 2.7
LR ELBOWS SR
ELBOWS
Fig.
g 2.3 Fig.
g 2.2
Fig. 2.5
Fig. 2.6
Fig. 2.2 : Short Radius 90 degree Elbow (R=1D)
Fig. 2.4 : Elbows - 45o
Fig. 2.5 : 90 deg Elbows – Socket weld
Fig. 2.6 : Mitre Bend 90o
Fig. 2.7 : Mitre Bend 45o
180o
RETURNS
SR
SR. LR
LR.
Fig. 2.8
Fi 2
Fig. 2.8
8:L
Long R
Radius
di R Return
t
TEES
EQUAL REDUCING
TEES TEES
Fig. 2.10 Fig. 2.9
Fig. 2.9 : Tees – Butt weld
Fig. 2.10 : Tees – Socket weld
CROSS
EQUAL REDUCING
CROSS CROSS
Fig 2
Fig. 2.11
11
Fig. 2.11 : Cross
REDUCERS
CONCENTRIC ECCENTRIC
REDUCERS REDUCERS
Fig. 2.12 Fig. 2.13

Fig. 2.12 : Concentric Reducer
Fig 2
Fig. 2.13
13 : Eccentric Reducer
COUPLINGS
FULL HALF REDUCING

COUPLINGS COUPLINGS COUPLINGS
Fig. 2.17 Fig. 2.18
Fig. 2.17 : Full Coupling
Fig.
g 2.18 : Half – Coupling
p g
SPECIAL
FITTINGS
WELDOLET SOCKOLET THREADOLET ELBOWLET SWEEPOLET NIPOLET LATROLET
Fig. 2.22 Fig. 2.24 Fig. 2.25 Fig. 2.27 Fig. 2.23 Fig. 2.28 Fig. 2.26
Fig. 2.22: Weldolet
Fig. 2.24: Sockolet
Fig. 2.25: Thredolet
Fig. 2.27 : Elbolet
Fig. 2.21 : Union
Fig. 2.14 : Cap
3.0 FLANGES
CLASSIFICATION - BASED ON
3.1 BASED ON ATTACHMENT TO PIPE

311
3.1.1 SLIP-ON
SLIP ON
3.1.2 SOCKET WELD
3.1.3 SCREWED ON
3.1.4 LAP JOINT
3.1.5 WELDING NECK
316
3.1.6 BLIND
Fig. 3.1 : Slip-on Raised Face Flange
Fig3.2:Socket Welded Raised Face Flange
Fig. 3.3 : Threaded Raised Face Flange
Fig.
g 3.4 : Lap
p Joint Flange
g with Stub End
Fig.3.5:Welding Neck Raised Face Flange
3.2 Based On Pressure-temperature Rating
The flanges are also classified by the

pressure temperature
p p rating
g in ASME B 16.5 as below :
3.2.1 150 #
322
3.2.2 300 #
3.2.3 400 #
3.2.4 600 #
325
3.2.5 900 #
3.2.6 1500 #
3.2.7 2500 #
3.3 BASED ON FACING
3.3.1 FLAT FACE
3.3.2 RAISED FACE
3.3.3 RING TYPE JOINT
3.3.4 TONGUE AND GROOVE
3.3.5 MALE AND FEMALE

Fig. 3.8 : Flat Face
Fig. 3.9 : Raised Face
Fig. 3.10 : Ring Joint
Fig. 3.11 : Tongue and Groove Joint
Fi 3.12
Fig. 3 12 : M
Male
l /F
Female
l JJoint
i t
3 4 Based
3.4 B dOOn Face
F Finish
Fi i h
• Smooth finish
• Serrated finish.
The serrations are specified by the

number which is the Arithmetic Average Roughness
Height (AARH).
3.5 Based On Material Of Construction
Flange Materials :
3 5 1 ASTM A105 - Forged

3.5.1 F d Carbon
C b St Steell
3.5.2 ASTM A181 - Forged Carbon Steel for

General Purpose
3 5 3 ASTM A182 - Forged Alloy Steel and

3.5.3
Stainless Steel
354
3.5.4 ASTM A350 - Forged Alloy Steel for low
temperature services
GASKETS
Proper selection of gasket depends upon following factors.
• Compatibility of the gasket material with the fluid

fluid.
• Ability to withstand the pressure-temperature of the system.
Based on the type of construction,

construction gaskets are classified as:
• Full Face
• Inside bolt circle
• Spiral wound metallic
• Ring type
• Metal jacketed
The material which is most commonly used is the
Compressed Asbestos Fibre.
Asbestos free gaskets are also available for above

applications For very corrosive applications
applications. applications, PTFE or PTFE
enveloped gaskets are used.
For high temperature
temperat re and high pressure
press re applications,
applications
spiral wound metallic gaskets are used.
The spiral wound gasket will perform when

the flange face is 125-250
125 250 AARH finish.
Dimensional Standards
• API 601 - Metallic Gasket for

Refinery Piping
• BS 3381 - Metallic Spiral Wound

Gaskets
• ASME B16.20 - Metallic Gaskets for pipe

flanges
• ASME B16.21- Non-metallic Gaskets for

pipe flanges
GASKET APPLICATION
Based on Manufacturer’s Technical Publication the following Rule

of Thumb is used for selection of Gasket material.
MATERIAL MAXIMUM MAXIMUM

PxT TEMP (T)
(PSI x 0F) (0F)
Rubber Sheet 15,000 300

Woven Asb-
Rubberized Sheet 1 25 000
1,25,000 400
Compressed
Asbestos sheet 2,50,000 850
Metal Gasket 2,50,000 Depends on type
BOLTING
For low pressure, low temperature services, machine bolts are used and studs
are used otherwise.
Flanged joints using low strength carbon steel bolts shall not be used above 200 oC
or below –29 oC
Material Of Construction For Bolting
Bolting materials normally used are
• ASTM A 307 - Low Carbon Steel Bolting Material

• ASTM A 320 - Alloy Steel Bolting material for low
temperature service
• ASTM A 563 - Carbon and alloy steel nuts
• ASTM A 193 - Alloy Steel Bolting Material for high
temperature service
• ASTM A 194 - Alloy Steel nut material for high
temperature service
• IS 1367 - Threaded steel fasteners
HOW IT WORKS
MESURA SA 3 av. du Québec B P 84– 91943 Les ULIS Cedex

Téléphone: 33 1 69 28 22 33 Fax: 33 1 69 28 81 03 e -mail: mesura@mesura.fr
Regulation; how it works
The gas coming from the Inlet at a

pressure of 4bar will pass through the
regulating valve which will create an
overpressure under the diaphragm
and will push the diaphragm up. By
doing so, it will bring the regulating
valve back on its seat.
The consumer,
consumer by using gas for its
needs, will create a pressure drop Regulating chamber
under the diaphragm which will move it
down and open that way the regulating
valve to allow gas in again in the
regulating chamber.
chamber It will carry on that
way by opening and closing the
regulating valve.
This is the regulation of the gas. In fact
the regulating valve will come to an
intermediar position during
intermediary d ring all the
time of the utilisation of the gas.
Venturi tube

RELIEF VALVE
Connecting chamber
Arrow of
Way of With first stage regulation
escape
Relief valve
Regulating valve
Parts in movement Second Stage
U.P.S.O.
Through the
Relief valve
Venturi tube
Inlet Filter
Through the Cut-away

y of ‘’B’’ type
yp
Transmission Holes

RELIEF VALVE
Way out of the gas through the relief valve and vent hole
Identification plate
Second stage spring
Vent hole
Relief valve spring
Cover
Transmission holes
Relief valve Pad
Second stage Lever Diaphragm and plate

Relief valve function
A- The relief valve function is to avoid an eventual increase of pressure at the outlet of the regulator in the following cases:
a) At no flow (no consumes of Gas), the outlet pressure of the Gas might increase because of the outside temperature that warms the piping
at the outlet of the regulator (difference of temperature at night and in the morning for example) which by this effect will increase the outlet
pressure. In order to avoid this excess of pressure, the relief valve will let this excess of pressure at the atmosphere in order to maintain a
reasonable pressure so not to damage the appliances and act as a security for the users. The flow at the relief valve will be very limited
and will continue to flow as long as the pressure is over the setting pressure of the relief valve (35mbar +/-10%).
b) In case of a shut-off valve installed to close to the regulator. When being closed , the hysteresis of the gas will create an over pressure
which will be limited by the relief valve.
c) Defect of the regulator due to a burst, dirt or anything that stop the first or the second stage regulating valve to close properly. In that
case, the relief valve will limit the outlet pressure at abt. 35mbar (setting pressure of the relief valve). This pressure will never increase
such as to reach 100mbar. In the case of our regulator, the relief valve will let gas through all the time to the atmosphere without stopping.
We must point out, that after Fifty years of experience, it has never be the case to reach 100mbar in such conditions has here explain. The
conception
p of our regulators
g avoid this p
problems. The relief valve has it is in regulators
g up
p to 25m3/h p
protect 100% the consumer from
over pressure and act as the best protection in case of two stage regulator (this type has been used by Gaz De France and many other
companies worldwide without any problem.
The only case, where the outlet pressure increase in such way to have 100mbar and more is when the first stage or second stage diaphragm
brakes or is teared up. In that specific cases, Gas will be release through the vent hole (and not the relief valve) what ever is the outlet
pressure. The only difference is that in the case of the first stage diaphragm defect, the outlet pressure will be limited at abt. 100 –
120 b and
120mbar d in
i the
th case it is
i the
th second d stage,
t th outlet
the tl t pressure will
ill be
b limited
li it d att abt.
bt 280 - 290mbar
290 b (pressure
( off the
th first
fi t stage).
t ) In
I
both cases, Gas will flew constantly through the vent Hole. Even at 100mbar, the regulator is faulty and should be replace immediately.

