Wave Phenomena

Physics 15c

Lecture 5
Waves
(H&L Sections 2.1–5, 4.1–3)

What We Did Last Time

! Studied coupled oscillators
! General solution is a linear combination of normal modes
= patterns of oscillation with constant frequencies
! Surprising pattern shows up – Beats
! Linear algebra guarantees that
the normal modes exist
! Eigenvalues " Normal frequencies

! Eigenvectors " Normal modes

! Started discussing mass-spring transmission line

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Goals for Today

! Mass-spring transmission line

! N pendulums with long string coupled with springs
! Make N " ∞ and find wave equation
! And solve it!

Mass-Spring Transmission Line

ξn−1 ξn ξn+1
! Equation of motion for the n-th mass is
d2
m ξ n = −k (ξ n − ξ n −1 ) − k (ξ n − ξ n +1 )
dt 2
mg
! Neglected gravity assuming large L − ξ n 
L →∞
→0
L

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 Mass-Spring Transmission Line
! Instead of index n, use the
position of equilibrium x
to specify the mass ξn−1 ξn ξn+1
ξ n → ξ ( x), ξ n ±1 → ξ ( x ± ∆x) ∆x ∆x
x
d2
m ξ ( x) = −k[ξ ( x) − ξ ( x − ∆x)] − k[ξ ( x) − ξ ( x + ∆x)]
dt 2
! ξ(x) looks like a function of x
! But it’s defined only at discreet points of interval ∆x
! It will become a real function if ∆x " 0

Making ∆x Smaller
! Rewrite the equation of motion
ξ ( x + ∆x) − ξ ( x) ξ ( x) − ξ ( x − ∆x)
−
m d2 ∆x ∆x
ξ ( x) = k∆x
∆x dt 2 ∆x
! Now make ∆x smaller smaller smaller…
ξ ( x + ∆x) − ξ ( x) ξ ( x) − ξ ( x − ∆x)
−
∆x ∆x ξ ′( x + ∆2x ) − ξ ′( x − ∆2x )
lim = lim
∆x →0 ∆x ∆x →0 ∆x
= ξ ′′( x)
m d2
ξ ( x) = k∆xξ ′′( x)
∆x dt 2

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Another Way
! One can also use Taylor expansion of ξ(x).
ξ ( x + ∆x) = ξ ( x) + ξ ′( x)∆x + 12 ξ ′′( x)(∆x) 2 + ...
ξ ( x − ∆x) = ξ ( x) − ξ ′( x)∆x + 12 ξ ′′( x)(∆x) 2 + ...

d2
m ξ ( x) = −k[ξ ( x) − ξ ( x − ∆x)] − k[ξ ( x) − ξ ( x + ∆x)]
dt 2
= −k[ξ ′( x)∆x − 12 ξ ′′( x)(∆x) 2 − ξ ′( x)∆x − 12 ξ ′′( x)(∆x) 2 ]
= kξ ′′( x)(∆x) 2

m d2
∴ ξ ( x) = k∆xξ ′′( x)
∆x dt 2

Mass Density m d2
∆x dt 2
ξ ( x) = k∆xξ ′′( x)

! The mass term has become m/∆x

! We have mass m (kg) at every ∆x (m)
! m/∆x is called (linear) mass density ρl (kg/m)
! “How heavy is the mass-spring system per meter?”

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Elastic Modulus m d2
∆x dt 2
ξ ( x) = k∆xξ ′′( x)

! The spring constant term has become k∆x

! We have spring with k (N/m) of natural length ∆x (m)
! k∆x is called elastic modulus Κ (N)
! The spring constant of a uniform spring is inversely
proportional to its natural length
! Two identical springs connected in series expands twice

as much as one under the same tension

! Modified Hooke’s law:
∆L How much the spring
F = − k∆L = − K is stretched relative to
L
its natural length

Wave Equation
! We found
∂2 ∂2 Wave equation for a
ρl ξ ( x , t ) = K ξ ( x, t )
∂t 2 ∂x 2 massive uniform spring
! How can we solve this?
! Remember that we started from N coupled oscillators
! There must have been N normal modes
! General solution is a linear combination of them

! Now there are infinite number of normal modes

! How should they look like?

