BLADED ASSEMBLIES VIBRATION Laboratoire de Mécanique des Structures Georges JACQUET-RICHARDET Chargé de Recherche CNRS. LMSt - UPRESA 5006 CNRS Tél. 04 72 43 81 64 - Fax 04 72 43 89 30 (memavonal: 32.47...) E-mail : georges jacquet@Imst.insayon.fr Institut National des Sciences Appliquées de Lyon LMSt - Bétiment 113 - 20, avenue Albert Einstein - 69621 Villeurbanne Cedex (France) ©February 7, 1997CONTENTS => Introduction V/A few concepts and keywords IV/ Fatigue - Creep = Definitions => Bladed disc assemblies vibration - Basic notions I/Blades alone. Analytical modeling I-1/ Beam modeling I-2/ Plate modeling 1-3/ Effect of rotation 1-4/ Effect of temperature IV Bladed disc assemblies IF-1/ Illustration. Circular plate II-2/ Axisymmetrical modeling IL-3/ Rotationally periodic modeling II-4/ Simple cyclic symmetrical structure => An introduction to the finite element modeling / Simple static application I/ Element formulation II/ Some finite elements adapted to blade modeling = Rotating structures. General analysis method I/ General expression of kinetic and strain energy II Finite element modeling => Blades and bladed disc assembly modeling V/ Blade modeling 1-1/ Beam modeling 1-2/ Plate or shell modeling 1-3/ Three dimensional modeling 1-4/ Conclusion, Practical recommendations 61 61 61 65 70 72II Bladed disc assemblies Il-1/ Axisymmetrical behavior II-2/ Cyclic symmetrical structures => Design tools - Campbell - Safe - Goodman diagrams V/ Campbell diagram Il/ Bladed disc coupled assemblies IIV/ Safe interference diagram IV/ Non engine orders excitations V/ Goodman diagram VI Forced response control = Particular features I/ Damping II/ Interconnected blades II/ Mistuning IV/ Added mass effect V/ Some typical blade failures => References 73 73 78 88 91 96 98 98 101 103 104 106 109 109BLADE VIBRATIONS It is important to gain an early understanding of the dynamic behavior of blades and/or bladed-disc assemblies, to prevent extremely dangerous resonant conditions for turbomachinery stages. Before any computation, it is important to know what to calculate and what to expect from the computed resultsINTRODUCTION 1/A few concepts and keywords xample: steam turbine bladii The function of steam turbine blading is to convert the thermal energy of the steam into tangential forces with the minimum energy loss, and to do so throughout the life of the turbine. Efficient thermodynamic performances and high unit availability are, therefore, two important aspects which are directly related to: * blading design * blading operation Very similar statements could be made for other types of bladings.Blade failures are costly: => Limited range of technological advances => Increased development costs => Operational restrictions => In service blade failures = Increased maintenance costs The causes of bla il manifol include: = vibration = fatigue = foreign object damage => corrosion => erosion = creep... In spite of the availability of efficient tools, blade failures remain an important problem in both compressors and turbines. There are several reasons for this: = presence of unavoidable excitations of aerodynamic and mechanical origin = extremely complex dynamic characteristics of blades under real operating conditions - prediction based on simplified models. = mistuning - non-identical blades. = operation in hostile environments. In turbine sections, blades have to function under hostile conditions of high temperature, corrosion, creep => fatigue strength difficult to predict with accuracy.II/ Fatigue - Creep A significant number of blade failures are caused by fatigue. Fatigue: repeated application of fluctuating load levels, which are much lower than the ultimate static strength. High cycle fatigue - resona Arise when a periodic force acts at a frequency close to a natural frequency of the blades and when damping is not sufficient to absorb the periodic input energy. The amplitude of vibration is a function of: => the magnitude of the excitation, often caused by Nozzle Passing Frequency (NPF). => damping, material damping, aerodynamic damping and damping induced by dry friction (shrouds, fir tree, wires...) Note: loss of damping due to failure of a lacing wire can increase vibratory stresses by a factor of four. Low cycle fatigue is predominant in bores and bolt hole areas of discs. Due to start and stop cycles. A problem associated with machines which have been under operation for several years. Creep occurs when the structure operates under persistent high levels of stresses and temperatures. Creep affects hot section parts and may lead to progressive reduction in rotor tip clearances.defenses Failuce ime Combined mechanisms: Blade failures are often caused by several failure mechanisms. For example: = corrosion can reduce blade section size and then increase the risks of failure due to fatigue. = reduction of damping due to fretting wear increases the vibration amplitude. = foreign object damage can cause cracks that can be propagated by high cycle fatigue. Consequently when examining a blade failure event, all the possible engineering causes should be examined: => design problems => environmental aspects => quality of the fluid => material and operating history ... Lectures limited to vibrational problems It is hoped that these lectures will provide enough notions about blade dynamics to assist plant engineers in tackling blade failure problems.DEFINITIONS airfoilLength: L Chord: c Thickness: t Aspect ratio Lic a=4) Thickness ratio c/t Hub to tip ratio RWRt (0.30.9) Twist 6 (up to 60°) Each stage of turbomachine consists generally in a stator ring containing stationary flow guides (or nozzles) and a rotor which carries rotating blades (or buckets) 1 - Casing - Stator. 2- Nozzles 3 - Blades 4 - Shaft - Rotor Vibration : Frequency + mode shape Mode shape: * deflected shape of a structure vibrating at one of its natural frequency. * represented by plotting the relative displacements of different points of the structure. Some points of the vibrating structure remain stationary: = NODAL LINESBLADED-DISC ASSEMBLIES VIBRATION - Basic notions The term of bladed-disc assembly covers a vast range of products. Depending on the real behavior of the structure, different models with various complexities, can be used. Before considering the behavior of real assemblies, some concepts and techniques should be clearly understood. The goal of this section is to present these concepts and techniques using very simple academic applications. Blades alone - Analytical modeling [1-4] A number of models, based on beam and plate theories, were developed before the widespread availability of Finite Element Methods. I-1/ Beam modeling - Simple cantilever beam formula Bending: fy = Xt pel 1 ® "ant? \ ps wy nth bending frequency of the beam (Hertz) mn X,” non-dimensional frequency parameter X7=3.516 X,7=22.03 X;°=61.69 L__ blade length (m) Young modulus (modulus of elasticity N/m?) material density (Kg/m*)S section area (m*) I section inertia (m‘) For rectangular sections: T=lx=c*'/12 for flapwise bending modes Iely=t*c°/12 for edgewise bending modes Bending frequencies are: => proportional to blade thickness (flapwise bending) or to blade chord (edgewise bending). => proportional to the ratio /E/p = inversely proportional to the square of blade length Notes: => Elp does not vary significantly for classical materials = tailoring possible with compositeseae -2n-) [ ; orsion: n="4L \20+wit @) f, nth torsional frequency of the beam (Hertz) J St Venant’s constant - torsion constant due to warping (m*) It Polar inertia (Kg.m) v___ Poisson’s ratio For rectangular sections: J=ctt/[3+4.1(Uc)*7] Approximate formula It=p(Ixtly)= p(ott+ t*e°/12 Torsional frequencies are: inversely proportional to blade length proportional to /E/p Beam theory is generally inadequate to determine the behavior of moderate to low aspect ratio blades [5-7]. Simple cantilever plate formula: @) nth frequency (Hertz) f, X;° non-dimensional frequency parameterxr ii Lert Lhk=3 oaR=20 oS A=20 aes 1B 00 3.46 337 3.4 3.39 IT Or 838 754 205 192 2B 10 213 18.5 21.6 212 2 LI 30.5 24.1 65.2 60.4 IC 02 271 25.2 203.0 160.0 Mode shapes: a + + = + Zz 777d 1B (0,0) 2B(1,0) 3B(2,0) + ]- eae -—|+ a |e -|+ oa larre77 7. 1T(@,1) 27(1,1) 37,1) +|-|+]- L 10(0,2) 2C(0,3)Evolution of frequencies and mode shapes as a function of the aspect ratio fue) FF Far or « a Me 0.66 0.72 0.80 0.88 0.96 1.00 1.08 Lae 433 ‘When blades are twisted, analytical solutions are much more complex. Stress stiffening: Non linear effect - Increase stiffness Stress stiffening, also called geometric stiffening or initial stress stiffening, is the stiffening of the structure due to its stress state. The stiffening effect couples the in-plane and transverse displacements. An important effect for thin structures with low bending stiffness compared to axial stiffness.Approximate solution (Southwell) [8]: f \2 Q 2 (s) -+455,) a f frequency of the rotating structure fy frequency of the non rotating structure Q speed of rotation (rd/s) s Southwell coefficient. Typical coefficients: Mode 1B S=2 Mode 1T S=3 Mode2B S=10 Mode 3B S=30 Mode 2T S=15 Note: Bending modes are influenced more than the other modes For a uniform cross section blade (not tapered, not twisted) the expression of stress at blade root is: or =F p0?((R+L)? -R?2 where R is the disc radius, L the blade length and p the density of the material. in softening: lin - i Spin softening: adjustment of stiffness to account for the changes in geometry due to centrifugal effects.100. A=No Stress Stiffening, No Spin Softening B = Stress Stiffening, No Spin Softening 90. C =No Stress Stiffening, Spin Softening D = Stress Stiffening, Spin Softening 80. 70. Fundamental Natural Frequency 50: (Herz) 40. 30. 20. oj 40 80 120 160 200 240 280. 320 360 400 Angular Velocity of Rotation (w;) (Radians/Sec) Effect of spin softening and stress stiffening on fan blade natural frequencies (Ansys Theory Reference Manual)Spin softening - Gyroscopic effes ae: - t 0 7m |] 2m {eh Lo ol ‘Loom 0 Ky- ° aall 6) m mass Kx and Ky stiffness in x and y directions 20m gyroscopic (Coriolis) effect em spin softening Note: Gyroscopic effects are negligible for radial blades. 