U.P.S.O. / EXCESS OF FLOW
Second stage
First stage
Relief
Valve
Regulating
Valve
Security
Valve
I l t Filter
Inlet Filt
Cut-away of the B6N

U.P.S.O. / excess flow
Two valves which is one piece on the second stage:

‘’A’’ for regulating the pressure of Gas to the requested
pressure (21mbar) B A
‘’B’’ For the securities which works as follows:
In case of a lake of Gas at the inlet, the regulating valve ‘’A’’
will open more and more to keep the outlet pressure until the
security valve ‘’B’’ closes. According to the norm, this has to
close at a minimal 10mbar for an outlet pressure of 21mbar.
(It occurs between 13 and 18mbar depending on the flow)
In case of lake of gas at the outlet (this occurs by excess of
flow), the speed of the gas by sucking ‘’B’’ will be such, that it
will closed it. It occurs between 13 and 18mbar depending on
the inlet pressure
O.P.S.O.
O.P.S.O.
It is a separate device which close the flow of gas at the inlet

of the first stage of regulation. This happen when the regulator
is defect due the first or second stage regulating valve which B
does not close properly even after the relief valve is fully open.
This pressure, taken under the diaphragm of the second A
stage, is transmitted under the diaphragm of the O.P.S.O (A).
The pressure is such, that the valve (B) will close the flow of
gas in (C). This valve being in upstream position, what ever
the pressure at the inlet of the regulator could be, it cannot
reopen by itself and will have to be manually reset.
BASIC INSTRUMENTATION
ENGINEERING
Topics:-
• I
Instrument Symbols
S b l
• Flow / Pressure measurement
• Control Valve
• Control Valve Accessories
• Temperature measurement
• Level measurement
• Control Loops
p
• Instruments Calibration
• Codes, standards & Specification
• Safety Instrumented Systems
INSTRUMENT SYMBOLS
INSTRUMENT SYMBOLS
INSTRUMENT SYMBOLS
INSTRUMENT SYMBOLS
INSTRUMENT SYMBOLS
FLOW MEASUREMENT
Flow Rate
Fl
Flow rate
t is
i an iindication
di ti off hhow ffastt a substance
b t moves th
through
h a conduit
d it
from one place to another. Flow rate can also be used to determine the distance a
substance moves over a period of time. Flow rate is usually expressed as
• Volume flow rate
• Mass
M flow
fl rate
t
Volume Flow Rate represents the volume of fluid that passes a measurement point
over a period of time. An example measurement unit is kg per hour. The volume flow
rate
t can be
b calculated
l l t d if th
the average flflow velocity
l it and d iinside
id pipe
i didiameter
t are kknown.
The calculation is based on the formula
Q=Axv
where
Q = volumetric
l t i flflow rate
t
A = cross-sectional area of the pipe
v = average flow velocity (flow rate)
FLOW MEASUREMENT
Mass Flow Rate represents the amount of mass that passes a

specific point over a period of time.
Mass flow rates are used to measure the weight or mass

of a substance flowing through a process operation. If the
volumetric flow rate and densityy are known,, the calculation is
based on the formula
W=Qxr
where
W = mass flow rate
Q = volumetric flow rate
r = density (r = density “rho” )
FLOW MEASUREMENT
Laminar Flow: Streamlined flow of a fluid where viscous forces are more significant
than inertial forces, generally below a Reynolds number of 2000.
Turbulent Flow: When forces due to inertia are more significant than forces due to
viscosity This typically occurs with a Reynolds number in excess of 4000
viscosity. 4000.
Volume Flow Rate: Calculated using the area of the full closed conduit and the average
fluid velocity in the form, Q = V x A, to arrive at the total volume quantity of flow. Q =
volumetric flowrate
flowrate, V = average fluid velocity
velocity, and A = cross sectional area of the pipe
pipe.
Differential Pressure: The difference in static pressure between two identical pressure
taps at the same elevation located in two different locations in a primary device.
Static Pressure: Pressure of a fluid whether in motion or at rest. It can be sensed in a

small hole drilled perpendicular to and flush with the flow boundaries so as not to disturb
the fluid in any way.
FLOW MEASUREMENT
FLOW MEASUREMENT
Flow Element
Differential Pressure
• Orifice Plate
• Pitot
• Venturi
Ad
Advantages:
t
• Simple, no moving parts
Disadvantages:
p
• Susceptible to wear in dirty
y services except
p verticall
• Orifice edge sharpness affects accuracy
Turbine
Rotor
Advantages: Accuracy
Disadvantages: Moving parts can wear
Vortex
Bluff Bodyy
Advantages: No moving parts
Disadvantages: Bluff body can corrode
FLOW MEASUREMENT
Flow Element
Positive Displacement (PD)
•Oval Gear
• Sliding Vane
• Nutating Disk
Disadvantages:
• Many moving parts subject to wear
• Prefilters for dirty service
Mass • Coriolis • Thermal Mass
Advantages:
Ad t
• Very low maintenance (Coriolis)
• No moving parts, corrosive fluid may effect element (Thermal
Mass)
Magnetic Field (Magmeter)

• AC Field
• DC Field
Advantages:
• Low maintenance element
• Very low maintenance
ORIFICE FLOW MEASUREMENT
c
ORIFICE FLOW MEASUREMENT STAMP MARK NUMBER

FE
DRILL 1/4" 0
d STAMP ACTUAL DIA. TO

16
NEAREST THOUSANDTH INCH
L STAMP LINE SIZE AND SCHED.
UPSTREAM
BEFORE BORING
SILVER SOLDER OR
WELD AND GRIND FLUSH
j
d
1/2 t
t
ORIFICE & ANNUBAR FLOW ELEMENTS
ROTAMETER
Mass Flowmeter : Principles of Operation
Curved Tube
Tube Vibration:
Process fluid entering the sensor is split, half passing through each flow tube.
During
u g opeoperation,
a o ,addrive
e co
coil is
seenergized.
e g ed The eddrive
e co
coil causes the
e tubes
ubes to
o
oscillate up and down in opposition to one another.
Si
Signal
l Generation
G ti
Magnet and coil assemblies, called pick-offs, are mounted on the flow tubes. Wire coils
are mounted on the side legs of one flow tube
tube, and magnets are mounted on the side legs
of the opposing flow tube.
Each coil moves through the uniform magnetic field of the adjacent magnet. The voltage
generated from each pickoff coil creates a sine wave
wave. Because the magnets are mounted
on one tube, and the coils on the opposing tube, the sine waves generated represent the
motion of one tube relative to the other.
No Flow - Tube Motion
The flow tubes oscillate 180 degrees in opposition to one another; while one tube moves
downward the other tube moves upward and then vice versa.
downward, versa
Both pickoffs - the one on the inlet side and the one on the outlet side - generate sine
wave current continuously when the tubes are oscillating. When there is no flow, the sine
waves are in phase
phase.
FLOW MEASUREMENT
Liquid Flow Measurement

• Place
Pl ttaps to
t the
th side
id off the
th line
li to t preventt sediment
di t deposits
d it on the
th
Transmitter’s process isolators.
• Mount the transmitter beside or below the taps so gases can vent into the
process line.
• Mount
M t drain/vent
d i / t valve
l upward d tto allow
ll gases tto vent.
t
Gas Flow Measurement

• Place taps in the top or side of the line.
• Mount
M t the
th transmitter
t itt beside
b id or above
b th
the ttaps so liliquid
id will
ill d
drain
i iinto
t th
the
process line.
Steam Flow Measurement

• Place
Pl ttaps tto th
the side
id off the
th line.
li
• Mount the transmitter below the taps to ensure that the impulse piping will
stay filled with condensate.
• Fill impulse lines with water to prevent the steam from contacting the
T
Transmitter
itt didirectly
tl andd tto ensure accurate
t measurementt att start-up.
t t
FLOW MEASUREMENT
Pressure Measurement
Type
1. Pressure Gauges
2 Draft Gauges
2.
3. Pressure Switches
4. Pressure Transmitters
5. Diaphragm seal transmitters
6 Differential pressure instruments

6.
INSTRUMENT INSTALLATION-GUIDELINES
INSTALLATION GUIDELINES
• Keep impulse piping as short as possible.
• For liquid service, slope the impulse piping at least 1 inch per foot
(8 cm per m) upward from the transmitter toward the process
connection.
• For gas service, slope the impulse piping at least 1 inch per foot
(8 cm per m) downward from the transmitter toward the process
connection.
• Avoid high points in liquid lines and low points in gas lines.
• Make sure both impulse legs are the same temperature.
• Use impulse piping large enough to avoid friction effects and

blockage.
• Vent all g
gas from liquid
q piping
p p g legs.
g
INSTRUMENT INSTALLATION
INSTALLATION-GUIDELINES
GUIDELINES
• When measuring a fluid, fill both piping legs to the same level.
• When purging, make the purge connection close to the process taps and
purge through equal lengths of the same size pipe
pipe. Avoid purging
through the transmitter.
• Keep corrosive or hot (above 250 °F [121 °C]) process material out of
direct contact with the sensor module and flanges.
• Prevent sediment deposits in the impulse piping.
• Keep the liquid head balanced on both legs of the impulse piping.
• Avoid conditions that might allow process fluid to freeze within the
process flange.
fl
TRANSMITTER PARTS
FLOW MEASUREMENT
Orifice Meters
Ranges for orifice meters shall be selected from the values shown below
0 --- 625
0 --- 1250
0 --- 2500
0 --- 5000
0 --- 10000 0.1 ---- 1.0 x 10n
0.12 ---- 1.2
0.15 ---- 1.5
Rotameters (Variable Area Meters)
0.2 ---- 2.0
Ranges for rotameters shall be selected from the values shown below.
0.25 ---- 2.5
0.3 ---- 3.0
0.4 ---- 4.0
0.5 ----5.0
0.6 ---- 6.0
0.8 ---- 8.0
TYPE OF CONTROL VALVES
Depends on the construction of the valve the valves are classified

in different names. Valves are classified in to two general types
based on how the valve closure member is moved: by linear motion
or rotary motion. The types of the valves as follows:
• Globe valves / Gate valves
• Butterfly valves V l Operation:-
Valve O ti
• Ball valves 1. Air to Open
• Angle valve 2
2. Air to Close
• Diaphragm valves 3. Air fail to Lock in the same

position
• De super heater valves
De-super-heater
• Slide valves / Diverter valves
Butterfly Valve Body Assembly
VALVE PLUGS ACCORDING TO
FLOW CHRACTERISTICS
For blow down and

For Compressor surge
vent services For feed streams
controls
services
VALVE FLOW CHRACTERISTICS
Temperature Measurement
Temperature can be measured via a diverse array of sensors. All of them infer temperature by
sensing some change in a physical characteristic.
Five types with which the engineer is likely to come into contact are:
Resistive temperature devices (RTDs and thermistors)
Thermocouples
Infrared radiators
Bimetallic devices
Liquid expansion devices
R i ti Temperature
Resistive T t Devices
D i
Resistive temperature devices capitalize on the fact that the electrical resistance of a material
changes as its temperature changes.
Two keyy types
yp are the metallic devices
- RTD: Resistance temperature detector

- Thermistors
As their name indicates,

indicates RTDs rely on resistance change in a metal
metal, with the resistance rising
more or less linearly with temperature.
T
Temperature
t M
Measurementt
Seebeck Effect: When a circuit is formed by a junction of two dissimilar

metals and the junctions are held at different temperatures, a current will
flow in the circuit caused by the difference in temperature between the two
junctions.
Thermocouple: The junction of two dissimilar metals which has a voltage

output proportional to the difference in temperature between the hot
j
junction
ti and d th
the llead
d wires
i ((cold
ld jjunction).
ti )
Compensating Lead Wires and Extension Wires
The compensating lead wires and extension wires shall conform to ANSI
MC96.1. Thermocouple extension wire shall be installed in one-continuous
length. If intermediate terminating points are required, as in case of multi
conductor cables,
cables then the connecting blocks shall be of the same material
as the extension wire.
"N" "A"
A
CONDUIT CONN.
T
Temperature
t M
Measurementt
Field-Mounted Thermometers
Ranges
g for field-mounted thermometers shall be selected such that normal operating
p g
temperature is around 60% of the full scale.
(Unit: Deg. C.)
-50
50 --- 50
-30 --- 50
0 --- 50
0 ---100
0 --- 120
0 --- 150
0 --- 200
0 --- 250
0 --- 300
0 --- 400
0 --- 500
00
100---500
Level Measurement
Type of level Measurements:
• Reflex Flat Gauge Glass

• Transparent
p Flat Gauge
g Glass
• Magnetic Float
• Float Switch
• Displacer Switch
• Hydrostatic Head Example / Differential Pressure
• Ultrasonic
Level Measurement
Stand pipe
A large pipe, usually 4 inches in diameter, mounted on the side of vessel.