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Normal Modes
! For N coupled oscillators, the equation of motion
d2
m ξ n = −k (ξ n − ξ n −1 ) − k (ξ n − ξ n +1 )
dt 2
can be written as:
d2
m ξ = Kξ
dt 2
where  !  " " 
   
 ξ n −1   " − 2k k 
ξ ≡  ξn  K ≡ k − 2k k 
   
 ξ n +1   k − 2k "
 !   " "
  

Normal Modes
 !   ! 
   
! Once the normal modes are  ξ n −1   an −1 
found, they should look like ξ ≡  ξ n  =  a n  e i ωt
   
where an etc. are constants  ξ n +1   an +1 
 !   ! 
! By extension, when we find the    
normal modes for the
continuous wave equation, they
should look like: ξ ( x , t ) = a ( x ) e i ωt
! I.e. we can factorize the solution
into a function of x multiplied by This is the most
the usual exp(iωt) important thing
we learned in the
last lecture

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Solving Wave Equation
∂2 ∂2
ρl ξ ( x , t ) = K ξ ( x, t ) ξ ( x , t ) = a ( x ) e i ωt
∂t 2 ∂x 2

d 2 iωt d2
ρ l a( x) 2 e = K 2 a( x)eiωt
dt dx
d2
− ρ lω 2 a ( x ) = K 2 a ( x ) This looks similar to a
dx harmonic oscillator!

! We know the solution for this…

ρl
a ( x) = Ae ± ikx k =ω Finally ξ ( x, t ) = A exp(i(ωt ± kx))
K

∂2 ∂2
Solutions ρl
∂t 2
ξ ( x , t ) = K
∂x 2
ξ ( x, t )

! The wave equation has two solutions

ξ ( x, t ) = A exp(i (kx ± ωt )) ρl
k =ω
K
for any arbitrary value of ω
! I flipped the sign to follow the usual convention
! k is called the wavenumber
! Ignoring A, the real part is cos(kx ± ωt)
! Looks like a cosine wave in space at any moment t
! It oscillates with time
! Let’s see how they look like

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Backward-Going Solution
! Wave moves left, ξ ( x, t ) = cos(kx + ωt )
or –x direction
! Wave length λ is
2π
kλ = 2π λ=
k
! k is wavenumber
t

Forward-Going Solution
! Wave moves right, ξ ( x, t ) = cos(kx − ωt )
or +x direction

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Propagation Velocity
! Wave velocity is given by the condition
const. ∓ ωt dx ω
kx ± ω t = const. x= =∓
k dt k

ρl dx K Elastic modulus
! Using k = ω = ∓ cw ≡ ∓
K dt ρl Mass density
! Units: K in Newton = kg m/s2, ρl in kg/m " cw in m/s
! Velocity cw is determined by the physical properties
(K and ρl) of the transmission line
! Does not depend on ω " Same for all normal modes
! Such medium is called non-dispersive

Creating Waves
! Traveling wave cos(kx – ωt) can be created by a motor
attached to one end of the transmission line

! Suppose the first mass (x = 0) is driven by rcosωt

! This boundary condition is satisfied by
  x   ω
ξ ( x, t ) = r cos(ω t − kx) = r cos ω  t −  cw ≡
  cw   k

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 Adding Up Normal Modes
! Real part of the normal mode solution is
Re( Aei ( kx −ωt ) ) = Re( A) cos(kx − ωt ) − Im( A) sin(kx − ωt )
= a cos(kx − ωt ) + b sin(kx − ωt )
! Considering only the forward-going (+x) waves
! ω can be any real number
! General solution is a linear combination of all possible
cos(kx – ωt) and sin(kx – ωt), i.e.,
∑ [aω cos(kx − ωt ) + bω sin(kx − ωt )]
ω

! What does this remind you?

Fourier Series
! Any periodic function f(t) with period T can be
expressed by a Fourier series:
2π t 4π t
f (t ) = a0 + a1 cos + a2 cos + ...
T T
2π t 4π t
+ b1 sin + b2 sin + ...
T T
∞
 2π nt 2π nt 
= a0 + ∑  an cos + bn sin 
n =1  T T 
! a0, a1, a2, …, b1, b2, … are constants found by Check this!