1-4/ Effect of temperature Natural frequencies are reduced with increasing temperatures (because of the reduction in Young’s modulus) Example: steel Z20C13 E, (25°C) =2.01 10"! Pa (6a) E,,(400°C) = 1.74 10"! Pa (6b) The drop in frequency due to temperature can be estimated using the simple formula:a Carrying over (6a-b) into (7) in this case gives a drop in frequency of 7% from 25°C to 400°C. Notes: => Operating temperatures are usually significantly greater than 400°C in turbines and thus drops in frequency can be greater than 10%, > Even when considering stress stiffening, turbine natural frequencies generally fall with an increase in rotation speed, because there is a significant associated rise in temperature. => The dynamic characteristics of isolated cantilevered blades are often not sufficient to describe the behavior of stages in modem turbomachinery. Usually blades are coupled by the wheel (disc) and/or by additional connections (damping wires, shrouds, etc). Thus, in this case, th le assembly should be considered. IL Bladed disc assemblies J-1/ Illustration: Circular plate [2]. In the case of axi-symmetrical structures, nodal lines are: = nodal diameters (D) = nodal circles ©Free circular plate 2D0C 2 nodal diameters and 0 nodal circle OD1C 0 nodal diameter and 1 nodal circle 3DO0C 3 nodal diameters and 0 nodal circle HOW Clamped circular plate ODOC 0 nodal diameter and 0 nodal circle 1DOC 1 nodal diameter and 0 nodal circle VONotes: => Modes with 0 and 1 nodal diameters are characterized by an axial resultant. They induce an axial force or moment on the shaft. The other modes are globally self balanced. => The classification by nodal diameters and nodal circles is used, even when the behavior of bladed assemblies is relatively far from pure axi-symmetrical behavior. II-2/ Axi metrical modelin: Strictly speaking a bladed disc assembly is not an axi-symmetrical structure. However, for assemblies made of a large number (about 30) of radial blades, experiments show that the behavior of the system remains axi-symmetrical - modes made of relatively pure simple nodal diameters and nodal circles. In this case, only a section of the assembly is modeled (one blade and one section of the disc) and the behavior of the whole system is expressed in terms of Fourier series: © & = COP cosno +82 sind) (8) n=0 Note: Displacements are expressed as a composition of cosn@, sin n@ circum- ferential distributions, where n represents the number of nodal diameter. Example: cos360Simple application [9] Circular plate clamped at inner diameter Inner radius Ri=0.1 m. Outer radiusRo=0.2 m. Thickness t=0.001 m. Material: E=2 10"! Pa v0.3 p=7800. Kg/m* - = 0) 2n Re“ \12p(1-v~) with xy (i number of nodal diameter, j number of nodal circle): Axi-symmetrical solution: fj TAG 0 1 2 3 0 13.0 13.3 14.7 18.5 1 85.1 86.7 91.7 100.0 Solution: i j Freq (Hz) 0 0 79.26 0 I 518.85 1 0 81.09 I T 528.61 2 0 89.63 2 I 559.09 3 0 112.79 3 I 609.7 20Note: for bladed assemblies with radial blades, due to the finite number of blades, the maximum number of possible nodal diameters is: ~ half the number of blades N - if Nis even - (number of blades -1)/2 - if N is odd I1-3/ Rotationally periodic modeling [10] Structures such as bladed discs with few blades or impellers with or without covers, do not exhibit purely axi-symmetrical mode shapes. Thus, in this case, classical axi-symmetrical theory is no longer valid and the only remaining outstanding property of the structure is generally its cyclic symmetry (structures made of N jointed identical sectors). Only one basic sector is modeled and propagation relations are used to account for the whole behavior According to the wave propagation theory in periodic media, the dynamic displacement of the different sectors i is related to the corresponding quantity of areference sector by: 8i= D(62 cos(i-1)Bn + 8g sin(i-1)fn) (10) n 21with (n=2nn/N phase angle between two adjacent sectors N total number of sectors n Fourier order which can take the discrete values: 0, 1,2, N2 ifNis even 0,1, (N-1y2 if Nis odd Note: Difference between axi-symmetrical and cyclic symmetrical relations? => axicsymmetry: continuous circumferential (6) relation. = cyclic symmetry: discrete relation between identical points of the different sectors. Simple application: circular plate considered above. The axi-symmetrical structure is supposed here to be constituted with 8 cyclic symmetrical sectors (45°) 22Frequencies are computed for each of the 5 possible phase relations. Frequency diagram (frequency as a function of n= 0, 1, 2, 3, 4) 2500 o a o 2000-4 o a o = o a a a a q 3 15004 o 5 e 3 . a a 2 & 10004 a o ao a o 5004 8 8 ° oa oa o o oa a oa 0 T T rr re | T 0 J 2 3 4 @ A supplementary identification should be made by examination of mode shapes (horizontal classification) 23Mode shapes obtained with n=0Mode shapes obtained with n=1Mode shapes obtained with n=2 26Mode shapes obtained with n=3Mode shapes obtained with n=4 28After classification, the frequency diagram becomes: Frequency (Hz) 2500 2000-5 : 10004 500+ (@) a 0 nodal circle - 1 nodal circle - EF 2 nodal circles 29Note: Even if the Fourier order n is limited to 4, the theory accounts for all the possible} physical nodal diameters (provided the discretisation of the basic sector is fine| enough) Thus, cyclic symmetry can account without reduction for the behavior of axi- ‘symmetrical structures. Explanation: As the cyclic symmetrical theory gives a discrete sin and cos relation between identical points of sectors, the graph below shows for that for a structure made of 8 sectors, 2 diameter modes and 6 diameter modes can be represented using exactly the same Fourier order. sind sia lO Computation of the simple circular plate considering different cyclic sectors2500 2000: Frequency (Hz) 8 g N=8 (45°) 2500. 2000 1500-4 Frequency (Hz) 10004 For a given mode, the frequencies are identical in both cases. 311 structure [9 Plate: Inner radius Ri=0.035 m Outer radiusRo=0.095 m « Blades »: Number N=8 B Chord = o=0.02m Length — L=0.06m Uniform thickness of the assembly _t=0.003 m Material: E=2 10'! Pa v=0.3 p=7800 Kg/m* The basic cyclic sector, 45° = 1/8th of the whole structure, is modeled using 96 shell finite elements (67 nodes). Computed and experimental frequencies and mode shapes are in very good agreement Frequency diagram: frequencies computed for n = 0, 1, 2, 3,4 Family D1: Pure axisymmetrical 1 circle mode shapes limited to 4 diameters Example modes 2D1C and 3D1C presented in figure la Family D2: Modes with 2 nodal circlesAxisymmetrical mode shapes Example modes 0D2C and 1D2C presented in figure 2a Nearly axisymmetrical modes shapes Example modes 2D2C and 3D2C presented in figure 2b Repetitive mode shape Example mode 6D2C presented in figure 2c Family D3: Modes with 3 nodal circles Frequency (Hz) Pure axisymmetrical mode shapes Repetitive mode shape Example modes 6D3C and 7D3C presented in figure 3a 4000 ee D3 3000 4 2000 4 D2 1000 4 ee 0 T T T T T 0 1 2 3 4 33Figure laFigure 2b 36Figure 3aAn Introduction to the FINITE ELEMENT METHOD Structures are complex and their behavior cannot usually be described using continuous approaches. continuous approach > discrete approach displacement d(M) nodal displacement vector {8}=<51, 52, 83, 84, 55, 56>" 2 ian) 3 5 Discretisation: the continuous structure is supposed to be made of small, but finite, discrete portions - elements - which behave individually in a simplified manner: => the Finite Element Method (FEM) [11,12]. An approximate method which approaches real behavior very closely as the number of discrete elements increases. ‘A numerical method, developed rather by engineers than by mathematicians. 391/Simple static application To introduce the concept of finite element, let us consider the following system composed of simple springs: This system is discretised into 4 elements (I, II, Ill, IV) connected at nodes numbered 1 to 4. F is the force applied from the outside and R is the reaction at the boundary condition: R=-F The stiffness of springs I, IL, IIL, IV is respectively kk, ky, km kyy. Let us isolate the first element: 40The element considered, which possesses only two nodes, is the simplest. The description of its behavior is straightforward. The only possible nodal displacements are: ul translation at node 1 and u2 translation at node 2. F2 is the internal force which represents the effect of the other part of the system. Note: Each node can have up to 6 possible displacements, 3 translations and 3 rotations, called degrees of freedom (dof). Equilibrium implies: [ky sefe {Rr [ky ky Jlu2/* U2 a Similarly for the other elements: kg -ky fu2|_ J-F2/2 [ kar he @ Fin —kny lfu2 eB} {qn kn |. F3/2 8) ky -krv lfu3] _ {-F3 s, ki lef F “ ‘These expressions include the intemal equilibrium at nodes 2 and 3. Considering the overall system, equations (1) to (4) can be grouped into: [ ky -ky 0 o Iu) [R} [rig ¢tkntkm kok 0 u2{ _ Jo fo kn e+ ko + ky hy 137 ©) ko 0 “kw wd “ah rl 41The individual matrices are called element stiffness matrices. After the assembling process, based on displacement compatibility and equilibrium, the global stiffness matrix is obtained. Boundary conditions The displacement of node | is constrained (ul=0). -ky 0 o fo) R | =k [ki+ko+km: -kn-km: 0) ju2 © 0} -ky-in kv +k + kv oa ce “1 L 0 0 -krv F The first equation is eliminated (as ul is known) and will be used, if necessary, to calculate R once u2, u3 and u4 are known. The final system: iqe+ko+km -kn-km 0 [{u2] [0 | ckg-km = kn+km+kiv -krv u3h=40 0) | “o -kv ud) LF is solved using classical numerical methods and gives the unknowns of the problem: u2, u3, u4. Summary: general scheme for a finite element analysis =>First step: The structure is divided into finite elements, which are assumed to be connected at a discrete number of nodes situated at their boundary. The displacements of these nodes (degrees of freedom) will be the unknown parameters of the problem. 42=>Second step: Construction for each element of the different matrices (mass, stiffness...) and vectors (nodal forces). =Third step: Assembly of the final system. Each element, which has its own identifying number and specified nodal connection, is positioned into the global matrices and vector. =>Fourth step: Application of the prescribed boundary conditions into the final assembled system. =>Fifth step: Solution. Postprocessing IL/ Element formulation Elements are supposed to behave individually in a simplified manner. The choice of element shapes and displacement functions is strongly dependent ” on the problem. , 8 / KN 4 / € Ex: Beam element Shell element Brick element ID, 2 nodes 2D, 3 nodes 3D, 20 nodes A set of functions is chosen to define uniquely the state of displacements within each finite element in terms of its nodal displacements. {4} = IN] {8} @&) 4a{N]: polynomial expression - shapes functions {5}: nodal displacement vector, degrees of freedom (dof) A different polynomial approximation is defined for each kind of elements: = elements with different number of nodes => elements with different number of dof per node. But for all the elements, continuity is maintained along the element boundaries (simple translations continuity ~Co - or translationstslopes continuity - C,). Example: Beam element (bendin; apyn E,oyS.1L "t) v2 ‘Nodal dof: a translation v and a slope y= 6v/ ax v(x) = al + a2x +a3.x7+a4x? (9) Wx) = a2 + 2.03.x + 3.a4.x (10) 4 coefficients (al, a2, a3, 4), 2 nodes => 2 dof per node. {8)'= aly Boundary conditions: (12) x-0 vi=al yl=a2 x=L vl=al+a2L+a3.L?+a4L? w2=a2+2.a3.L+3.a4.L? 44Identification of al, a2, a3, a4 as a function of v1, yl, v2, w2: 3x? 2x3 wig =1- 2 «| 2 331 (vi Na(a)=x— 724 5 2 a2 ne? {v2 a) N30) = 2 | ] | 2 53 | Na(x) =-%— + 5 | No Ny Associated stiffness and mass matrices: [12 6L -12 6L] [156 22L 54 -13L EI 6L 4? -6L a1? | psi 22L 41? 13L -3? (KE]=751-12 -6L 12 -6L (Ml= 4901 54 13L 156 -22L 6L 21? -6L az | L-13L -3? -2L 47 | 45ILL Some finite elements adapted to blade modeling 1D element - Beam 2 nodes and 6 dof per node. Nodes assigned to the cross section centroid (G1, G2). No coincidence between section centroid and twist center (T). Longitudinal displacements => _ linear approximation Bending displacements = cubic approximation Torsion displacements => linear approximation Every possible coupling should be considered (bending-torsion, longitudinal- torsion). 