Level measurement devices, such as sight gauges and pressure transmitters,
are attached to the pipe. The standpipe serves to transmit level to more than
one device
device. Also referred to as bridle or stilling well
well.
Tappings
Connections to a vessel to which a measurement device’s

nozzle/flange is attached.
Interface
The point or location where two phases meet. In a liquid level measurement,
two non-mixing liquids of different specific gravities and color establish a
b
boundary
d th
thatt can be
b viewed
i d as a di
distinct
ti t liline.
Level Measurement
Diff Pressure Type
When the LEVEL in vessel is at or below the bottom

connection the force on the high pressure leg (the
lower vessel nozzle) will see 12" x 1.0 = 12" WC.
The low pressure leg (the higher vessel nozzle) will

see 112" x 1.0 = 112" WC.
The differential is 12" WC - 112" WC = -100" WC.
When the vessel is full, the force on the high

pressure leg will be 12" x 1.0 + 100" x 0.98 = 12 + 98
= 110" WC.
The low pressure side will see 112" x 1.0 = 112" WC.
The differential is 110" WC - 112" WC = -2" WC.
The transmitter should be calibrated for

-100 to -2" WC.
Level Measurement
Diff Pressure Type
The force of the liquid head is linear with mass if the vessel is vertical
with straight sides.
If the readout is calibrated in mass of material ((instead of volume of

material), the reading will be correct for any specific gravity as long as
it is within the live area of calibration and ignoring the small error from
the heel of the vessel.
The vessel may not be full at 100% calibration but it will contain the
correct amount of mass of material.
Level Measurement
Displacer
p Type
yp
Displacer
di
dimension
i
0 ---356
0 ---813
0 ---1219
0 ---1524
0 ---1829
Level Measurement
CONTROL LOOP
• Primary Element: The measuring element that quantitatively converts the measured
variable energy
gy into a form suitable for measurement.
• Note: The sensing portion is the primary element for transmitters that do not have
external primary elements.
• Transmitter: A transducer which responds to a measured variable by means of a sensing

element, and converts it to a standardized transmission signal which is a function only
of the measured variable.
• Controlled Variable: A variable the value of which is sensed to originate a feedback

signal. (Also known as the process variable.)
• Controller: A device which operates automatically to regulate a controlled variable.
• Controller Algorithm (PID): A mathematical representation of the control action to be

performed.
• Set Point: An input variable which sets the desired value of the controlled variable.
CONTROL LOOP
CONTROL LOOP
• Error
• In process instrumentation, the algebraic difference between the real value and ideal value of the
measured signal. It is the quantity which when algebraically subtracted from the indicated signal gives
the ideal value.
• Manipulated Variable
• A quantity or condition which is varied as a function of the algebraic error signal so as to cause a change
to the value of the directly controlled variable.
• F db k Control
Feedback C t l
• Control action in which a measured variable is compared to its desired value to produce an actuating
error signal which is acted upon in such a way as to reduce the magnitude of the error.
• Cascade Control
• Control in which the output of one controller is introduced as the set point for another controller.
CONTROL LOOP
Proportioning Band: A temperature band expressed in degrees within which a

temperature controller's
controller s time proportioning function is active.
active
Proportioning Control plus Derivative Function: A time proportioning controller with

derivative function. The derivative function senses the rate at which a system's
temperature is either increasing or decreasing and adjusts the cycle time of the
controller to minimize overshoot or undershoot.
Proportioning Control plus Integral: A two-mode controller with time proportioning and
integral (auto reset) action
action. The integral function automatically adjusts the temperature
at which a system has stabilized back to the set point temperature, thereby eliminating
droop in the system.
Proportioning Control with Integral and Derivative Functions: Three mode PID
controller. A time proportioning controller with integral and derivative functions. The
integral function automatically adjusts the system temperature to the set point
temperature to eliminate droop due to the time proportioning function. The derivative
function senses the rate of rise or fall of the system temperature and automatically
adjusts the cycle time of the controller to minimize overshoot or undershoot.
MASS FLOW CONTROL LOOP
TRANSMITTERS - CONTROL LOOPS
What is HART?
HART ("Highway Addressable Remote Transducer") is a communication protocol

designed for industrial process measurement and control applications.
It's called a hybrid protocol because it combines analog and digital communication.
It can communicate a single variable using a 4-20 ma analog signal, while also
communicating
i ti added
dd d iinformation
f ti on a di
digital
it l signal.
i l The
Th digital
di it l iinformation
f ti iis
carried by a low-level modulation superimposed on the standard 4-to-20 mA current
loop.
The digital signal does not affect the analog reading because it's removed from the
analog signal by standard filtering techniques.
The ability
y to carry
y this added digital
g information is the basis for HART's key
y
benefits
Transmitters - Calibration
How to use HART?

INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION
Calibration: The process of adjusting an instrument or compiling a deviation chart so
th t its
that it reading
di can bbe correlated
l t d tto th
the actual
t l value
l b being
i measured. d
Accuracy: The closeness of an indication or reading of a measurement device to the

actual value of the quantity being measured. Usually expressed as ± percent of full
scale.
l
Error: The difference between the value indicated by the transducer and the true value
of the measurand being sensed. Usually expressed in percent of full scale output.
Repeatability: The ability of a transducer to reproduce output readings when the same
measurand value is applied to it consecutively, under the same conditions, and in the
same direction. Repeatability is expressed as the maximum difference between output
readings.
di
Range: Those values over which a transducer is intended to measure, specified by its
upper and lower limits.
INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION
Span: The difference between the upper and lower limits of a range expressed in the
same units as the range.
Rangeability: The ratio of the maximum flowrate to the minimum flowrate of a meter.
Duplex Wire: A pair of wires insulated from each other and with an outer jacket of
insulation around the inner insulated pair.
Excitation: The external application of electrical voltage current applied to a transducer

for normal operation.
Explosion-proof Enclosure: An enclosure that can withstand an explosion of gases

within it and prevent the explosion of gases surrounding it due to sparks
sparks, flashes or the
explosion of the container itself, and maintain an external temperature which will not
ignite the surrounding gases.
Intrinsically Safe: An instrument which will not produce any spark or thermal effects
under normal or abnormal conditions that will ignite a specified gas mixture.
GAS MEASUREMENT
FUNDAMENTALS
WHY WE NEED GAS MEASURING EQUIPMENT
• Gas volume
Many types of gas metering instruments measure
flowing gas quantities in volume units based on the
pressure and temperature conditions at the
instrument - uncorrected condition.
condition However
However, many
institutes require that the uncorrected volume be
converted to a base (standard) condition volume of
pressure and temperature
p p - corrected condition.
Examples of commonly used base (standard)
pressure and temperature conditions are as follows:
• Pressure (P) = 14.73 psia, 14.696 psia, 14.65 psia,

101.325 kPa, 1.01325 bar
Temperature
p ((T)) = 60°F, 20°C, 15°C, 0°C
Back to Basics
• The combining of Boyle's and Charles' Laws results in the "ideal
or perfect gas law" (PV = RT).
RT) To convert an instrument's
measured volume into a base (standard) condition volume of
pressure and temperature, the ideal gas law can be rewritten to
the condition.
The symbols V1, P1, T1 refer to the flow or metered volume

(uncorrected) pressure and temperature variables at the
(uncorrected),
instrument. The V2, P2, T2 symbols correspond to the volume
(corrected), pressure and temperature variables of the
predetermined base (standard) conditions. By renaming the above
subscripts the base (standard) volume can be rewritten as
subscripts,
follows:
Back to Basics
The symbols V1, P1, T1 refer to the flow or metered volume

(uncorrected), pressure and temperature variables at the instrument.
The V2, P2, T2 symbols correspond to the volume (corrected),
pressure and temperature variables of the predetermined base
(standard) conditions.
Back
ac to Basics
as cs
• By renaming the above subscripts, the
base (standard) volume can be
rewritten as follows:
Vb = gas volume at base (standard)
conditions
diti - corrected
t d ((sft³,
ft³ sm³)
³)
Pb = absolute base pressure
condition (psia, kPa, bar)
Tb = absolute base temperature
condition (°R,
( R, K)
Vf = gas volume at flowing
(instrument) conditions -
uncorrected (ft³, m³)
Pf = absolute pressure at flowing
(i t
(instrument)
t) conditions
diti (psia,
( i
kPa, bar)
Tf = absolute temperature at flowing
(instrument) conditions (°R, K)
Pressure and Temp
p Factors
Pressure Factor
• Pressure factor, Fp
When measuring gases at very low stable pressures [close to base
(standard) conditions], the flowing pressure in most cases will be
assumed close to the base condition. Since both conditions are almost
equal, usually no correction for pressure (Fp) to the registered gas
volume
l iis applied
li d (i
(i.e. F
Fp = 1)
1). H
However, gases measuredd att elevated
l t d or
fluctuating pressures* will usually require the gas volume to be corrected
to a base (standard) volume condition with respect to the pressures
measured at the instrument.
There are several options that may be considered when one experiences
elevated fluctuating pressures. If the first option is not to use an automatic
pressure correcting device, then one must either eliminate the effects of
pressure (i.e. Fp = 1), install an instrument to record pressure values that
will
ill b
be used
d att a llater
t d date
t or utilize
tili an assumed d average value
l tto b
be
applied for conversion. If an automatic pressure correcting device is to be
used, there are several methods that may be implemented.
Pressure Factor
• O
One method
th d iis th
the use off a pressure
multiplier incorporated in the gearing
system
t off a mechanical
h i l iindex
d counter.
t A
second method is to introduce a pressure
f t (Fp)
factor (F ) electronically
l t i ll tto theth
uncorrected meter volume. Due to
i
increasing
i complex l requirements,
i t
electronic processing is becoming the
preferred
f d choice
h i
Pressure
essu e Factor
acto
• The p
pressure factor ((Fp)
p) applied
pp is based on the relationship
p of:
• where:
Pf = absolute pressure at flowing (instrument) conditions (psia, kPa, bar)
Pb = absolute base (standard) pressure condition (psia, kPa, bar)
Pa = atmospheric pressure (psia,
(psia kPa
kPa, bar)
Pg = gauge pressure at flowing (instrument) conditions (psig, kPa, bar)
Each incremental change of flow (instrument) pressure represents a different
pressure factor. As the flowing gas pressure (Pf) changes, an electronic instrument
can automatically apply a pressure factor (Fp) to the volume (Vf) to generate a
corrected base (standard) volume (Vb).
- Refer to last section [super]compressibility factor (Fpv, Z).
* One inch of water column (0
(0.25
25 kPa) in flow pressure change will represent
approximately 0.25% change in volume).
Temp factor
• Temperature Factor
Factor, Ft
Volume change due to temperature variations with
respect to gas flow is approximately one percent for
everyy 5°F ((2.8°C)) difference from base ((standard))
temperature condition (i.e. every ± 5°F/2.8°C change =
1% change in volume). Due to this relationship, it
becomes important to correct the uncorrected volume
for any large increases or decreases in gas flow
temperatures.
The correcting techniques implemented for varying
temperature conditions are similar to the methologies
used for pressure correction. The temperature factor
((Ft)) when applied
pp is expressed
p as follows:
Temp
p Factor
• where:
• Tb = absolute base (standard) temperature (°R, K)