1 T 2 T 2πnt 2 T 2πnt
a0 =
T ∫0
f (t ) dt a n =
T ∫0
f (t ) cos
T
dt bn =
T ∫0
f (t ) sin
T
dt

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An Example
! A square wave is expressed by a Fourier series
4  2πt 1 6πt 1 10πt 1 14πt 
sin + sin + sin + sin + ...
π T 3 T 5 T 7 T 
square
wave

Fourier
series

t=0 T 2T

Creating Waves
! Suppose we drive the left end of the transmission line
with a repetitive (but not sinusoidal) pattern

f (t ) = f (t + T )

! Fourier expansion of f(t) gives us

∞
 2πnt 2πnt  Ignore a0 because
f (t ) = a0 + ∑  an cos + bn sin  it doesn’t make
n =1  T T  waves

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Repetitive Waves ωn ≡
2πn
T
∞
 2πnt 2πnt  ∞
f (t ) = ∑  an cos + bn sin  = ∑ (an cos ω nt + bn sin ω nt )
n =1  T T  n =1
! Each term of Fourier series generates waves
cos ω nt → cos(ω n (t − x / cw ) ) Just replace
sin ω nt → sin (ω n (t − x / cw ) ) t with t – x/cw.

! All terms follow the same rule. The sum does, too
! Movement f(t) generates wave ξ(x, t) = f(t – x/cw)
! The repetitive pattern just propagates at velocity cw

Non-Repetitive Waves
! We can choose the period T freely
! Even infinite!
! Caveat: this makes calculating an and bn impractical
! Function f(t) does not have to be repetitive at all.
You can drive the transmission line with arbitrary
pattern f(t) and generate a wave
 x 
ξ ( x, t ) = f  t − 
 wc 
which travels at velocity cw

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 Non-Repetitive Waves
! In fact, the wave equation is satisfied by any function
of the form ξ(x, t) = f(x ± cwt)
∂2 ∂2
ρl ξ ( x , t ) = K ξ ( x, t )
∂t 2 ∂x 2
∂2 ∂2
LHS = ρl f ( x ± cwt ) RHS = K ξ ( x ± cw t )
∂t 2 ∂x 2
= ρl cw2 f ′′( x ± cwt ) = Kf ′′( x ± cwt )
K
cw =
ρl = Kf ′′( x ± cwt )

This seems just too simple

after all that work!

How All These Fit Together

! N coupled pendulums turns into continuous
transmission line as N " infinity
! N equations of motion " wave equation
! Linear algebra assures that the coupled pendulums
have N normal mode solutions
! This turns into a factorized solution ξ ( x, t ) = a ( x)eiωt
! Given this tip, we can solve the wave equation to get
ξ ( x, t ) = A exp(i (ωt ± kx))
! We find sinusoidal waves traveling at constant velocity

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How All These Fit Together
! Fourier series allows us to break arbitrary function into
sin and cos, for which we have wave solutions
! Since all solutions travel at the same speed, and because of
linearity, we conclude that arbitrary wave form can be
created, and transmitted at the same speed
! We confirm this conclusion by putting an arbitrary
function ξ(x ± cwt) into the wave equation

Subtleties
! The conclusion appears stupidly simple
! We can generate any wave, and it will travel
! Examples: sound, radio waves
! But there are non-trivial assumptions
! Linearity
! Constant velocity for all normal modes, i.e. for all ω
! Bad examples: water waves, light passing glass

! Those are called dispersive media

! Will come back to this soon

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Summary
! Studied (finally!) continuous waves
! Started from mass-spring transmission line
! Found the wave equation and its normal modes

∂2 ∂2
ρ l 2 ξ ( x, t ) = K 2 ξ ( x , t ) ξ ( x, t ) = A exp(i (ωt ± kx))
∂t ∂x
! Solutions represent waves traveling K
cw =
at constant velocity ρl
! Used Fourier series to show the waveform can be arbitrary

! Next to come: Energy and Momentum

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