462D elements - Plate - Shell Shell finite element: 3 nodes, 5 or 6 dof per node 2 > t 3 Inplane displacements => linear approximation Bending displacements => cubic approximation 3 nts Brick finite elements: 8, 15, 20 nodes, 3 dof per node. 20 nodes 47ROTATING STRUCTURES - General analysis method [1, 13, 14] A dynamic analysis of rotating systems has to consider => the classical inertia and stiffness of the structure => the influence of rotation NERA) ESSI F_KINE’ Y Absolute velocity Two frames are defined: O°XYZ (Ro) is a galilean fixed reference frame, Oxyz (R) is a moving frame fixed to and rotating with the undeformed body For rotating bladed-disc assemblies, O represents the centre of the disc. 48Point M is the undeformed position of a given material point of the structure. Point M’ is the deformed position of point M. Vector & = {Q),Q2,03}' is the rotational velocity of (R) with respect to (Ro), expressed in (R) The absolute velocity of point M, V(M), expressed with respect to (Ro), is: Vom) =£ (MM )g + [20M + MNEYR @ with: To -03 +2] a=| 0 “41 ® =O, + 0 Note: the absolute velocity is the superposition of velocity resulting from elastic deformation (MM”) and base velocity resulting from body motions. Kinetic energy ‘The kinetic energy is obtained by integrating the following expression over the whole structure: T=4JpV.Vdr tr volume —p density 8) : Substituting (1) and (2) into (3) gives: T=Tyu’,u’) + Te(u.u’) + Ts(u,u) + Tr + To 4) 49where u and u’ denote respectively a function of displacement and velocity, Ty is the classical kinetic energy accounting for mass and inertia, T; is induced by gyroscopic effects (Coriolis), Ty and Ty are induced by centrifugal effects and To is a constant term which does not participate after application of Lagrange’s equations. Strains and stresses The strain vector {} is related to the displacement (u, v, w) of a typical point, given with respect to a (x, y, Z) reference system, by: ~- ATT » HTS) yy = a e ke Sa = ¥3S) &) (2) } a 2, = (& %) [ou du | av ov , dw aw ] xy ay * &x, H —~— 2 2 26x = ow , 2) Sata ata 2eyz {e} = {6} + {en} ©) where {¢)} is the linear classical strain vector and {¢,} is the non linear geometric strain vector, needed to account for the effects of rotation. Assuming the validity of the Hooke’s law, stresses {o} and strains {e} are related by: 50{o} = [D] {e} ” where [D] is the elastic matrix which is a function of E (Young’s modulus) and v (Poisson’s ratio). train The strain energy is obtained by integrating the following expression over the whole structure: = 3S too: + volume @) t Substituting (6) and (7) into (8), this gives: U=Uxle, €) + Ual@y ex) + Vole &ad) °) where Ux is the classical elastic strain energy, Ug is the strain energy due to geometric coupling and Up is a term of higher order which is usually neglected. Note: the structure may undergo large deformations but strains are presumed to remain small and the material to remain elastic. I FINITE ELEMENT MODELIN The geometry as well as the boundary conditions of real structures are complex. Thus, in most practical cases, strain energy and kinetic energy cannot be obtained directly but should be evaluated using approximate numerical methods. s1The finite element method is the most current approximate method for structural applications. For each finite element e, the displacement {d}={u,v,w}' over the element is approximated by: {d} = [N] {5e} (10) where [N] is the shape function matrix for displacements (polynomial expression) and {Se} is the nodal displacement vector of element e. Accordingly, the element geometry is assumed as: {1} = [N’] {P} qa) where {r}=(x,,z}', [N’] is the shape function matrix for coordinates and {p} contains the nodal coordinates of the element. Notes: => For isoparametric elements [N’] and [N] are identical. => Shapes functions are defined for each type of element Considering (10) and (5), the relation between the linear part of the strain energy and nodal displacements, is written as: {e} = [B] {Se} (12) where [B] is the strain-displacement matrix. The strain-stress relationship is given by (7). 52- Fini mi io) After finite element discretisation, the expression of the kinetic energy becomes for each element e: T. = Toe Toe + Tse + Tre + Toe (13) where: Me af J ate) = 7460} [Melf} (14) Tee = fl] I aac |e) = Be}'[CelfSe} (as) = ibe) Jasna.) Hat sl a) 1 1 Hal senate = 7{6.}*{FC. 7) Toe without contribution to the final equation is not given here. IM] is the mass matrix of element e {C.] is the gyroscopic (Coriolis) matrix of element & IKs,] is the supplementary (centrifugal) stiffness matrix of element ¢ {Fe,} is the centrifugal force vector applied to element € P ‘ial straii - Fini si) ‘After finite element discretisation, the expression of the strain energy becomes for each element e: U, = Uget Uce (18) The linear contribution Ux, is easily obtained using equations (5), (7), (12): 53Ke = 5 el Serotec. 4 fBe}'[Kel{6e} i) ‘The non linear geometric contribution Ug, is obtained according to: 1 =5S fen} tole 20) 4 where {co} is the stress vector due to centrifugal forces. After matrix transformation, (20) can be written for each element ¢ as: Use =748e} {fis tcote ec.) ~ 4 46e}'[KGe(co)}{8.} (21) where [B*] is the matrix which links derivatives of displacements to nodal displacements and [so] contains the stresses induced by centrifugal forces under matricial form. Kl is the stiffness matrix of element ¢ Ke] is the non-linear geometric stiffness matrix of element e Assembling process ‘The structure is composed of E elements. The energies of the whole structure are obtained by summation of the energies obtained for the different elements: E E T=Dh= U=LU, (22) el el Elementary matrices are assembled to form total matrices, as a function of the nodal displacement vector {5} of the whole structure. 54Equations of motion Applying Lagrange’s equations: $@)-(8)(@)-r= © this gives the equations of motion of the assembly: [MI{8} + [C]{6} + [K + KG(oo) - KS]{8} = {FC} + (Fext} (24) {Fext} represents the vector of nodal forces applied to the structure from the outside (structural and/or aerodynamic excitations forces ...) The stiffness matrix is dependent upon the stresses induced by centrifugal effects, which are themselves a function of nodal displacements. Hence (24) is non-linear. The solution is performed in two steps. First the time dependent terms are disregarded and the static equilibrium position of the structure submitted to centrifugal loading is obtained by solving: [KE+KG({5s})-KS] 83} = {FC} + {Fexts} 25) using a Newton Raphson iterative scheme. In practice 2 or 3 iterations are sufficient to obtain a good estimate of the solution. {Fexts} represents the static part of the forces applied to the structure (for example aerodynamic steady forces) 55Notes => To determine whether the elastic limit oe has been reached, the yield criterion proposed by Von Mises is often used: ovum, |! 02)? + (2-08)? +(B-al)? - 06) where o1, 62 and o3 are the principal stresses. => To minimize stresses induced by centrifugal effects, the gravity center of the different sections should ideally be located on a common radial axis Secondly, the calculation of natural frequencies and mode shapes is performed after a linearization of the non-linear system. This is accomplished by assuming that the vibration is a small linear perturbation around the static equilibrium position, thus: 8}= 6} + Ga} @7) Carrying over (27) into (24) after linearization leads to: [M]®a}+[Cl{a}+[KE+KG(3})-KS]®q} = (Fextg} (28) uti ir i lem The knowledge of the undamped frequencies and mode shapes of the structure is often sufficient to solve numerous problems. Furthermore, as the wheel is supposed to remain centered and blades are often more or less radial, gyroscopic effects are usually neglected. Then, in this case, the dynamic problem reduces to: [M]®a}+[KE+KG(s}) -KS]® a} = (0} Q9) 56The solution of (29) is harmonic and is written as: a} ={Sa}ei" G0) Carrying over (30) into (29) and solving the resulting eigen-value/eigen-vector problem using a simultaneous iterative scheme gives: = the first natural frequencies @; - rd/s (eigenvalues) => the associated mode shapes {¢;} (eigenvectors) Notes: => Frequency in Hertz fi = wi/2/n => For mode shapes, only relative amplitudes are obtained. Two main normalizations are often employed for postprocessing: * maximal amplitude = 1 max({$;})=1 * norm =1 Ito EL lution including dampii i ts [M]®a} +[C+Dl{Sa}+[KE+KG-KS + jS]®q}={(} G1) Viscous damping DD) {S}=[0] Hysteretic damping(structural) [D]=[0] [s] Proportional damping {D}-[aM+bK] —[S]=[0] When damping is added, modal parameters can become complex and the solution of (31) takes the following form: Ga} = Ga}e™ = aerator (2) 57The complex natural frequency accounts for an oscillatory motion (frequency @) decaying exponentially (rate a). Considering viscous damping or structural damping, mode shapes are complex, indicating phase differences between the different points of the structure - in addition to amplitude differences. Considering proportional damping, mode shapes remain real (identical to those of the undamped system). a . . a The damping ratio can be obtained from p = Beran 33) Note: For relatively lightly damped structures (usually the case for bladed-disc assemblies) damping has a negligible effect on natural frequencies. modal id (Rit tion) The discretisation of real structures often requires a significant number of finite elements. Consequently the size of the associated system is usually large and - solving the complex eigen-value problem (31) directly is a formidable task. In this case, the computational effort needed can be significantly reduced, without appreciable loss of accuracy for the lower modes, using the so call pseudo modal method. ‘The pseudo modal method involves solving system (31) in two steps. The associated undamped system: [M}6d} +1K] 6d} = 0} G4) is first solved, giving a set of natural frequencies and mode shapes: > 0; (6) iFL...m (35) 58As the mode shapes of the real structure are usually only slightly different from mode shape of the undamped structure, the solution of system (31) can be written as: {a}= Ete =[él{a (36) In other words, the actual unknown structural displacement is supposed to be written as a linear combination of known displacements which are the mode shapes of the undamped structure (particular Ritz reduction). Carrying over (36) into (31), this gives: (el 'EMo} 4) + [61 ECHol4} + [6] TK 14] a) = (0 G7) also written as: [m}{a@} +[cl{a} + 1k1{9} = © (38) Notes: =>Size of the initial matrices in system (30) ndof*ndof Size of the reduced matrices in system (37) | nmod*nmod nmod (15-25) << ndof(5000....) =As the orthogonality conditions simply apply to matrices of the undamped system, the equations of system (38) are generally coupled. If gyroscopic effects are ignored and damping is presumed to be proportional, these equations remain uncoupled. =>Matrices m, c, k are called respectively modal mass matrix, modal damping matrix and modal stiffness matrix. 59=>With the exception of the very particular case of proportional damping, it is not possible to derive discretised damping matrices for equation (31). On the contrary, modal damping can be estimated with an acceptable accuracy or, better, can be measured and directly introduced in the reduced equation (38). In rotating machinery, the sources of excitation are numerous and will be detailed later. Most of the excitations which occur on bladed assemblies are harmonic and take the general form: {Fext g(t} = {Fexty}e!