T = absolute flow temperature (°R, K)
tb = base (standard) temperature (°F, °C)
t = flow
fl temperature
t t (°F °C)
(°F,
Each incremental change of gas flow (instrument) temperature represents a
different temperature factor. As the flowing gas temperature (Tf) changes, a
mechanical or electronic instrument can automatically apply a temperature factor
(Ft) tto th
the volume
l (Vf) tto generate
t a corrected
t dbbase ((standard)
t d d) volume
l (Vb)
(Vb).
Super
p Compressibility
p y Factor
• Super compressibility Factor

Factor, Fpv
Fpv, Z
Natural gas is not an ideal gas. In real life situations,

most gases will deviate from the ideal gas law
equation. This is increasingly noticed at elevating gas
pressures and/or lowering temperatures. Since most
gases deviate from the ideal gas law, this deviation is
called the compressibility factor (Z) and should be
incorporated into the ideal gas law equation for certain
gas flow conditions. The addition of gas compressibility
factors results in what is known as the real gas lawlaw.
Super comp factor
Super Co
Supe Comp
p Factor
acto
• where:
Zb = compressibility factor at base (standard)
conditions
p y factor at flow ((Instrument))
Zf = compressibility
conditions
All other subscripts

p are found throughout
g this article.
Since the compressibility of natural gas at base

((standard)) p
pressure is usually y considered to be a value
of 1, the Zb/Zf (also known as the supercompressibility
ratio) can be rewritten as 1/Z. The term
p p
"supercompressibility y ((Fpv)"
p ) is also widely
y known,, and
is equal to
Super
p Comp
p Factor
Super Co
Supe Comp
p Factor
acto
• An electronic instr
instrument
ment can a
automatically
tomaticall
apply a [super]compressibility factor, in which
case the equation for corrected base
(standard) volume is calculated by using one of
the following
g formulas:
Super Comp factor
• D
Depending
di on whichhi h
[super]compressibility factor method
usedd ((e.g. NX
NX-19,
19 AGA-8
AGA 8 or SGERG88)
SGERG88),
the [super]compressibility factor will be
d
dependent
d t on a combination
bi ti off molecular
l l
composition of the gas, the specific
gravity
it (relative
( l ti d density),
it ) h
heating
ti
(calorific) value, pressure and
t
temperature.
t
Graphical
G ap ca p presentation
ese tat o
Orifice Meter
The orifice meter consists of an accurately machined and

drilled plate concentrically mounted between two flanges.
Orifice Meter Advantages and
Li it ti
Limitations
The orifice meter has several practical advantages
• Lower cost
• Smaller physical size
• Well known and predictable characteristics
• It can be easily removed without shutting down the process
Disadvantage:
• Large power consumption in the form of irrecoverable pressure
loss
• It exhibits a square root relationship between head and flow rate
• Low flow rates are not not easily measurable
• Difficult to measure pulsating Flow
Types Of Orifice Plate
• Concentric Orifice Plate

• Eccentric Orifice Plate
• Segmental Orifice Plate
• Quadrant Edge Orifice Plate
Universal Meter Tube Without Vane
Simplex Orifice With Flow Conditioners
Online Replaceable Orifice
With Flow Conditioners
Turbine Meter
Turbine Metering
• Principle
It works on the principle of turbine.
The flowing
Th fl i fl fluid
id iimpinges
i on th
the tturbine
bi
blades (rotor), imparting a force to the blade
surface which causes the rotation of the rotor rotor.
At a steady rotational speed, the speed of the
rotor is directly proportional to the fluid
velocity, and hence volumetric flow rate.
Construction
Turbine Meter Internals
Specifications
• Accuracy
±2.0% for Qmin to 0.2 Qmax
±1% for 0 0.2
2 Qmax to Qmax
• Reproducibility
±0 1%
±0.1%
• Rangeability
1: 10 to 1: 20
Ranges
Metering Spools
Flow Straighter
Advantages And Limitations
• Advantages
1) Good accuracy
2)Excellent repeatability and
Rangeability
3)Fairly low pressure drop
• Disadvantages
1) High
Hi h costt
2)Limited use in slurry services
3)Regular lubrication required
RPD METER
RPD METER PRINCIPLE OF
OPERATION
• Gas entering in the meter causes the
impellers to rotate. Timing gears
synchronize the impellers to turn in
opposite direction. The volume of the gas
within each measuring chamber half is
displaced by measuring of each impeller.
The rotation of the impeller is transferred
to into units of volume by means of gear
trains.
trains
Ranges :
Specifications :
• Accuracy
±2.0% for Qmin to 0.2 Qmax
±1%
1% ffor 00.2
2QQmax tto Q
Qmax
• Reproducibility
±0.1%
• Rangeability
1: 40 to 1: 100
Advantages and disadvantages
• Advantages
1) Good accuracy
2)Excellent repeatability and
Rangeability
3) No special metering spools are
required
• Disadvantages
1)Regular lubrication required
2)) Maintenance required
q
3) Limited operating range
Ultrasonic Flow Meter
For custody transfer metering

Overview
• How do ultrasonic flow meters work
• Why are ultrasonic flow meters attractive

to the natural gas industry?
• Wh
Whatt are the
th characteristics
h t i ti off a `state
` t t off
the art` ultrasonic gas flowmeter?
Principal of Operation
• Transit Time Technique

• Upstream & Downstream Transducers
• Transducers
T d are both
b th `ttransmitter
itt ` and
d `receivers
i `
UP
V
V = Fluid Velocity
c = Fluid Sound Speed
tup = Transit Time in the V
θ P
Upstream Direction L
tdn = Transit time in the
DN
Downstream Direction
∆t = Transit Time Difference
P = Acoustic Path Through Fluid
L = Axially Projected Path
Through Fluid
θ = Path Angle g
UP
DISTANCE = RATE × TIME
DISTANCE V
TIME = θ P
RATE L
DN
V
• NO FLOW • WITH FLOW θ
P P θ
tup = tup =
c c -Vsinθ c
P P V
tdn = tdn = θ
c c + Vsinθ θ
∆t = tup − tdn = 0 ∆t = tup − tdn c
• Velocity is measured along

the acoustic path between a
pair of transducers.
• The goal is to measure the
total area average velocity.
• Multipath meters interrogate
more off the
th velocity
l it profile.
fil
• Reflected paths increase the
time the sound spends in the
gas.
• Some path configurations can
infer the presence of swirl or
crossflow.
Path Arrangement Of USM
6 path
th
Path 1
P ath 2
P ath 3
Path Arrangement Of USM
3 path
upper and lower plain
middle plain
upper and lower plain
middle plain
middle plain
upper plain
lower plain
Path arrangement
• Compensation of disturbed flow conditions
• Low expenditure for flow conditioning
• Redundance
• Meter’s
Meter s accuracy is affected by the velocity profile
at the meter.
• Profile disturbances are the result of upstream
piping arrangements.
1.0 1.0 1.0
0 .9
0..928
0.8 0.8 0.9 0.8 1.0 83
56
0.
11
92
39
6
1. 1.0
0.95
0.
8
0.6 03 0.6
Normalized Vertical Position (Y)
0.6
90
0.956
9
Normalized Vertical Position (Y)
0.9
alized Vertical Position (Y)
0
28
0.900
83
0.4 0.4 1.
0.9
0.4 1.0 03
1.0 .039
94
0.911
9
1
1.1
83
0.2 22 0.2 0.2

0.956
1.011
-0.0 -0.0 -0.0
56 0.983
1. 0
-0.2 -0.2
39
-0.2 7
06
1.
Norma
-0.4 -0.4
0.9
-0.4
0.9
0 .9
0.9
6
0.95
56
56
00
-0.6
-0.6 -0.6
8
0.983
0.92
0.956
00 0.9 0.928
-0.8 0.9 -0.8
-0.8 0.9028
0.928 0
-1.0
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 -0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 -0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 -0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Normalized Horizontal Position (X)
Normalized Horizontal Position (X) Normalized Horizontal Position (X)
Fully Developed Asymmetrical Swirling

Installation conditions
Version with ultrasonic electronics type USE08
USZ08 in unidirectional operation

Version with ultrasonic electronics type IGM878
2-4D
10D 3-8D 3D
depending in
diameter
Version with ultrasonic electronics type USE08

USZ08 in bidirectional operation
Version with ultrasonic electronics type IGM878
4D
10D 3-8D 10D
depending in
diameter
Why Ultrasonic?
• Ultrasonic meters demonstrate lower maintenance

costs than other metering technologies.
– Significantly
Si ifi tl llower permanentt pressure lloss (PPL)
– No flow restriction
– No field instrumentation calibration
– No moving parts or wear
– Remote diagnostics reduce time required for
troubleshooting
Why Ultrasonic?
• The decision to utilize ultrasonic metering

technology is primarily evaluated on a
performance vs. cost savings basis.
• Capacity
p y
• Rangeability
• Accuracy
• Installation/ operating costs
Why Ultrasonic?
• Meter Accuracy
– Multipath ultrasonic meters can demonstrate
accuracy of 0.5% without flow calibration and better
than 0.2% with flow calibration
– Repeatability: 0.1%
Various Types Of Meters
Specs
Orifice Turbine RPD Ultrasonic
Specifications Meter Meter Meter Meter
Rangeability 01:03 01:20 1 : 160 01:50

Suitable Suitable no
Suitable,
Dirty Gas for Dirty Not Not intruding /
Conditions Gas suitable suitable moving part
2" and
2 40 NB &
Size Capacity above above upto 4" 4" & above
Ex
HAZARDOUS AREA CLASSIFICATION

&
SELECTION OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
FOR FLAMMABLE ATMOSPHERES

Hazardous Areas-Definitions
Ex
Hazardous area is an area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is

present, or likely to be present, in quantities such as to require
special precautions for the construction
construction, installation and use of
electrical apparatus.
AREA CLASSIFICATION
Ex
• How many Zones as per Indian standards?

–ZONE 0 , ZONE 11, ZONE II
• European & American classifications (Zones and Divisions)

–CLASS I, CLASS II
Typical areas
¾ Zone 0 :
Ex
Zone in which an explosive atmosphere is continuously present for long periods.
closed process vessels, storage tanks
¾ Zone
Z 1:
Zone in which an explosive atmosphere is likely to occur in normal operation,

typically between 10 and 100 hours per year.
Maintenance, Leakage, inadequately ventilated area
¾ Zone 2 :
Zone in which an explosive atmosphere is not likely to occur in normal operation,

and if it occurs it will exist only for a short time, typically as less than 10 hours per
year.
Locations adjacent
d to Zone 1, Pressurized
d room where
h flammable
fl bl gas may enter
accidently.
Safe Areas -Typical areas
Ex
The following locations are considered safe from the point of view of
electrical installation:
• Areas where the piping system is without valves, fittings, flanges or

similar appurtenances
pp
• Areas where flammable liquids or vapours are transported only in

suitable containers or vessels
• Areas where permanent ignition sources area present like area where
combustion gases are present, for example flare pits, tips, other open
flames & hot surfaces
HAC- Comparison
• North America (NFPA / API/ NFPA 70E or NEC)

Ex –Hazardous Areas:
- Division I- Z0 + Z1
- Division II- Z2
–Hazardous Locations
- Class I-Flammable Gases / Vapour
- Class II- Combustible dust
- Class III- Combustible fibres or flyings
–Gas / vapour grouping
- A, B, C, D, E, F & G
• Japan
–Hazardous Areas
- Classes 1, 2 & 3
–Gas
Gas / vapour groups
- G1, G2, G3, G4, G5 & G6
Ex
An experienced
p process
p engineer’s
g judgement
j g in
visualizing leak scenarios and classifying
hazardous areas is the most CRUCIAL factor in
the HAC exercise
HAC-RELEVANT INTERNATIONAL
STANDARDS
Ex
• API RP 500- Area Classification of Petroleum Installations
• IEC 79-10 :1995 -Electrical Apparatus for Explosive Gas

Atmospheres,
p p
part 10 Classification of hazardous areas
• IP Part 15, 1990- Area Classification Code for Petroleum Installations
• BS EN 60079
60079-10,
10, : 1996 -Electrical
Electrical Apparatus for Explosive Gas
Atmospheres, part 10 Classification of hazardous areas
• BS 5345, 1983-Selection, installation and maintenance of electrical

apparatus for use in potentially explosive atmospheres (other than
mining applications or explosive manufacturing), part 2,
Recommendations for particular industrial situations
TEMPERATURE CLASSIFICATION
Ex
T Class Max. Surface Temperature

(Deg. C)
T1 450
T2 300
T3 200
T4 135
T5 100
T6 85
GAS GROUP CLASSIFICATION
Ex
• Gas group I
–Methane
• Gas group II A
–Ammonia, CO, Propane, Butane, Benzene, Acetone, Methanol
• Gas group II B
–Butadiene, Ethylene, Ethylene Oxide, Diethyl Ether
• Gas group II C
–Hydrogen
H d
Which is the most hazardous group ?

Comparison – UK & US Classifications
Ex Hazardous Area
European Standard North American

(IEC) Standard (NEC)
Zone 0
Division 1
Zone 1
Zone 2 Division 2
Comparison – UK & US Classifications
Ex Gas Groups
European Standard North American
(IEC) Standard (NEC)
I & IIA D
IIB C
IIC B
IIC A
Ex
Ex
EXPLOSION-PROTECTION EQUIPMENT
EXPLOSION-PROTECTION METHODS /
EQUIPMENT
Ex
¾ Intrinsic Safe (Ex. ‘i’)
The circuit parameters are reliably controlled to reduce potential spark

energy to below that which will ignite the specific gas mixture. This includes
the occurrence of one (ib) or two (ia) component faults in the apparatus.
¾ Powder filled (Ex ‘q’ )
This involves the mounting of potentially incendive components in an

enclosure filled with sand or similar inert powder and having a vent.
¾ Oil immersed (Ex ‘o’ )
This is an old technique primarily used for switchgear. The spark is formed
under oil and venting is controlled.
EXPLOSION-PROTECTION METHODS /
EQUIPMENT
Ex ¾ Flameproof (EX d)
Component is placed in enclosure where explosion resulted by Flammable

atmosphere is not transmitted outside enclosure.
¾ Increased Safety (Ex e )
Components are designed to substantially reduce likelihood of occurrence

of fault condition which could cause ignition.
¾ Non
Non-Sparking
Sparking (Ex n )
Precautions are taken with connections & wiring to increase reliability

though not as high as Ex e.
¾ Pressurization
P i ti (Ex(E p )
Positive static pressure is maintained inside enclosure using inert gas.

Another way is, continuous flow of inert gas to carry away flammable
g
gases.
RECOMMENDED PROTECTION
METHODS FOR ZONE O
Ex
No electrical equipment should be allowed. When this is not practicable,

Ex ‘ i ‘ (ia or ib) apparatus or circuits to be used
• No transformers, motors, lights, switch gear or control gear

METHODS FOR ZONE 1
Ex
Motors- Ex d, Ex p
Transformers & Capacitors

p - Ex d
Control & Instrument Transformers - Ex i
Lighting Fitting - Ex d
Switch Gear & Control Gear - Ex d
Communication/ Telephone equipment/Meters - Ex i
Portable Hand Lamps- Ex i

METHODS FOR ZONE 2
Ex
Motors Ex d
Motors- d, Ex p,
p Ex n,
n Ex e,
e
Transformers & Capacitors - Ex d, Ex p
Controll & Instrument Transformers

f - Ex i
Lighting Fitting - Ex d, Ex e, Ex n
Switch Gear & Control Gear - Ex d, Ex o, Ex
Communication/ Telephone equipment/Meters - Ex i
Portable Hand Lamps- Ex i

Protections in Each Zone
Ex
Zone - Ex ia
Zone 0 - Any type of protection suitable for Zone 0 and
Zone 1 - Ex d, Ex ib, Ex p, Ex e, Ex s, Ex m
Zone 2 - Any type of protection suitable for Zone 0 or Zone 1 and
Ex N or Ex n Ex o Ex q Also see notes on Ex s protection

FLAMPROOF (EXPLOSION-PROOF)
PROTECTION (Ex ‘d’)
Ex
¾ Maximum gaps and flame path for gas groups depends on ignition
energies of the gas / vapour and the volume of the enclosure
¾ For example, for IIB gas group, for 100 Cubic cm volume, for flanged
joints:
–Flame
l Path
h - 6 mm
–Maximum Gap - 0.3 mm
¾ For II C Hydrogen, 100 cubic cm volume, for flanged joints:

–Flame path - 9.5 mm
–Maximum
Maximum Gap - 0.10 1 mm
Typical Protection Markings
Ex
EX e typical marking: EEx e IIA T3

EX d typical marking: EEx d IIB T5
EX i typical marking: EEx ia IIC T5
EX n typical
t i l marking:
ki EE n IIA T4
EEx
Ex
INGRESS PROTECTION (IP)

Ex
Ingress of Liquid
IP XY
Degree of Protection of persons against contact with
or moving parts inside the enclosure & Protection
Of E
Equipment
uipm nt against
g in t Solid
S lid ingress
ingr
IP Types and Protection Details
Ex
FIRST NUMERAL SECOND NUMERAL

0 No protection 0 No protection
1 Objects greater than 50 mm 1 Vertically dripping
2 Objects greater than 12 mm 2 Angular dripping
3 Objects greater than 2.5 mm 3 Sprayed
y water
4 Objects greater than 1.0 mm 4 Splashed water
5 Dust - protected 5 Water jets
6 Dust tight 6 Heavy
y seas
7 Effects of immersion
8 Indefinite immersion
NEMA - National Electrical Manufacturers Association
(USA) Standards - Comparison
Ex NEMA
Enclosure IEC Enclosure
Type Classification
1 - IP 10
2 - IP 11
3 - IP 54
3R - IP 14
3S - IP 54
4 and 4X - IP 56
5 - 2
IP 52
6 and 6P - IP 67
12 and 12K - IP 52
13 - IP 54
Indian Standards for Various Protection
Techniques
Ex
• IS 5571 Guide For Selection Of Electrical Equipment For Hazardous Areas
• IS 5572 –Part I Classification of Hazardous Areas for Electrical Installations
• IS 13408 Part I,
I II,
II III Code of Selection,
Selection Installation and Maintenance of Electrical
Apparatus for Use in Explosive Atmospheres
• IS 8239 Classification of Maximum Surface Temperature of Electrical Equipment for Use In

Explosive Atmospheres
• IS 6381 Construction and testing of Electrical Apparatus with type of protection ‘e’
• IS 2148 Flameproof Enclosures of Electrical Apparatus
q
• IS 13346 General Requirements for Electrical Apparatus
pp for Explosive
p Gas Atmospheres
p
• IS 5780 Specification For Intrinsically Safe Electrical Apparatus and Circuits
• IS 8240 Guide for Electrical Equipment for Explosive Atmospheres

Indian Standards for Various Protection Techniques
Ex
• IS 2147 Degrees of Protection Provided by Enclosures For Low Voltage Switch Gear & Control
Gear
• IS 4691 Degrees
g of Protection Provided by
y Enclosures For Rotating
g Electrical Machinery
y
• IS 8241 Methods of Marking for Identifying Electrical equipment for Explosive Atmospheres
• IS 8224 Specification for Electric Lighting fitting for Explosive Atmospheres
• IS 8289 Electrical Equipment with Type of Protection ‘n’
• IS 7389 Specification for Pressurized Enclosures
• IS 2206 (PART I,III)

I III) Specification for Flame proof Electric Light Fixtures
Ex
STATUTORY REGULATIONS & APPROVAL