™ @9) where @ is the known frequency of the excitation. Then it is reasonable to assume that the response will be also harmonic: {8a} = {Bu}e™ (40) Carrying over (39) and (40) into (27), the result is obtained by solving a simple linear system. Note: =>Response computations are often performed for several frequencies, after a modal reduction. =>When excitation is not purely harmonic but stationary, it can be decomposed into harmonic components using Fourier series. =>Other excitations, such as transient excitations, are relevant to time marching procedures.BLADES AND BLADED DISC ASSEMBLY MODELING The finite element method is particularly well suited for complex structures such as blades and bladed disc assemblies. The relative stiffness of disc and blades is the first element which should be examined. If the disc is very stiff, compared to the stiffness of blades, its influence can be disregarded and only one blade clamped at its root is modeled. If the disc does not ensure clamping conditions, then the whole bladed-disc assembly should be modeled. i odelii Blades may be twisted, tapered and have generally asymmetrical cross sections. Blades can generally be classified into three types, according to their main geometric characteristics: length - chord - thickness. I-1/ Beam modeling If the aspect ratio is high - ratio between length and chord greater then 5 - and the thickness is small, then the blade can be considered as a unidimensional structure and thus modeled using beam finite elements. Generally beam modeling is well suited to the analysis of low pressure turbine blades. Beam like modes can be uncoupled bending or torsion modes, or coupled bending-torsion modes. Coupling between bending and torsion occurs when shear centers (centers of twist) do not coincide with inertia centers. Flapwise bending-edgewise bending coupling also exists due to pretwist. Under rotation, 61zs (a) Unidimensional blade (4) Axisymmetric structure (b) Two dimensional blade (e) Rotationally periodic structure y (c) Three dimensional blade (£) Rotationally periodic structurelongitudinal-torsion coupling (untwist due to centrifugal effect) and longitudinal- bending coupling (stress stiffening) occur. Note: => If coupling effects, when significant, are not considered, bending frequencies are overestimated and torsion frequencies are underestimated. => All the possible coupling effects should be considered. Otherwise the results may be worse than those given by uncoupled models. => Cross sections remain undeformed during vibration. Complex section properties [23]: Beam finite elements require that the geometrical characteristics of different cross sections are known: => area of the section => centroid position G = main inertia Jx2ds_ and Jyas $ 3 => position of the main inertia axis system $ (including pretwist) => possibly some inertia of a higher order => twist center position T => torsion constant due to warping (St Venant) 63These characteristics cannot be obtained from the node-element description and so should be given as real constants. Since variations along the blade length are generally smooth, just a few sections need to be analyzed in detail and linear variations of geometric characteristics could be assumed between two known sections. Geometric characteristics are generally obtained using a preprocessor, based on the description of the section by a set of points along its profile. Root section of blade LPT17 (Turbines/blower assembly V2401 of RPBC) [24] aA . i go} e5| . Ts erotie ez ez Schall HH. ary y é RQ TS 7 [eet to [aT lo ool leo eee [wT] lw [a Works x se acrinsTiza usdoeedbentanbosdta! ritew [rot [ere] ral ael 24 ress.iz03ie sala ratzen, 9.291 z0r]4.2 (2e2]e [he jrlaet] o lazalcaslgselscalscat evicsigeslesalsca|veget|gea L=200 mm = 43.03 mm Xs= 18.29 mm Ys=7.05 mm s = 76.42* SECTION NO 1 * SECTION= .21134E-03 * * INERTIA CENTER: XG= .18299E-01 YG= .70423E-02* * PRINCIPAL INERTIA: PHI= -.15708E+01 ¥2DS= .25097E-07 - * * X2DS= :16197E-08 * * ‘TORSION: gT= .18680E-08 xT= -.37403E-02 * o YT= -114406E-02 + * HIGH ORDER INERTIA: — (X2+¥2)21 66646E-11 * g x (x2+¥2) +55690E-10 * * ¥ (x2+¥2) :79990B-10 * 1-2/ Plate or shell modeling If the aspect ratio is low but thickness is still small compared to the other dimensions, then the blade can be modeled using plate or shell finite elements. This type of structure includes some fan and compressor blades. Membrane stress and bending motion coupling, due to centrifugal effects, should be taken into account. 65Application: Fan blade [20, 22] ‘The blade is modeled coarsely using 80 triangular shell elements with 3 nodes and 5 degrees of freedom per node. rotation. The reduced isodisplacement lines are presented below in figure (a) as a percentage of the maximum displacement. One can clearly see the untwist due to rotation since the zero displacement line is located along the blade axis. The stress distributions on the suction and pressure sides of the blade are also presented in terms of reduced stresses in figures (b) and (c). It can be seen that 66the maximum stress is not located at the same position on the two surfaces. This is due to the fact that the stresses are the superposition of membrane stresses (constant across the thickness) and bending stresses (of opposite signs on the two surfaces). 100*Fo 90 60} 50 25 10 a) 6; reduced b) Gr % on the ¢) Of fe on the isodisplacement suction surface pressure surface Dynamic analysis: Ten frequencies and associated mode shapes were computed for a range of rotation speeds from 0 to 10000 rpm. The first mode is a simple bending mode. The next four modes are presented below and are respectively a second bending, a first torsion, a third bending and a second torsion. The calculated nodal lines at rest and under rotation are reported and compared to experimental results at rest. Good agreement is obtained between computed and experimental results. The influence of rotation on mode shape is weak. 67[| T | 7] L | I | | rH J a a CT Second bending (2F) First torsional (IT) experiment at rest Least finite element at rest | [| L. —s— finite element | | at operating ry | speed L-+—] 1] Third bending (3F) | Second torsional (2T) 68The Campbell diagram, giving the evolution of frequencies with rotation, is: Nv WR HD VY @ wo It can be seen that the influence of rotation is significant on the bending modes (first, second, fourth ...) but is weak on torsion modes (third, fifth ...). Notes: => As the blade is radial, gyroscopic (Coriolis) effects were not considered. Computations including these effects in fact give a negligible change in frequency (0.2% maximum) with a computation time multiplied by a factor of four.=> A 2D blade dynamic analysis could be performed using a beam approach. However, in this case, only the very first modes (about 3) will be correctly predicted. 1-3/3D modeling Thick and low aspect ratio blades should be modeled using three dimensional finite elements. This type of structure includes short and thick turbine blades and some high pressure compressor blades. Degenerated solid shell elements and isoparametric brick elements are often used. Application: High pressure turbine blade [21]. The high pressure turbine blade shown below was modeled using 9 isoparametric thick shell elements with 24 nodes and 3 dof per node. springs equivalent to the root stiffness 70Root effects are taken into account using simple equivalent springs in the three directions. The first three computed frequencies are reported below. for the structure at rest and rotating at 16000 rpm. They are compared to the corresponding frequencies measured at rest on the machine. Good agreement is obtained, provided root effects are included. As the blade is very short, the effect of rotation on frequency is relatively weak. The first mode is mainly a flapwise bending mode, the second mode is mainly an edgewise bending mode and the third is mainly a torsion mode. n | F(iz)Exp{ F(Hz) |A(%)) F(z) Q=0rpm | Q=-Orpm Q=16000 rpm 1 1368. 1370. 02 1456. 2 3133. 3354, 7.0 3401. 3 4661. 4755, 2.0 4809. Note: root flexibility is significant at rest. At the operating speed, a rotating blade using a fir tree fixation can usually be considered clamped at its root Effect of temperature The results presented previously consider that the structure remains at a constant temperature (20°C). When operating, high pressure turbines undergo large temperature variations which modify the value of Young’s modulus. The influence of temperature on the natural frequencies of the structure rotating at 16000 rpm is presented in the table below, up to the value of 700°C (typical turbine operating level). nn/F (Hz) 8=700°C 1334 3084 | 4355 Differences between frequencies at 20° and frequencies at 700° are about -9%. ‘When the temperature increases natural frequency decreases. At 700° it is clear that the effect of temperature is much more important than the effect of rotation. [-4/ Conclusic i mn fions The finite element method is an efficient tool for dynamic analyses of rotating blades. However the designer has to remember that: => the choice of the element depends primarily on the blade geometry. If a beam model is chosen, all the coupling terms must be included in the element theory. = the influence of rotation has to be considered (both centrifugal stiffening and spin softening). The static equilibrium position should be obtained using a non-linear scheme (Newton Raphson). The gyroscopic effects (Coriolis) can be neglected for radial blades. In the case of non classical blades further investigation is recommended before ignoring these effects. => temperature, when significant, should be considered. = a single blade calculation is appropriate only if the disc stiffness is high compared to the stiffness of blades. Otherwise, the whole assembly has to be modeled. 2The axisymmetrical finite element modeling of the stage is presented below. The disk is modeled mainly using thin shell axisymmetrical elements (9 elements for the flanges and 10 elements for the web), connected to the disc rim using junction elements (I to VI). The rim is modeled using 8 thick isoparametric elements. The blade is modeled using 16 twisted beam elements. Continuity is ensured using 2 junction elements (VII and VII). The shroud at the blade tip is modeled by additional mass and inertia in the three directions. The blade tip is free in X and Z directions, supported in Y direction and restrained in torsion. Note: junction elements are massless elements used for linking elements with different type of degrees of freedom (here connection between elements with. and without slopes). They ensure slope continuity et each node. 74Dynamic analysis The first six natural frequencies and mode shapes were computed for the structure vibrating with n=0 to 5 nodal diameters. The results are presented using dimensionless parameters: => frequency parameter f, = f/f) = speed of rotation 2, = Qf, where fo, is the first natural frequency of the 0 nodal diameter modes. Frequencies as a function of n: tr 2 2%=0,0 75Mode shapes are arranged in families f,; to fav. Family I involves mainly disk-rim deformations. The blades move in the XZ plane following the rim motioa. Rotation results in a 30. to 40% increase in frequency. Family I involves disc bending modes. Rim motions are limited and the blades bend in the XZ plane. The increase in frequency due to rotation is here more than 20%. Family I involves mainly blade first flapwise bending modes. Rotation results in a 8% increase in frequency. Family IV involves blade first torsion modes. Rotation has a negligible effect on torsional frequencies (less than 1.5% here) Family V involves a disc-rim vibration strongly coupled with a second bending- torsion blade mode. Family VI involves highly coupled disc-rim-blades modes The influence of the disc is low for families I, II and IV but significant for families II, V and VI. nso fot ns nes 16Note: ‘The application presented shows that axy-symmetrical modeling is effective in modeling the dynamic behavior of bladed-disc assemblies with a large number of blades. Such a modeling technique needs yery low computer resources but is penalized by two significant drawbacks: => blades are necessarily modeled using beam elements => consequently, disc-blade junction elements are always needed. The second point is a major drawback since junction elements are often critical elements which should be used with care. Furthermore, the first point induces relatively poor modeling of the link between the blades and the disc. Thus, considering the continuous increase in computing capacities, axi- symmetrical models are used less and less for bladed-disc assemblies. At present cyclic symmetrical models are preferred, even when the number of blades is high. II-2/ cyclic symmetrical structures An efficient method, developed by Henry [26, 28] for the dynamic analysis of cyclic symmetrical structures, is illustrated in the following paper [29] presented at the IMechE International Conference on Vibrations in Rotating Machinery, Oxford U.K., 1996. => Computations made using TURBODYN, computer code developed at INSA Lyon. 8C500/090/96 Accurate prediction in dynamics of centrifugal Impellers ‘AGELIN and J M PUGNET Framatome Thermodyn, Le Crouse, France @ JACQUET-RICHARDET LMStINSA, Vileurbanne, France SYNOPSIS ‘The mechanical behaviour of centrifugal compressor impellers is investigated using a specific finite element method. The modelling is completely interconnected with the aerodynamic definition of the impeller blades and with the CAD system. The static behaviour under centrifugal loading is briefly described and the dynamic behaviour with the prediction of ‘natural frequencies and modal shapes’ is mainly presented. The rotationally periodic characteristics of the structures are considered with both sub-structuration and wave propagation techniques. Computed and experimental results are found to be in very good agreement and the relevant mechanical softwares are today used to design new centrifugal impellers. A INTRODUCTION ‘The development of three-dimensional impellers of high flow coefficients allows the selection of smaller process centrifugal compressors with beter aerodynamic characteristics. This kind of impeller is mainly encountered in boosters and petrochemical applications with high ‘molecular weight. The rotor of figure 1, dedicated toa butyl process, includes five impellers; the first two of which are of the three-dimensional type, ‘The blades of such impellers are machined directly into the hub by using five axis milling, and the shroud is assembled on the blade tip by welding or brazing. A three- dimensional impeller is shown in figure 2, before assembling the shroud. ‘The development of such impellers must include several major aspects, such as : ~ the aerodynamic design and the performance predictions, including three-dimensional flow analysis = the aerodynamic and thermodynamic experimestations = the mechanical behaviour with the stress and strain analysis = the dynamic behaviour in order to avoid resonances at the most energetic inlet guide ‘vanes (IGV) excitation frequencies,” Centrifugai impellers are structures with complex shapes and complex dynamic behaviour. The different parts of the structure (shroud, hub, blades) cannot be analysed separately and the low number of blades does not allow axisymmetric modellings. Therefore the whole structure has to be considered in a thre dimensional analysis. Furthermore all the influential effects induced by rotation should be accounted for. ‘This paper deals with the presentation of a mechanical design method, and the dynamic ‘behaviour will be mainly approached, The calculations ofthe natura frequencies and modal shapes of two different impellers will be compared with experimental results, obtained by ‘modal analysis using holographic interferometry. 2 NUMERICAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS ‘A direct modelling of the complete structure using the finite element method has two major disadvantages. First, the number of degrees of freedom (dof) needed fora precise modelling is very high, requiring prohibitive computer resources. Second, the exploitation of computed results is tedious because nothing helps the classification of modal shapes. When dealing with turbomachinery impellers, these disadvantages can be avoided if their rotionally periodic characteristics are taken into account. Such structures are composed of N identical jointed sectors. The modelling method considered is based on the developments proposed by Henry (1). Three main steps are involved : 1/ A finite element modelling of a basic repetitive sector 21 The computation of the non linear static equilibrium postion of the structure under centrifugal loading 31 ‘The computation of natural frequencies and modal shapes ofthe structure vibrating with small amplitudes around the static equilibrium position. 2.1 Modelling of the basic repetitive sector In the case of impellers the simplest basic repetitive sector is composed of one blade and the related 1/Nth of the hub and the shroud (N total number of blades). This basic sector is ‘modelted using the finite element method. For this application, only classical volumic isoparametric brick elements with 20 nodes and 3 dof per node (F120) are used. ‘The different quantities involved inthe formulation are partitioned according to : G) = <6,8,.5>" for vectors o Aa Ae A TA] = | Aa An Ae for matrices @ AL Ay Ay where subscripts 1, indicate quantities atached respectively to the right contour of the sector, the left contour and the inside domain, ‘An automatic finite element modeller has been writen and totally interconnected with the aerodynamic definition ofthe blades and the CAD system. Special care has been taken in the connection between the blades, hub and shroud. All the static and dynamic mechanical calculations are performed only on one basic repetitive sector, by selecting appropriate ‘boundary conditions. ‘An extension to the whole impeller meshing is shown in figure 3. Figure 3-a represents the impeller from the shroud side, with only a part ofthe shroud to show the blade shapes, and figure 3-b the impeller from the hub side, with a basic sector highlighted. ‘© Meche: 1808 C800'000 2.2 Statie solution ‘The static solution I given by the resolution of the following non linear system [Kp + Ko((8}) - Ksl(d}, = (Fett) + (Rds ® ‘where Ky I the elastic stiffness matrix of the basic sector, Ke the geometric stiffness matrix (centrifugal stress stiffening) and K, the supplementary stiffness matrix (spin softening). is the constant rotational speed, F isthe centrifuga forces vector and R the vector of linking. forces between the sector and its neighbours. ‘in a cylindrical coordinate system the eymmetry of the structare associated to the symmetry of the loading implies the following relations between contour quantities : {5}, = (de {Fo} = (Fob ro (R= AR ‘Carrying over (4) into (3) gives PS ASE. GS) ® where K = Ky + Ko - Ky ‘Due to centrifugal stfening effect, system (S) is non linear and is solved using & Newton Raphson iterative ‘A small umber of iterations (2 ot 3) is generally sulflelent to converge through the satic solution (8, ‘The rottlonal speed Is the most imporant and static loding. The calculations are performed at overspeed test conditions, without any boundary condition atthe inner diameter fhe hub, The calculations are also performed at nominal operating conditions by nonlinear modelling of the shrink fit between the impeller and the shaft. “An example of the stati behaviour at overspeed test conditions is given in figure 4."In figure 4a, the Von Mises strexs distribution ia with the distortion of the asi sector mesh shown in figure 4-» (end Wdentlca to fg, 3-2). canbe observed that the shroud fends to turn around the hub because of the non radial blades, and this Phenomenon induces bending stresses in the thin pars ofthe hub and shroud near the ote Giameter. Only a tree-dimensional fine element analysis allows this mechanical behaviour to be predicted wlth sufficlentaccuraces. To validate the stati calculation method expe- ‘imenttion was carried out using two techniques: stress freezing under rotation of a thee dimensional impeller made of epoxy resin > three-dimensional phoo-lastlty measurements ofthe stress distribution at any lection. ‘The finite element calculation results were found to be in very good agreement with experiments, and thus, the calculation method under static equilibrium conttions was quilted. 2.3 Dynamic solution ‘At nominal speed 0 the structure vibrates with small amplitudes around the static equilibrium position determined above, Then the dynamic problem can be linearized leading to the following system : (MICs + Da + Kol} - KN} = (Re © e50090 © IMecnE 1996{fn = 2rn/N isthe propagation constant. Nis the total number of sectors and n, wave umber, can only tke adaerste numberof values given ty EN is even aN JEN is odd ® our of impellers is complex (aumerous frequencies close together). ‘The use of wave propagation gives the advantage of a first diect classification by wave number which is equivalent to the classification into diametral natural modes. for axisymmetical structures. It should be noted that in the case of rotationally periodic sists, mode associated oa wavenumber nis often refed 1a a nodal ameter Even when limited to only one repetitive sector the size of system (6) remains large. A ‘modal eduction of the inside domain allows a significant saving in computational effort. The reduction technique used is based on the well known Craig and Bampton substructuration ‘method (3] and is characterized by the following transformation : fa) 100 fa) (ab= foro Tiay o Wh oo6 Tle de where I is the identity matrix and O the null matrix. The method keeps the contour dof ‘unchanged and uses two types of vectors forthe reduction of the inside domain. The first one (és 4) is constinted with static displacements obiained by giving successively a unit displacement to each of the left and right dof, the other contour dof's being clamped. The second one (4) is constituted with the first modes of the sector with clamped boundaries. Carrying over (9) and (7) into (6) gives the following reduced dynamic system which is ‘now a function of the propagation constant fn. fa) fa) fo}, {mo {b+ OO {f= Xb 0) wh ted. lo {[m(Gn)] and [k(0)) takes the following form. Bet ay + OMI + May ay + May [a(6a)] = [ apn ate, a “The matrices are Hermitian, System (10) is solved forall the possible vales of n given by (@). The eigenvalues are real and the eigenvectors are complex conjugates. The eigenvalues give directly the natural frequencies. The associated mode shapes are obtained by back substitution ofthe eigenvectors into (9) and (7). ‘Using the propagation constant xn, a graphic post processor has been writen (0 visulize, understand and classify the modal shapes on the whole impeller. This post processor Is interconnected with the graphic tools of the general finite element code SYSTUS 4). 3 APPLICATIONS AND QUALIFICATIONS ‘The theoretical method described above has been validated by computing the natural frequencies and the astoclated modal shapes of two different impellers. The first one Is ofthe bi-dimensional type specially used in high pressure and low flow rate applications, and the second one Is of the three-dimensional type, mainly used in high flow rate centrifugal ‘Experimental modal analyses bave been performed on both impellers. The ear parts of the inner diameter ofthe hubs were fixed on a right support, and piezo-leczical shaker save the exclation at natural frequencies previously Mentfied by alow sweeps in frequency, ‘The excitation polnis were located near the outside diameter of the impellers and inthe axial direction, ‘An optical interferometry technique using CW (Continuous Wave) laser allows real time capoure and display of the modal shapes which. are imaged by a TV holography head connecied to an Image processing system displaying. ‘The modal analyses were carried out at rest, and of course, the calculations were performed under the same conditions, 3.1 Qualification on a bidimensional Impeller ‘This impeller has 26 blades andthe modal analysis allowed to be measured and identified 14 ‘natural frequencies and modal shapes up to 9000 Hz. ‘The modelling ofthe basic sector, corresponding to one of the 26 repetitive sectors of, the whole Impeller, contains 2984 nodes and 465 brick finite elements. The boundary conditions, are modelled by clamping the 18 nodes of the rear part of the inner hub diameter, and thus, the complete model contains 8898 degrees of freedom. 