REQUIREMENTS
Approval / Testing Agencies
Ex
¾ CMRI (Central Mining Research Instituite), Dhanbad, BIHAR
¾ CCoE (Chief Controller of Explosives), Nagpur
¾ BIS (Bureau Of Indian Standards)
¾ DGMS (Director General Mine Safety), Dhanbad, BIHAR
¾ DGFASLI (Director General of Factory Advice Service and Labour

Instituites), Mumbai
Statutory Regulations For Plants Utilizing
Hydrocarbons
Ex
¾ Petroleum Act, 1884

¾Petroleum Rules, 1976
¾ Explosive Act, 1934

¾Explosive Rules, 1983
y
¾Gas Cylinder Rules, 1981
¾Static & Mobile pressure Vessel (Unfired) Rules, 1981
CCoE, Department of Explosives is entrusted with the responsibility

CCoE
of administration of the above statutory rules in India
Equipment Approval Procedure
Drawing and prototype

Ex submittal to CMRI
Tests by CMRI
Approval by CMRI
ISI Certification
C tifi ti (T (Tests
t bby
CMRI) as per applicable
Indian Standards
Approvals by:
• DGFASLI
• CCOE
BRIEF ON AGA
BRIEF ON AGA
BRIEF ON AGA
BRIEF ON AGA
BRIEF ON AGA
BRIEF ON AGA
Gas flow measurement
AGA3 ( Orifice Metering )

AGA5 ( Energy Metering )
AGA7 ( Turbine Metering )
AGA8 ( Compressibility Calculation )
AGA9 ( Ultrasonic Flow Measurement )
AGA11 ( Mass Flow Measurement)
AGA3
3 (Orifice
( Metering)
g)
Differential pressure across orifice

Line pressure
Line Temperature
And other parameters
AGA3(1985) Configuration
parameters
Pipe Diameter Pipe Material
Orifice Diameter Orifice Material
Base Pressure AGA3 Method
Base Temperature
p Tapp Location
Atmospheric Pressure Tap Type
Specific Gravity Zf & Zb from AGA8
or NX-19
Contract Hour
AGA3 (1992)Configuration
parameters for
parameters-f flflanged
d only
l
Pipe Diameter at 200C Pipe Material

Orifice Diameter at 200C Orifice Material
Base Pressure AGA3 Method
Base Temperature
p Tapp Location
Atmospheric Pressure Gas isentropic exponent
Specific Gravity Zf & Zb from AGA8
or NX-19
Dynamic
y Viscosity
y
AGA5 (Energy
gy Metering)
g
AGA5 calculates heating value
Energy rate = Volumetric flowrate * Heating Value
AGA5 Configuration parameters :
Base Pressure O2 H2O

Base Temperature HE
Specific Gravity CO
CO2 H2S
N2 H2
AGA7 Configuration
parameters
Base Pressure
Base Temperature
Atmospheric Pressure
Specific Gravity
Zf & Zb from AGA8 or NX – 19
Contract Hour
Compressibility factor Calculation
Zf and Zb
NX - 19 AGA8
Detail Gross
Gross – 1 Gross – 2
HV G CO2
HV,G,CO2 G CO2 N2
G,CO2,N2
AGA 3 –ORIFICE METERING
ORIFICE METERING & NATURAL

GAS & OTHER RELATED
HYDROCARBON FLUIDS
AGA3 –IMPORTANT ASPECTS
Construction :
1. Recommended Beta ration : 0.2-0.75.
2. Plate thickness – 3.18 mm for pipe size <8”

6.35 mm for pipe size <16”
9 53 mm for
9.53 f pipe
i size
i <20”
20”
3. Flange tap hole – 1” from nearest plate face
4. Pressure tap size – 9.5 mm for pipe sizes 2”&3”

12.7 mm for p p sizes ≥ 4”
pipe
5. Internal Surface roughness

g for upstream
p & downstream meter
run.
Beta Ratio ≤ 0.6 > 0.6

Line Size
< 12” 300 µinch 250 µinch
> 12
12” 600 µinch 500 µinch
Recommended Installation :
1. Upstream Meter Run –
¾ Installation with 19 tube bundle.
For β ≤ 0.5 , UL1 =5.5Di ,UL2 =11.5Di
¾ Installation with plate type flow profiler , CPA 50E.
UL1 =5D & UL2 =8D.
Where, Di & D
D=Pipe
Pipe ID.
2. Downstream Meter Run –
¾ For β ≤ 0.5 , DL = 3.5 Di.

¾ For β > 0.5 , DL = 4.5 Di.
3. Thermo well Location - Between 1 DL to 4 DL
Flow computation Parameters :

¾ Differential Pressure across Orifice.
Orifice
¾ Line Pressure.
¾ Line temperature.
¾ Compressibility Factor calculated by AGA8.
AGA 7 –TURBINE METERING
MEASUREMENT OF GAS BY
TURBINE METERS
¾ Upstream Meter Run – 10DN.
¾ Downstream Meter Run – 5DN.

N
¾ Flow Straightner at 5DN Upstream of meter.
¾ Thermo well between 1DN to 5DN.
¾ No other connection on meter run except pressure , temperature

tapping.
tapping
¾ Pressure tap provided on meter should be used.
Where , DN- Nominal Pipe Bore Diameter.

Straightening Vanes :
Additional Requirement :
¾ Installation of strainer or filter is recommended.
¾ Anyvent/blowdown should be located downstream of meter

meter. As
thumb rule Vent/blow down sizes should be.
Meter Size Valve Size
2 ¼”
3 ½”
4 ½”
6 to 12 1”
¾ Meter Meter run should be adequately supported & installed to

minimize strain on meter body due to pipe stress.
stress
Flow computation Parameters :
¾ Pulse output from Turbine Meter.
¾ Li Pressure.
Line P
¾ Line temperature.
¾ Compressibility Factor calculated by AGA8.

AGA 9 –ULTRASONIC
METERING
MEASUREMENT OF GAS BY
MULTIPATH ULTRASONIC
METERS
AGA 9 –IMPORTANT ASPECTS
Recommended Output : (Any one of three)
1. Serial Interface – RS 232/RS485 / Equivalent .

2. Pulse frequency representing flow rate at line condition.
3. Analog, 4-20 mA scaled for flow rate at line conditions.
Accuracy Requirement – Peak to Peak , without adjustment
For meter ≥ 12
12” 0 7% for Qt ≤ Qi ≤ Qmax.
- ± 0.7% Qmax
± 1.4% for Qmin ≤ Qi <Qt.
Qt ≤ Q
For meter < 12” - ± 1.0% for Q Qi ≤ Q
Qmax.
± 1.4% for Qmin ≤ Qi < Qt.
1. For Unidirectional Meter –
- 10D (UL1) + Profiler +10D(UL2) & 5D (DL)
- Thermo well Tapping -Between 2D to 5D on downstream meter run

2. For Bidirectional Meter –
- 10D (UL1) + Profiler +10D(UL2) on both sides.
- Thermo well Tapping - Between 3D to 5D on either side.

Calibration :
Zero Flow Calibration :
¾ Medium – Air or Nitrogen.
¾ Speed of sound given by each path of USM should be within

±0.2% of the theoretical value calculated by AGA 10.
Flow Calibration :
¾ Medium – Natural Gas.
¾ Calibration done nearly at Operating pressure.

¾ Calibration points : 00.025Qmax

025Qmax , 0.05Qmax
0 05Qmax , 0.1
0 1 Qmax , 0.25
0 25 Qmax
0.5Qmax , 0.75Qmax , Qmax.
¾ At least two verification points should be taken after meter

adjustment.
¾ At least one Upstream meter run , downstream meter run & flow
conditioner should be used during flow calibration. Wherever
possible complete meter run used during flow calibration.
AGA5 –ENERGY METERING
¾ Used for Calculation of Heating Value & Energy Flow rate .
¾ Energy Flow rate = Volumetric Flow rate X Heating Value.
where Heating value is calculated using following parameters
• Base Pressure
• Base Temperature
• Specific Gravity
• CO2 , N2, O2, HE, CO, H2S, H2,H2O

OTHER AGA STANDARDS
¾ AGA Report No. 8/API MPMS Ch. 14.2 - Compressibility Factors

of Natural Gas and Other Related Hydrocarbon Gases.
¾ AGA Report No. 10-Speed of Sound in Natural Gas and Other

Related Hydrocarbon Gases.
Gases
¾ AGA Report No. 11 - Coriolis Flow Measurement for Natural Gas

Applications.
GAS CHROMATOGRAPH
¾ Components of On-Line
On Line Gas Chromatograph :
• Sample conditioning system

• Analyzer unit and Programmable control unit
• Portable configurator
• Cables cable glands
Cables, glands, junction box
box, tubing
tubing, fitting etc.
etc
• Calibration gas cylinder and carrier gas cylinders
GAS CHROMATOGRAPH
¾ Computation capabilities :
• Heating Values – Gross & Net .
• Specific Gravity
• Wobbe Index.
GAS CHROMATOGRAPH
¾ Related Standards :
• AGA-5
• GPA 2172/2145-03
• ISO 6976-95.
• AGA 8
¾ Heating Value for Natural gas is near about 8000

8000-10000
10000
Kcal/Sm³.
GAS CHROMATOGRAPH
¾ Heating
H ti value
l :
• The heating value or calorific value of a substance, usually a
fuel
or food, is the amount of heat released during the combustion of
a specified amount of it.
it
• It is measured in units of energy per unit of the substance

usually mass, such as: kcal/kg, kJ/kg, J/mol, Btu/m³.
• The heat of combustion for fuels is expressed as the HHV,

HHV
LHV,
or GHV.
GAS CHROMATOGRAPH
¾ Heating
H ti value
l :
• The quantity known as higher heating value (HHV) (or gross
calorific value or gross energy or upper heating value) is determine
by bringing all the products of combustion back to the original
pre-combustion temperature, and in particular condensing any
vapor produced .
• The quantity known as lower heating value (LHV) (or net
calorific
l ifi value)
l ) is
i d
determined
t i d by
b subtracting
bt ti the th heat
h t off
vaporization of the water vapor from the higher heating value
GAS CHROMATOGRAPH
¾ Working
W ki Principle
Pi i l :
COMMUNICATION SIGNAL
Commonly
y used Communication Signals
g -
Signal RS 232 RS 485 Ethernet

Feature
Physical Twisted Twisted Pair Twisted Pair,
Medium Pair Coaxial
Cable
Network Point to Point to Point , Multi-point
Topology Point Multi dropped
Multi-dropped
Maximum Upto 15 Upto 1200 Upto 100
Distance meters meters meters
COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS
¾ MODBUS :
It is a serial communications protocol published by Modicon in