13 modes have been kept in the Craig and Bampton substructuration method and the first two natural frequencies and modal shapes were researched for each ofthe 13 wave numbers, Figures 5, 6 and 7 give, respectively, the comparison between predicted and measured ‘modal shapes for the three modal diameter mode (3D), for the five modal diameter mode (SD), and for the three modal diameter and one modal circle mode (3D-1C). “Table 1 compares the measured and predicted narural frequencies. ‘The results are ina very good agreement. The modal shapes are exactly predicted, and the discrepancies in the nanural frequencies are inthe range of 5%. 3.2 Qualification on a three-dimensional impeller ‘The three-dimensional blades of this impeller, shown in figure 2, were milled inthe hub by five axis machining and the shroud was brazed at the biade tips.‘The main characteristics of this impeller are the followings : + blade number a + external diameter 20mm + mass ‘Sake ‘Atte including the boundary conditions in the model, there are 9186 degrees of freedom, 18 ‘modes were kept in the substructuration method, and the first three natural frequencies and modal shapes were computed for each of the 11 wave numbers. Figures 8 and 9 give respectively the computed modal shapes with three and four modal diameters. Because of the geometrical complexity of this kind of impeller the modal analysis has been performed on both sides of the impeller. Twice 21 natural frequencies and modal shapes have been measured up to 6000 Hz. Figures 10 and 11 represent respectively the three nodal diameter mode (3D) andthe five nodal diameter with one nodal circle mode (SD-1C) on both sides of the impeller. The natural frequencies ae slightly different because the boundary conditions were not exacily the same for both experiments. ‘Table 2 gives the comparison between measured on both sides and predicted natural frequencies. Discrepancies ae also given when it was posible to formally identify the modal shapes. In fact, unlike the results forthe bidimensional impeller, it was very difficult to classify the modal shapes of this three-dimensional one. The frequency content is very dense and for the same natural frequency the modal shapes on the shroud and hub can be relatively different. In addition local natural blade vibration modes were observed. In spite of the complexity of the modal identification, the results are very good. When the identification was possible, the predicted natural frequencies correspond to the ones measured with an sccuracy lower than a few percent, except for one particular mode. For this ‘mode (2D), the experiments show that axial displacements are significant a the bore location, and this does not represent the boundary conditions of the calculation, where the displacements are practically blocked, This is confirmed by an important difference in the experimental natural frequencies on both sides of the impeller (36%), and by a better agreement for the upper modes, where this phenomenon disappears. 3.3 Rotational speed influence “The predicted and experimental results presented in this paper have been obtained at standstill tout itis well known dat the rotational speed has in influence on natural frequencies of cericifvgal impellers, The rotational sped induces «sffening effect lading to an increase of the natural frequencies. A previous paper (5) dealt with his phenomenon, and the most imporunt stiffening was observed on the 2D natural mode ; the diference in frequency between nominal operating speed and standstill is about 6. The differences were both numerically predicted and experimenuly measured In addition to that it was observed that the modal shapes were slightly modified by rotation, 3.4 Industrial application ‘This mechanical prediction method is today completely integrated inthe process design of centrifugal compressor impellers. The modelling of the repetitive basic sector is totally interconnected with the aerodynamic definition ofthe blades, and is integrated in the CAD process. ‘© Meche 1996 C5001000 ‘The analysis includes both static and dynamic mechanical behaviours which are today well validated. In an industrial point of view, It ls necessary to have an automatic system such as this withthe objective of minimising development costs and computational time. Design of new three-dimensional impellers and improvements in dynamic behaviour of existing impellers Ihave been efficiently achieved by this method. CONCLUSION ‘The impellers are major components of centrifugal compressors and are submitted to the highest peripheral velocities in operation, The Jn thermo-terodynamical ‘performances leads to complex blade shapes and especially in the case of three-dimensional high flow coefficient impellers. Efficient prediction method of the mechanical and dynamic ‘behaviour must be available, Such a method has been presented inthis paper and the results {or low and high flow coefficient impellers have been found in very good accordance with experimental results obtained by three-dimensional photo-lasticty and laser interferometry. ‘This method has been fully imtegrated in the design process of centrifugal compressors and is used in a very Indostrial way. REFERENCES {1} Henry R. snd Ferraris G., *Substrocturing and wave propagation. An efficient technique for impeter dynamic aaiyss™. ASME J. of Engineering for Gas Turbine and Power = Vol. 106 n*1, 1984, pp. 2-10 {2} Thomas D.L., “Dynamics of rotationally petiodic structures". Int. J. for Numerical Methods in Engineering. Vol. 14, 1979, pp. 81-102 19) Craig, RR. and Bampton M.C.C., *Coupling of substructures for dynamic analyses”. AIAA J. Vol. 6 n° 7, 1968, pp. 1313-1319 4) SYSTUS Theroretical Mans. July 1989 -Edted by FRAMATOME - Tout Framatome Cédex 16 - 92084 Pars ln Defense 15) Berlioa A., Henry R., Pugnet J.M. and Ferraris G., "Experimental and theoretical dynamic analysis of a rotating shrouded impeller Proceedings of the 3d TFTOMM. Rotordynamics conference, Lyon, 1990, pp. 403-409. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘The authors: wish to express their thinks 10 the Ministre de "Enseignement et de la Recherche, Pole FIRTECH Machine Energetics and Mechanics, GEC Alsthom BERGERON. and Electricité de France, who allowed the development of the industrial version of the software, and alzo the two laboratories who experimented the impellers, PK-LAB involved in the determination of the stress and strain distribution by 3D photo-clasticity and HOLO3 the measurements of natural frequencies and modal shapes by laser Interferometry. (0500090 © IMechE 1908ble 1 Measured and predicted natural frequencies for the bidimensional impeller Measured Predicted Discrepancy Modal ay 2) shape 1337 1259 2D 2666 2638 3D 3869 3879 4847 4910 3D 5649 5822 © 6514 6670 » 7230 “nm 8D 7923 8242 9D Fig 1 Rotor with three-dimensional Fig 2 Three-dimensional impeller 8679 8948 10D impellers before shroud assembling 9187 9557 uD $315 S611 3D-1c 712 7462 4D.1c 8829 9287 SD-AC Table 2 Measured and predicted natural frequencies for the three-dimensional impeller Measured Measured Predicted Discrepancy Modal Shroud side “Hub side Gy ® shape ee Fig 38 Impeller meshing from Fig 3b Impeller meshing from > 2016 shroud side side 1763 1829 228 +24.0 2839 2847 2892 417 3598 3600 3611 +03 4171 4237 +16 4494 4489 4625 43.0 4859 4819 08 4976 4979 5066 3838 3843 3956 to 4100 4232 4867 5198 +68 $352 5348 3391 +08 5569 5564 5828 5826 6077 6065 6264 Fig 4a, Stress distribution and Fig 4b Meshing of the basic sector distorsionBi-dimensional impeller Fig 53D modal shape Measurement F = 4847 Hz Fig 6 SD modal shape Measurement F = 5315 Hz Prediction F = S611 Hz Fig 7 3D-1C modal shape ‘Three-dimensional impeller Fig 8 3D modal shape “Fig 9 “4D modal shape _Prediction F = 2892 Hz Prediction F = 3611Hz Measurement hub sic F = 2847 Hz Fig 11. SD-1C modal shapeNotes: => cyclic symmetrical finite element modeling is a powerfull tool when applied to the analysis of the dynamic bahavior of bladed disc assemblies. => The whole cyclic portion of the assembly is often modeled using only volumic elements in order to avoid junction problems between different type of degrees of freedom. => As the number of « nodal diameters » increases, the natural frequencies in each identified family asymptotically approach one of the natural frequencies of an isolated blade clamped at its root. This behavior is caused by the increase in disc stiffness as it adopts a more complex shape. 307 $ 4 5 = aedtit £ © caandvae i 210+ ° 3 @ S Number of nodal diameters => Modes with 0 and 1 nodal diameter are not self-balanced and thus are significantly influenced by shaft and bearings (the influence of these modes on shaft behavior can also be verified [30]). The other modes are not influenced by these parts of the system. This implies that when comparing results calculated for the isolated wheel clamped at bore with experimental results obtained from the machine, calculated frequencies associated with OND and IND modes will be less accurate than those associated with the other modes, 85DESIGN TOOLS - CAMPBELL - SAFE - GOODMAN DIAGRAMS Forced response of bladed-disc assemblies is often responsible for => increased development costs => operational restrictions => high maintenance costs API Standard 612 - Special-purpose Steam Turbines for Refinery Services 2.6.3. BLADING 2.6.3.1 For each blade row, the vendor shall verify by Campbell diagrams or their equivalent (corrected to actual operating temperatures and speeds), that excitation of in-phase tangential, out-of-phase tangential, axial, torsional, and any other high response modes by multiples of up to 15 times running speed, by nozzle passing frequency, and by twice nozzle passing frequency does not occur within the specified operating speed range. If this is not feasible, blade-stress levels developed in any specified driven-equipment operation shall be low enough to ensure trouble-free operation if resonant vibration occurs within the operating range. This shall be verified by Goodman diagrams or their equivalent. Copies of Campbell and/or Goodman diagrams shall be provided to the purchaser. Blades shall be designed to withstand operation at resonant JSrequencies during normal warm-up. 86Note: Excitation sources can include but are not limited to: => fundamental and first harmonic passing frequencies of rotating buckets and stationary vanes upstream and downstream of each blade row => steam passage splitters => irregularities in vane pitch at horizontal casing flanges => the first four turbine speed harmonics => casing openings (exhaust or extraction) => partial arc diaphragms or nozzle plates => internal struts and structural members in the inlet and exhaust casing or horizontal joints => meshing frequencies in gear units => Campbell diagram = Safe diagram => Goodman diagram are valuable tools used for the design reliability evaluation of bladed-disc assemblies. The Campbell and Safe diagrams - also called interference diagrams - are used in order to identify possible resonant conditions. The Goodman diagram gives the stress limits beyond which dangerous high cycle fatigue occurs. For bladed assemblies, two major sources of excitation are considered: => periodic disturbances transmitted through the rotor = rotation of the assembly in a static perturbed pressure field. 87The first, often induced by gears, tip rubbing, rotor torsion, is independent of flow conditions and a resonance will occur if the frequency of the disturbance equals one of the natural frequencies (simple resonant condition). The second, known as the Engine Order (EO) excitation type, is more complex and constitutes a major source of forced vibration. In this case, possible resonant conditions are identified using interference diagrams (Campbell and/or Safe diagrams). Campbell diagram At the inlet of the different stages, the steady flow is not uniform but varies with angular position 6: Static pressure p@) ° 180° 360° Circonferental position @ Such variations are inevitable consequences of upstream obstructions (vanes, bearings, supports, etc.) and act as time varying forces on the rotating assembly. These forces may be composed of many harmonics and the excitation frequency is based on multiples of rotation speed. Resonant conditions, for a natural mode at frequency fi, are given by: fi =n0/60. Q: speed of rotation in rev/min, a) n; Engine Order 88‘A Campbell diagram is intended to examine these possible resonant conditions. 6E0 160 ° "2000 4000 ‘6000 005 Speed (rev/min) First, the progression of natural frequencies are drawn as a function of rotation speed. Usually about 10 natural frequencies are considered. Second, excitation lines - Engine Orders (EO) - are superimposed. Intersections of the excitation straight lines with the natural frequency lines indicate possible resonant conditions. Notes: 1- Campbell diagrams indicate only possible resonant conditions, because intersections do not always imply that a dangerous vibration will occur. 89= in the particular case of bladed-disc assemblies, an additional phase relation should also be verified (see next section) = the strength of the excitation forces could be very low. = damping (mechanical and aerodynamic) could be sufficient to control the vibration. => Low engine orders (1 to 4) are much more dangerous than high engine orders. In general, the higher the harmonic the lower the vibration amplitude is. 2- When the dominant source of excitation can be attributed to the presence of K stator vanes, the Kth Engine Order is the most important one: = Nozzle Passing Frequency NPF = K Q The influence of at least one stator stage upstream and one downstream should be considered. 3- Wakes from support struts or stages can cause failures several stages downstream. The same phenomenon occurs for combustors in turbines. 4- Beat frequency is caused by the blade number difference in stators upstream and downstream of a stage. 5- Partial admission excitation is caused when the inlet flow enters only via a few nozzle passages in certain HP turbine stages er , For a given operating point (OP), coincidences are avoided within certain limits. These limits, called margin criteria, are based on experience.For example 600 500 400 300 Frequency (Hz) 200 100 oP ° 2000 4000 6000 8000 I Bladed di led bli Considering uncoupled blades, resonance will always occur when condition (1) is fulfilled. . In addition, periodically coupled blades require that: n=o0N+ND Q) where nis the engine order 2=0, 1, 2,etc. Nis the total number of blades of the stage ND is the number of nodal diameters of mode fi. This means that an ND nodal diameter mode will only be excited by a force having a shape of: ND.8, (N-ND).8, (N#ND).8, (2.N-ND).8, (2.N+ND).6, ete. If 1condition (2) is not fulfilled, no response occurs for the mode, even when the excitation is exactly at the corresponding natural frequency. Notes: => The excitation of an ND nodal diameter mode by the different possible forces obviously occurs at different rotation speeds => The simplest condition (2) - .=0 - implies that each engine order n will only generate a response in modes with n nodal diameters. This condition is often the only one which should be considered. For modes with ND diameters, the resonant conditions are given by: fi=(GN+ND )9/60. 2: speed of rotation in rev/min. (3) Illustration: LPT12 - Turbines/blower assembly V2401 of RPBC [24] The number of blades of stage 12 of the low pressure turbine is N=76 => The risks of resonant conditions, at a given speed, are given by an interference diagram: For example, at Q=7000 rpm, the interference lines are: - ND*7000/60 - (76-ND)*7000/60 = (76+ND)*7000/60 - (2*76-ND)*7000/60 ~ ete. 92Rotation speed = 7000 rpm 15000 12000 9000 . 6000 Frequency (Hz) 3000 0 , 9 18 27 36 ‘The diagram presented above gives the following possible resonant conditions: i ND nose NDae 1 29 47 2 14 62 3 4 72 3 7 to 15 83 to91 3 35 paar 4 29 123 where i mode number ND pode : number of nodal diameters of mode shape ND exe : number of nodal diameters of excitation 93=> The progression of excitation with rotation is given by Campbell diagrams. Specific Campbell diagrams are drawn, with their own particular interference lines, for each of the ND diameter modes. For example, the Campbell diagram associated with the 13 nodal diameter modes is: ND=139 15000 [7 12000 ND=89 B = 9000 ND=63 3 ZO 8 geet ff A | o PS Be 3000 | ND=13 0 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 Rotation (rpm) Thus, for the first mode with 13 ND, the possible resonant conditions are: ~ at 2.= 4900 rpm with a force having a shape of 63 ND ~ at Q= 3450 rpm with a force having a shape of 89 ND ~ at Q= 2200 rpm with a force having a shape of 139 ND =>The jointed presentation of the interference diagram at 7000 rpm and the Campbell diagram for the 29 diameter modes, show clearly that these diagrams give really coherent and complementary informations.0008 6z=aN Lb=dNn 0009 J 0007 1 GN6zZ wdz 0004 = peeds uot ej0u% oo0E 0009 0006 000zT OO0ST (2H) Kouenbezg 95III/ SAFE interference diagram [3: The SAFE diagram is a generalization of the concept of the Campbell diagram, considering both frequency and phase informations. The SAFE diagram represents the evolution with rotation speed of frequencies, plotted as a function of the shape of the associated mode (number of nodal diameters). The two vertical projections of the diagram give the Campbell plane and the SAFE plane. a ‘campbell plane SAFE planeNotes: => If the excitation force distribution at the inlet/outlet of the stage is not known, then all the possible coincidences given by the Campbell diagram and/or the Safe diagram should be considered. = If the excitation force distribution is known, for example: F 6 then the force is regarded as the sum of known circumferential sinusoidal components, obtained by Fourier decomposition of the actual distribution. Each component is characterized by: * an amplitude Fs * a circumferential period s (38) In this case, only the excitation induced by each component identified should be examined. => Any possible resonance outside the operating range is in a transient speed range, implying lower risks of maintaining enough response to produce failure. => Response amplitudes are often estimated using empirical methods based on experience, due to the difficulty in predicting adequately the strength of forcing functions and damping. 97IV/Non engine orders excitation Forced response can be caused by non engine order excitations such as: => rotating stall at lower speeds => flutter at higher speeds. on Rotating stall is an aerodynamic phenomenon and occurs when large stall zones cover several blade passages and propagate circumferentially. Rotating stall can cause blade resonance if the excitation frequency (usually 30 to 70% of running speed) or an integral multiple, coincides with one of the blades natural frequencies. Rotating stall can occur in both axial and centrifugal compressors and its prediction is usually difficult. Flutter is a self excited instability resulting from aerodynamic forces induced by blade vibrations. Flutter, relatively rare, is also difficult to predict but causes major damages when occurring. This phenomenon is limited to axial flow compressors and is very important for the fan blades of jet engines [32, 33]. Compressor surge, if prolonged, can induced severe damage because of the excitation caused by flow reversals (transient excitation). Blade excitations can also be induced by variable tip clearances. ¥/ Goodman diagram Practically, it is often not possible to completely avoid forced response problems. In this case, the designer has to verify that stresses induced by the 98remaining vibration amplitudes are low enough to ensure trouble-free operating conditions. The Goodman diagram is commonly used for evaluating the mechanical integrity of bladed assemblies. High cycle fatigue failures are caused by fluctuating forces in combination with steady forces. The Goodman diagram identifies a region of acceptable operating conditions (below the line), considering both steady mean stress level and vibratory stress level. o Mean stress s Alternating stress T_ LOR smooTH BAR, 10 7 CYCLES, 800%, MEAN FATIGUE STRENGTH ‘NOTCHED, 10 7 CYCLES, B00*F, MEAN FATIGUE STRENGTH Kyet.25 NOTCHED, 10 7 CYCLES, 600°F, So-FATIGUE STRENGTH A Goodman diagram is built from tests on smooth bar samples at several temperatures. The following properties are obtained: => mean ultimate strength at 0 vibratory stress => mean fatigue strength at 10’ vibration cycles (infinite life) at 0 steady stress 99These data are reported on a graph and a straight line is drawn between them. This gives a mean fatigue strength limit which should not be exceeded as a function of the loading (mean stress). A few corrective factors are generally needed to account for notch effects, temperature effects, data scatter etc. Notes: => The fatigue notch factor is related to a stress concentration factor, which is the ratio of the maximum steady stress to the average steady stress associated to a particular geometry (notch, fillets, holes etc.) => Fatigue fractures occur at load levels which are lower than the ultimate static strength of the structure. For example, a steal beam might resist a few applications of static loads at 300 000 N without problem, but might fail after 1 000 000 repetitions of a 200 000 N load. => Some variations of the modified Goodman diagram have been proposed more recently by Haigh, Gerber, Bagci ... yield point 7 Goodman 4 0” => When stress in the system is not harmonic but known as a transient function of time, cumulative fatigue damage techniques allow life prediction. 