1979 ffor use with
ith it
its programmable
bl llogic
i controllers
t ll (PLC )
(PLCs).
The main reasons for the extensive use of MODBUS over other
communications protocols are:
• It is openly published and royalty-free

• Relatively easy industrial network to deploy
• It moves raw bits or words without placing many restrictions
on vendors
¾ MODBUS :
Versions of the MODBUS protocol exist for serial port and for
Ethernet. For Ethernet , protocol is MODBUS/TCP.
MODBUS is often used to connect a supervisory computer with a

remote terminal unit (RTU) in supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA) systems. & often used for third party
i t f
interface off different
diff t make.
k
¾ PROFIBUS :
PROFIBUS (Process Field Bus) is a standard for field bus

communication
i ti iin automation
t ti technology
t h l and
d was first
fi t
promoted (1989) by BMBF (German department of education
and research).
) .
PROFIBUS is the only field bus that can be used in equal

measure in production automation and process automation .
¾ HART (Commonly used in transmitters):
HART ("Highway Addressable Remote Transducer") is a

communication
i ti protocol
t ld
designed
i d ffor iindustrial
d t i l process
measurement and control applications.
It can communicate a single variable using a 4-20 ma analog

signal, while also communicating added information on a
di it l signal.
digital i l The
Th di
digital
it l iinformation
f ti iis carried
i dbby a llow-level
l l
modulation superimposed on the standard 4-to-20 mA current
p
loop.
Natural Gas Filtration
and Separation
Liquid Filtration
Gas Filtration
Gas Filtration
• Solid removal and

• Free Liquid removal
• Dry gas filtration

• Scrubber / KOD
• Filter Separator
• Coalescer
Diff. type of Filtration
Equipments for Gas
• Dry Gas Filters for solid removal
Equipments for Gas
• Dry Gas Filter for Solid Removal
Equipments for Gas
• Basic Principal of operation – Cartridge Filter
• As the gas gets into the filter, the velocity
decreases and the heavy entrainments drop
out of the gas stream. The gas then raises
and flows through g the filter elements. Here
the micronic particles are trapped in the
fibres and retained; clean gas then flows
th
throughh th
the iinner perforated
f t d metalt l liliner
(core) to the filter outlet.
Equipments for Gas
• Scrubber / KOD for solid and liquid removal
Equipments for Gas
• Scrubber / KOD for solid and liquid removal
Equipments for Gas
• Basic Principal of operation – Vane type
• In typical vane type separator the gas gets
into the vessel and passes through the vane
unit, splitting into many fluid ribbons, subject
to sudden changes g of direction, which cause
a semi-turbulence, with consequent rolling of
liquid entrainments against the walls of the
vanes. Drops,
D enter
t iinto
t th
the vane pockets
k t
and fall by gravity into the lower part of the
vessel where they are collected and drained
vessel, drained.
Equipments for Gas
• Basic Principal of operation – Cyclotube type
• The separator element consists of multiple
small diameter cyclone tubes assembled in
tube bundles. The dirty gas enters through
ports, causing
p g a swirling
g motion, which
throws dry and liquid entrainments against
wall of the cyclone tube: clean gas changes
di ti att th
direction the vortex
t and d rises
i outt th
through
h
outlet tube. Impurities, being heavier, fall
down through hole into the proper storage
area.
Equipments for Gas
• Filter – Separator for solid and liquid removal
Equipments for Gas
• Filter – Separator for solid and liquid removal
Equipments for Gas
• Basic Principal p of operation
p – Filter Separator
p
• In filter separators, removal of solid and liquid
particles takes place gradually.
A vessell iinlet,
At l llarger particles
i l are removed db
by
gravitational effect due to the gas velocity
decreasing and by impingement on inner surfaces surfaces.
Filter elements entrap the smaller solid particles,
while liquid droplets coalesce to be removed in the
f ll i stage
following t consisting
i ti off a vane unit.it Th
The
contaminant is collected either in a separate
reservoir
ese o co connected
ected to tthe
e filter
te sepa
separator
ato oor in tthe
e
same vessel.
Equipments for Gas
• Gas Coalescer for liquid removal
Equipments for Gas
• Gas Coalescer for liquid removal
Equipments for Gas
• Basic Principal of operation – Gas Coalescer
• For this application the real task of the filter
elements is not to filter the liquids but to
cause a coalescence effect. The liquid
entrainments in the form of fogs
entrainments, fogs, lay on the
fibres of the cartridge generating larger and
heavier droplets which will be removed by
gravity at the outlet of the cartridge itself.
Diff. media for Gas Filtration
• Cartridge elements
• Cyclotube bundle
• Vane pack
p
• Demister pad
• Coalescing elements
Efficiency - Basic about
micron
• 1 micron = 0
0.000039
000039 Inch or
• 1 micron = 0.001 mm
• Human Hair – 100 micron

• White blood cell – 25 micron
• Talcum power – 10 micron
• Red blood cell – 8 micron
• B t i – 2 micron
Bacteria i
Efficiency - Basic about
micron
Efficiencyy in micron
• Cartridge Filters – 0.5

0 5 to 5 micron
• Cyclotube Separator – 10 micron
• V
Vane Separator
S t – 8 micron
i
• Demister – 10 micron
• Filter – Separator – 1 to 3 micron
• Coalescing Filter – 0.3
0 3 micron
Absolute and Nominal
• Absolute refers to a specified size particle

and larger that will totally be removed from a
process system or 99 99.99%
99%
• N
Nominal
i l refers
f tto a percentage
t off a specified
ifi d
size particle and larger that will be removed
f
from a process system
t or 98%
Inlet and Outlet nozzle sizing
g
• Normally 20 m/sec velocity to be considered

for sizing inlet and outlet nozzle
• Q = AV
• Q – Flow in actual m3/hr

• A – Area
• V – Velocity
Basic information required for
sizing filtration equipments
• Flow rate
• Operating pressure
• O
Operating
ti temperature
t t
• Viscosity or molecular weight
• Required efficiency
• Gas compositions
• Acceptable pressure drop in clean condition
• M t i l off construction
Material t ti
Datasheet
• Cartridge Filter
Datasheet
• KOD / Scrubber
Datasheet
• Filter - Separator
Datasheet
• Coalescer
Operation
p and Maintenance
• Replacing old cartridge with new one when

pressure drop reaches specified change over
pressure
• Regular monitoring of Differential Pressure
Gauge
• Regular monitoring of Level gauge for liquid
d i
drainage
• Proper tightening of head flange and other
flange joints after maintenance
Basic accessories
• Pressure Gauge / Pressure Transmitter

• Differential pressure gauge / Differential
pressure transmitter
• Level Gauge
• Level transmitter
• Level switch
• Drain valves (auto/manual)
• Pressure safety valve
• Quick opening closure
Basic Accessories
Vessel design
g Code
• ASME SEC VIII DIV 1 for pressure vessels

and heat exchanges
QOC – Quick Opening
Closure
• QOC
Natural Gas Heater
Electrical Heater
Indirect water bath Heater
Steam Heater
Electrical Heater - Purpose
p
• To heat the gas for maintaining required

temperature of gas
• Temperature drops due to ..
• surrounding weather conditions
• Drop in pressure
Electrical Heater
• Mainly used when KW is lowlow.. Say 50 and

below
• Operation cost is not high
• Less o & m cost
Electrical Heater
Electrical Heater
Indirect water bath heater
• When KW is high and electrical heater

become costly in terms of running cost
• Type -
• Natural draft type
• Force draft type
• Uses natural ggas as fuel to heat the g
gas
Indirect water bath heater
• Indirect water bath heater

Steam heater
• Uses steam as media to heat the gas

• Low operating cost
• Advisable
Ad i bl where h steam
t iis easily
il available
il bl
say fertilizer plant
4. Gas Regulating and Metering Skids
Prepiped Gas Skids
• City Gate Stations
• District regulating Stations
• Conditioning, Metering & Regulating Stations
• Service Regulator Modules
Engineering
•Skid Design :- Control Configuration to
•ANSI B 31.8, IGE TD 9 , 10 & 13
•Active Monitor / Working monitor Configuration
•Twin stream –Hot Stand-by
•Equipment Design to ASME Sec. VIII Div.I
•Gas Metering:-Orifice Metering to AGA–3/API 14.3
•Turbine Metering to AGA – 7
•Ultrasonic Metering to AGA - 9
•Flow Computation to AGA-8, AGA-5
•Hazardous Area classification to IEC
•We hold more than 100 various standards of EN ASME/ANSI/ISA,
API, BS, DIN, IS, ISO, MSS & IGTD
System Design & Integration
• Design & Manufacture of Knock Out Drums, Scrubbers

& Filter Seperators
• Design & Manufacture of Gas Preheaters
• Design & Manufacture of Pressure Regulators & Slam
Shut Valves
• By-pass & injection type Odorizer
• Design & Integration of metering systems &
manufacturing of meter runs
• System Integration with PLC, Flow Computer, RTU
with SCADA configuration, communication through
VSAT / GSM / PSTN / OFC / Radio
Control Configurations
• ANSI B 31.8
• IGE TD 13
• EN 12186
• TWIN-STREAM HOT STAND-BY

• ACTIVE-MONITOR & WORKING-MONITOR
IGE/TD/13 & EN STANDARDS
PRESSURE REGULATING
INSTALLATIONS FOR
TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
We are witnessing today, creation of gas transmission and distribution

pipeline network in India. The process of laying down Indian standards,
guidelines and norms covering various aspects of this infrastructure has also
begun. There have been various international standards and guidelines that
are being followed across the world. We are going to have a look at
evolution of IGTD standards and EN standards for Gas Pressure Regulating
Installations for transmission and distribution.
As BG has been a stake holder in two early gas distribution companies

in India, namely Gujarat Gas Company Ltd. and Mahanagar Gas
Company Ltd., There has been a good influence in India, of British
guidelines laid down by Institute of Gas Engineers UK.
IGE AND EN RECOMMENDATIONS
In the mid eighties and early nineties, Institution of Gas engineers

recommended practice IGE/TD/9 and IGE/TD/10 were most popularly
prevalent. IGE/TD/9 dealt with off- takes and pressure regulating
installations for inlet pressure between 7 & 100 Bar, whereas IGE/TD/10
dealt with pressure regulating installations for inlet pressure between 75
mbar & 7 Bar. Both IGE/TD/9 & 10 were superseded by IGE/TD/13 which
covers all the pressure regulating installations for transmission and
distribution with inlet pressure not exceeding 100 Bar.
The process of creating harmonized EN standards, applicable to all the

EU countries, superseding various national standards of those countries
started getting momentum in early part of this decade.
EN-12186 deals with functional requirements of gas pressure regulating

stations (PRS) for transmission and distribution. It covers PRS for inlet
pressure up to 100 Bar
EN-12279 deals with functional requirements of Gas Pressure Regulating