100V1/ Forced response control If a redesign is desirable to control forced response conditions, different procedures are available. Frequency control Alter the geometry to change the natural frequency spectrum. Move resonances above or below operating speed limits = taper => shrouds => aspect ratio = radius ratio Strengthen the blade material ‘Change boundary conditions to raise or lower natural frequencies - The effect of these changes on damping has to be considered. Change fillet sizes or local thicknesses to lower notch effects and thus increase , allowable vibratory stresses. ‘Stimulus control Change the number of blades (change the interference lines). Change the distribution of blade groups. Alter the angular distribution of the exciting forces. Control distortion levels. Modify the axial spacing between the stages - Changing the proximity of sources may lower the forcing function strength. Damping Increase the amount of damping in the system 101These procedures are usually very effective. However, before any change is| made, the following points should be kept in mind: => the cause of the problem should have been diagnosed with a high level of| certainty. => the effect of the changes on the other potential problems should be adequately investigated.PARTICULAR FEATURES Damping Stresses during resonant blade vibrations are directly related to the amplitude of the excitation force and the amount of damping present in the system. Sources of damping in bladed-disc assemblies and associated approximate values of damping ratios are as follows: => Material (hysteretic) damping. _less than 0.05% => Aerodynamic damping. Away from flutter 1% mode 1B 0.5% mode 1T 0.2% mode 2B 0.5% mode 2T => Mechanical damping about 2-3% * Root, firtree. * Shrouds, pins, wires etc. * Platform dampers 77 103Material damping and aerodynamic damping are low and root damping, when significant at rest, diminishes rapidly as the centrifugal forces pull on the blades. Thus, these sources of damping are usually not sufficient to contain resonances under transient conditions (start up, shut down etc.) and additional devices, such as blade interconnection or platform dampers, are often needed. T/ ‘col bi Blades are often interconnected for two main reasons: => First to increase the stiffness of the assembly and consequently to lower the tisks of resonant conditions and flutter: => Second to increase the amount of structural damping in the system Some interconnection devices simply provide an additional stiffness to the blading. For example: = coverbands => integral shrouds => lacing wires brazed on the blade foil In this case, the dynamic behavior of the assembly is obtained without major difficulties, using the classical cyclic symmetrical approach. The other interconnection devices provide both additional stiffness and damping. For example: => non integral shrouds => damping pins => damping wires => lacing wires etc.These devices induce dry friction damping, a phenomenon which relies on the energy dissipation when contact points slip due to the relative motion caused by vibration. In this case the problem is complex and in many practical applications cannot be solved numerically. Due to dry friction, the dynamic behavior is highly non- linear and the boundary conditions are influenced by a significant number of undetermined parameters. Notes: => Blade coupling increases the number of natural frequencies of the assembly. However, as seen before, the resonant conditions are more complex for coupled blades than for free standing blades. => Tip shrouds have also the advantage of controlling radial flows and thus minimize performance loss diffe f coupli Inte Shroud Jenon —_ welded ineeorat contact 2 S Tie-wire Z-type tie-wire ‘Snubber loose loose contact 105A few design rules =sIf static stresses (mainly due to centrifugal forces) in combination with thermal stresses are small enough, blades can be linked by a cover-band. => As opposed to shrouds, lashing pins and wires produce a relatively weak coupling between blades. => Lashing pins or wires are frequently used in stagés with long blades (low pressure parts of steam turbines or axial compressors). I is ing Most of the developments presented before are based on the hypothesis that all the blades of one stage are identical: = tuned assemblies Due to manufacturing tolerances (or design requirements) stages are generally not perfectly tuned and thus their cyclic symmetrical property is perturbed: => mistuned assemblies ‘These perturbations are small and have a relatively minor effect on natural frequencies. However, even small, their effect can be significant on mode shapes and forced response. Mode-shapes, frequency splitting When mistuning is considered, each double mode of the tuned assembly, with identical natural frequencies and pure n nodal diameters, splits into two distinct modes. The natural frequencies of these modes are close, but mode shapes now contain several diametral components (mistuning couples several diametral 106modes). The extra diametral components introduced by mistuning are often relatively small. However, changes can be considerable when the amount of mistuning is significant or when close natural frequencies of the tumed assembly are coupled by mistuning. (b) —— Tuned system ---- Mistuned system 600.00 N=10 : R = 0.5 (strong coupling) 480.00 360.00 MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE ( 24/(F/mu}) ) 240,00 129.00 b.90 1.00 1.49 1.50 1.10 1.29 1.30 NORMALIZED FREQUENCY ( w/uy ) Forced response As a result of the change in mode shapes, mistuned modes possess several diametral components and thus can be excited by several engine orders. However, the strength of resonances caused by an n engine order excitation will be directly related to the magnitude of the n diametral component in each mode. 107Mistuning is generally favorable for flutter problems but could be very dangerous in case of forced response, due to the mode localization phenomenon. For assemblies severely mistuned, the vibrational energy can be concentrated on few blades, leading to stress levels considerably higher than those predicted on the associated tuned assembly. f a) Untuned 62.16 Hz Strain amplitude b) Tuned 59.28 Hz 40 20 40 Blade No. —> More detailed information about mistuning can be found in [34-36] 108IV Added mass effect When the structure is running in a heavy fluid, for example water, the influence of the fluid on the dynamic behavior of the structure should be taken into account [37-38]. jical bl fail => Blade attachment The blade root is a critical part as it is subjected to high stress levels. Blade attachment failure can mainly be initiated by high cycle fatigue, by fretting fatigue due to rubbing or by corrosion. = Entire airfoil failure Due to first bending or first torsion modes. Blade attachment or entire airfoil failure modes cause severe secondary damage and induce high unbalance on the rotor. => Outer portion of airfoil 109Due to second, third bending, second torsion modes. Induce significant secondary damages and low unbalance on the rotor. => Small tip fragment Due to high order modes (shell modes ...) Minimal damage. 110REFERENCES Just a very few of the many references published on the subject are given below. 0) 2) 2) 4] [5] (9) mM [8] o fo} ay 012} DJ. EWINS, R. HENRY, «Basic structural dynamics - Stricturs! dynamic characteristics of individual blades - Structural dynamic characteristics of bladed assemblies» AGARD Manual on aeroelasticity in axial flow turbomachines, AGARDograph n° 298, vol. 2, 1988, pp. 13.1-15.37 R.D. BLEVINS, « Formulas for natural frequency and mode shape », Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New-York, 1979. R.W. CLOUGH, J.P. PENZIEN, « Dynamics of structures », Mc Graw Hill, 1993. M. LALANNE, P. BERTHIER, J. DER-HAGOPIAN, « Mechanical vibrations for engineers », J. Wiley and Sons, 1983, AW. LEISSA, M.S. EWING, «Comparison of beam and shell theory for the vibration of thin turbomachinery blades » ASME J. of Eng. for Power, vol 105 1°2, pp. 383-392. RD, PETRICONE, F. SISTO, « Vibration characteristics of low aspect ratio compressor blades », ASME J. of Eng. for Fower, vol 93 n°1, 1971, pp. 163-112. M.A. DOKAINISH , S. RAWTANI, « Vibration analysis of rotating cantilever plates », Int, J. for Num. Methods in Eng,, vo! 3(2), 1973, pp. 233-248 RV, SOUTHWELL, « On the free transverse vibrations of # uniform sivcular disc claraped a: its centre, and on the effect of rotation », Proceedings of the Roya’ Society Serie A, vol. 101, London, 1922, pp. 133-153. AENOR, Société Frongaise des Méceniciens, « Guide de validation des progiciels de ealoal des stmctures », Paris 1990. DLL. THOMAS, « Dynamics of rotationally periodic structures » », int. J for Num. Methods ia Fag,, vol 14(1), 1979, pp. 82-102. 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RAO, « Vibrations of rotating machinery, Part 2 bisding and torsional vibrations », The Vibration Institute, Clarendon Hills, Ilinois, 1982 AS. PAN WALKER, A. RAJAMANL and V. RAMAMURTI, « Turbomachinery blade dynamics. A review ». Shock and Vib. Digest, vol 22, 1992. R. HENRY, M. LALANNE, « Vibration analysis of rotating compressor blades ». ASME J. of Eng. for Industry, vol 96, 1974 ,pp. 1028-1035. P. TROMPETTE, M. LALANNE, « Vibration analysis of rotating turbine blades ». ASME Paper 74-WA/DE-23, 1974. M. LALANNE, P. TROMPETTE, R. HENRY, G. FERRARIS, « Analyse des vibrations de moteurs», AGARD Symposium on Stress, Vibration, Structural Integration and Engine Integrity, Conference proceedings 248, 1978, pp. 2-13. G. FERRARIS, « Prévision du comportement dynamique des ensembles disque- aubes », Thése de Doctorat, INSA Lyon, 1982. A. CASTILHO, 3. GOMES, G. JACQUET-RICHARDET, A. BERLIOZ, M. LALANNE, « Dynamic behavior of turbines blower assembly V2401 of RPBC, Part 2 Dynamic behavior of turbines blades », PETROBRAS 1995, DJ. EWINS, « Vibration characteristics of bladed disk assemblies » J. of Mech, Eng. Sciences, vol 15, 1973, pp. 165-186. R. HENRY, G. FERRARIS, « Substructuring and wave propagation: An efficient technique for impeller dynamic analysis », ASME J. of Eng. for Gas Turbine and Power, vol 106(1), 1984, pp. 2-10. 112227) (28) (29) Go] Bu (32) (33] 34] (35) (36) B7) Bs] G. FERRARIS, R HENRY, M. LALANNE, P. TROMPETTE, « Frequencies and mode shapes of rotating bladed axisymmetric structures », ASME Monograph Vibrations of Bladed Disk Assemblies, 1983, pp. 1-10. A. BERLIOZ, R. HENRY, JM. PUGNET, G. FERRARIS, « Experimental and theoretical dynamic analysis of a rotating impeller », Proc. of the 3rd Int. Conf. on Rotordynamics, IFToMM Lyon, 1990, pp. 403-409. A. GELIN, JM, PUGNET, G. JACQUET-RICHARDET, « Accurate prediction in dynamics of centrifugal impellers », Int. Conf. on Vibrations in Rotating Machinery IMechE, Oxford, 1996, pp. 77-87. G. JACQUET-RICHARDET, G. FERRARIS, P. RIEUTORD, « Frequencies and modes of rotating flexible bladed disc-shaft assemblies: A global cyclic symmetry approach », J. of Sound and Vibration, vol 191 n° 5, 1996, pp. 901-915. MBP. SINGH, JJ. VARGO, « Reliability evaluation of shrouded blading using the SAFE interference diagram », ASME J. of Eng. for Gas Turbine and Power, vol 111, 1989, pp. 601-609. G. JACQUET-RICHARDET, R. HENRY, «A modal aeroelastic finite element analysis method for advanced turbomachinery stages », Int. J. for Num. Meth. in Eng., vol. 37, 1994, pp. 4205-4217 . F, MOYROUD, G. JACQUET-RICHARDET, TH. FRANSSON, «A modal coupling for fluid and structure analysis of turbomachinery flutter. Application to a fan stage », ASME Paper 9667336, 1996, LE. EL-BAYOUMY, A.V. SRINIVASAN, « Influence of mistuning on rotor blade vibrations », ALAA J, vol. 13 n° 4, 1975, pp. 460-464. D.J. EWINS, Z.S. HAN, « Resonant vibration levels of a mistuned bladed disc», ASME J. of Vib. Ac, Stress and Reliability in Design , vol. 106, 1986, pp. 211-217. S.T. WEI, C. PIERRE, « Localization phenomena in mistuned assemblies with cyclic symmetry », ASME J. of Vib. Ac. Stress and Reliability in Design, vol 110, 1988, pp. 429-449. G. JACQUET-RICHARDET, C. DAL-FERRO, « Reduction method for finite element dynamic analysis of submerged turbomachinery wheels », Computers and Structures, vol 61 n° 6, 1996, pp. 1025-1036. G. JACQUET-RICHARDET, P. SWIDER, « Vibration analysis of rotating laminated ‘composite blades using a finite element technique », ISROMAC-6, Honolulu 1996. 113