Installations on service lines where inlet pressure does not exceed 16 bar
and design flow rate is equal to or less than 200 NM3/Hr.
IGE recommendations have been more elaborate as compared to the newer

EN standards. Hereafter, we shall discuss specific recommendations of
IGE/TD/13 and EN-12186, EN-12279.
A typical example of an off-take pressure regulating installation is shown

in Figure -1,
Fig. 1 - IGE/TD/13 Offtake-Examples Of PRI Isolation

Both IGE/TD/13 and EN12186 broadly classify the stations based on their
housings; as a) separate installations/ buildings,
b) Cabinet stations, c) part of/or inside another building and
d) Underground stations.
Venting requirements and other construction requirements vary

depending on type of housings.
IGE/TD/13(clause 7.1.2) recommends that pipe work should be sized

such that the gas velocity will not exceed 20 m/s for unfiltered gas and
40 m/s for the filtered gas at the outlet of the PRI under conditions of
maximum flow and lowest operational pressure. Where it is essential to
PRI design requirements, gas velocities within the PRI streams may
exceed the recommended filtered gas velocity subject to the system
design capability, noise levels and good engineering practice.
Pressure Regulating and Safety Systems
Usually, a PRI has two pressure regulating streams in

hot stand-by mode. i.e. though isolation valves of both
the streams are open, under normal operating condition,
due to the difference in set pressures of both the
pressure regulating streams, only one stream supplies
gas. The other stream, though charged with gas and
open isolation valves is stand-by and gas is not supplied
through the stand-by stream unless the running stream
fails to supply gas due to contingency such as tripping of
slam shut.
Pressure Regulating and Safety Systems
Accuracy requirements of pressure regulators are specified in figure 12

of IGE/TD/13 reproduced hereunder.
Set Pressure Range Accuracy at set point
P > 21 mbar < 100 mbar + / - 7.5 %
P > 100 mbar < 350 mbar +/-5%
P > 350 mbar < 16 bar + / - 2.5 %
P > 16 bar < 100 bar + / - 2.5 %
Fig.2 - Accuracy of regulators associated with a metering installation
Note: At flow rates not exceeding 5% of the meter’s maximum flow capacity,
it is impracticable to apply the above pressure limits due to the pressure variations
that occur as regulator lock-up.
Safety Systems
Requirement of number of safety devices, in each Pressure Regulating

Stream is recommended based on Maximum Operating Pressure of PRI.
Figure 15 & Figure 16 of IGE/TD/13 reproduced hereunder; summarize the
IGE/TD/ 13 recommendations.
Minimum number of safety
Pressure levels
devices
MOPu < TOPd (0 - 100 mbar) 0
MOPu < 100 mbar 0
100 mbar < MOPu < 2 bar 1
(a)2 bar < MOPu < 16 bar

2 unless 1 as
or
allowed by
(a)MPOu > 16 bar AND
clause 8.3.7 (a)
(MOPu – MOPd) < 16 bar
MOPu – MOPd > 16 bar

2
AND MOPu > 16 bar
FIG. 15 Minimum number of safety devices

where :
MOPu – Maximum upstream operating pressure
MOPd – Maximum downstream operating pressure
TOPd – Temporary downstream operating pressure
Safety Systems
FIG. 16 Decision algorithm for minimum number of safety devices

Safety Systems
a) Clause 8.3.7 - In a system where :
MOPu is greater than 2 bar but less than or equal to 16 bar; or
MOPu is greater than 16 bar and the difference between MOPu and MOPd
does not exceed 16 bar, Then two devices should be used.
However, it is permitted to use a single safety device if the results of a risk

assessment of the downstream system show that the levels of risk are acceptable
with such an arrangement
The recommendations of EN-12186 for number of safety devices are summarized

in table below.
Pressure Level Number of Pressure safety devices
MOPu < MIPd

Or 0 (No safety)
MOPu < 100 mbar
MOPu > MIPd 1
MOPu – MOPd > 16 bar

And 2
MOPu > STPd
Safety Systems
where :
MOPu – Maximum upstream operating pressure
MOPd – Maximum downstream operating pressure
MIPd – Maximum downstream incidental pressure
STPd – downstream strength test pressure
Non-venting safety devices can be of following principles:-
Slam-shut valve b) Over pressure cut off device c) monitor regulator
When more than one safety device is required, at least one should be either a slam shut
valve or an over-pressure cut off device.
When monitor regulator is used, it should be the first acting device in the pressure safety system
A full capacity safety relief device should only be used as a second safety system in conjunction
with a non-venting device. The amount of gas vented to the atmosphere should be minimized.
As per IGTD-13, a creep relief valve may be installed to prevent over pressurization of the
downstream system as a result of active regulator failing to “lock up” during periods of low demand.
The capacity of the relief should not be more than 1% of the stream design capacity.
Where as in EN standards, too a creep relief valve is recommended for a multi stream PRS in
each regulating stream which can be isolated to avoid over-pressurisation due to temperature I
influence.
Safety Systems
Set pressures of Active regulator, monitor regulator and slam shut valves can be
co-related with MOP, TOP and MIP. Figure 13 & 14 of IGE/TD/13, reproduced
hereunder, give the pressure criteria and relationship between these pressure levels.
FIG. 13 – Pressure criteria

Safety Systems
FIG. 14 – Relationship between downstream system mop, peak level op, top and mip
Safety Systems
Safety Systems
Safety Systems
EN-12279 (Table-1) – Relationship between mop, peak level op, top, mip, ctp or stp
Typical Slam Shut Valve And
Active Regulator
Typical Slam Shut Valve And
Active Regulator
Typical Slam Shut Valve And Active
Regulator With Stream Discrimination
Typical Slam Shut Valve, Monitor And
Active Regulators (No Stream Discrimination)
Typical Slam Shut Valve, Monitor And Active
Regulators (No Stream Discrimination)
Regulators With Stream Discrimination
Typical Two Slam Shut Valves And
Active Regulator
Regulators With Stream Discrimination
Typical Slam Shut Valve And 2 Stage Regulators
with monitor Override on 1st Stage
Typical Slam Shut Valve And 2 Stage Regulators with
monitor Override on 1st Stage
Typical 2 Stage Pressure Reduction And
Monitor Override . No Permanent By-Pass
In this configuration, over-ride pilot of monitor regulator is set at a pressure slightly
higher than the active regulator set point. As long as active regulator functions
properly, the over-ride pilot does not interfere in operation of monitor regulator
and allows the working pilot to operate the monitor regulator as a first stage pressure
regulator effecting two stage pressure reduction. When, active regulator fails and
PRI downstream pressure overshoots, over-ride pilot intervenes so that set point of
monitor regulator is changed to conventional monitor function.
In addition to above described regular function of pressure control, with the use
of modern day technology a PRI can also perform following functions.
Flow Control - To control the flow of gas through the PRI, usually by volumetric
flow control or variable set point control.
Typical Volumetric Regulating Installation with 2 Stage Pressure
Reduction And Monitor Override, Volumetric Control On Second
Stage Regulator With High And Low Outlet Pressure Overrides.
Leakage Management Control - To minimize the average network pressure to
minimum gas leakage such as
Closed loop Control – To control the extremity of the network at a constant

pressure
Pressure Profile Control - To control the outlet pressure to a predetermined

pressure profile to cater effectively to peak hour and off-peak hour gas consumption.
Demand activated Control - To vary outlet pressure with changes in gas demand
Dally Flow Nomination and Peak flow limitation for agas consumer.
A remote set point adjustment system is used to vary the set pressures of all the
active and mintor regulators of a PRI in such a way that the set pressure differences
between each of them is maintained so that multiple redundancies designed in the
PRI control system remains in-tact

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“RUB THE GOLD”

A training program on basics of CGD

• Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmosphere Pressure

• 1 Meter = 3.29 Feet, 1 Meter2 = 10.28 Feet 2

• Density = Mass per Unit Volume

• Specific Gravity of Gas = Density of Gas / Density of Air

• Molecular Weight of Gas

• Gram Mole:- Mass of gas that occupies 22.4 litres volume at

• Molecular weight of air = 28.9; therefore one gram mole of Air

• Thus specific gravity of gas can also be found by ratio of molecular

• Convert 1.5 Kg/Cm2 in to mm WC, mm Hg, KPa, MPa, Bar,

• Convert 100 Degree C to ‘F, ‘R,’K

• Convert -40 ‘F to ‘C, ‘R and ‘K

• Gram Mole:- Mass of gas that occupies 22.4 litres volume at

• This mass is molecular weight of gas in grams (eg. For

Boyles Law : P1V1=P2V2

Charles law : V1/T1=V2/T2

NTP - Normal Temperature Pressure

STP - Standard Temperature Pressure

Flow 100 NM3/Hr = _______SM3/Hr

• A Vehicle comes in to a CNG station

Gas Properties (Velocity)

Gas Vel. (m/s) = Flow in am³/ s

Gas Properties (Velocity)

• PRV reduces gas pressure P1 = 19 Barg at its inlet to pressure P2 = 4 Barg at

Gas Properties (Velocity)

• Find out gas velocity in following cases

• What is Pressure Regulator?

Three Essential Elements

Direct Acting Regulator

Typical Direct Acting Regulator - SERIES DM

Pilot Loading Regulator

Typical Pilot Loading Regulator – SERIES DP/3000

Pilot Loading Two-Path Control Regulator

Pilot Loading Two-Path Control Regulator

• DOWNSTREAM PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES

• UPSTREAM PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES

• PRESSURE AND VACUUM RELIEF VALVES

TYPES OF ‘NIRMAL’ REGULATORS

DIRECT ACTING REGULATORS

• DM/SERIES : MEDIUM PRESSURE

• DL/SERIES : LOW PRESSURE

• D61/SERIES : LEVER TYPE LOW PRESSURE

UPSTREAM / BACK PRESSURE REGULATOR

• BP/SERIES : SELF OPERATED BACK PRESSURE

TYPES OF ‘NIRMAL’ REGULATORS

BALANCED TRIM REGULATORS

• DB/SERIES : EXTERNAL IMPULSE SENSING

PILOT OPERATED REGULATORS

DP/3000-SERIES : SINGLE PILOT OPERATED

• D52/SERIES : TWO STAGE PILOT OPERATED

UPSTREAM / BACK PRESSURE REGULATOR

• PB/SERIES : SINGLE PILOT OPERATED

Working Principles of Regulators

Working Principles of Regulators

Working Principles of Regulators

Working Principles of Regulators

Working Principles of Regulators

Working Principles of Regulators

Working Principle of Back Pr.

Working Principle of Back Pr.

Reset point Tight

REGULATORS CONTROL VALVES