Sensing and Control Technology Guide

DAN MONTONE | Director of Business Development

Pittman Motors, Div. of Ametek Precision Motion Control
Harleysville, Pa.

HOW TO PICK
Motors for Linear Motion
The easiest way to design a linear-motion system is to add
components one by one. Then, step-by-step calculations relate
input to power dissipated moving a load in a specific amount of time.
LINEAR SYSTEMS DRIVE everything from
inexpensive seat movers in passenger
vehicles to precision laser cutters and CNC
machines. All move loads through a linear
distance in a specific amount of time.
One approach for designing a linear sys-
tem is to list basic requirements, add com-
ponents one by one, and define every force
interaction along the way.
DEFINE THE PROBLEM
To begin a linear design, determine the
mass of what moves and how fast it goes
from A to B. We work in SI units, as they
eliminate multiple conversion constants
and can always convert back into English
units. For example, assume we’re choosing
a motor for a simple linear-rail mechanism that moves a load:
Load's mass = 9 kg
Mass orientation: Vertical
A-to-B move distance and time = 200 mm in 1.0 sec
Dwell time = 0.5 sec
Move profile = 1/3-1/3-1/3 trapezoid–controlled acceleration
and deceleration
Rotary-to-linear conversion = TFE-coated leadscrew
Ø8 mm and 275-mm long
Load support: Linear ball rail and TFE-coated guide rails
with a friction coefficient μ = 0.01
Overall size: Limited to the smallest volume possible
Drive architecture: Must be simple, as this is a cost-sensi-
tive application
Drive control: Four-quadrant operation with encoder
feedback
Drive power supply = 32 Vdc, 3.5 Arms, 5.0 Apeak maxi-
mum output
Worst-case ambient temperature = 30°C
The second and third steps of the approach outlined here are to
choose the motor type and size.
Because force = ma (where a = acceleration due to gravity =
9.81 m/sec2), the 9-kg mass lifted against gravity requires a
force of 88 N.
1. How much power is needed to move the load in the
required time?
Calculating minimum power output to translate the load
provides a starting point for specifying the rest of the sys-
tem's components. For our example, this is the average power
needed to lift the 9 kg from A to B in 1 sec.
F×S
P=
t and leadscrew assembly.
88 N × 0.2 m
= = 17.64 W
1.0 sec
where P = power, W; F = force, N; S = linear distance, m; and t
= time, sec.
Note that power calculated here is less than peak power (or 1,000 rpm, which reduces generated heat at the leadscrew and
instantaneous power during the move profile) to accelerate nut-thread interface.
and decelerate. Likewise, power calculated here doesn’t fac-
tor in extra power to overcome system losses such as friction. GEARMOTOR OUTPUT
We’ll calculate the motor-shaft power for that in a later step. 3. What’s the velocity, reflected inertia, and reflected load
at the gearmotor output shaft (acting as the leadscrew
PICK THE MOTOR input)?
2. What motor technology is best for this application? Step one: Calculate the peak linear velocity of the application
As outlined in our original parameters, the final design must with its 1/3-1/3-1/3 motion profile:
be inexpensive and have simple drive architecture. Stepper 3S
v pk =
motors satisfy both of these requirements. However, mini- 2t
mizing this machine’s overall volume is also important, so a 3× 0.2 m
= = 0.3 m/sec
stepper isn’t recommended: The 17.64-W minimum power 2 ×1 sec
requirement at the load (not including system losses and where vpk = peak linear velocity, m/sec.
instantaneous peak power) would necessitate a large stepper. Step two: Calculate the minimum pitch needed to keep the
A brushless motor solves the problem of design footprint, but leadscrew speed at about 1,000 rpm:
adds cost and complicates the drive architecture. v pk × 60
The third option — a dc-brush gearmotor with an in-line pmin =
Maximum screw rpm
planetary gearhead — provides a small footprint, simplified
0.3 m/sec × 60
drive, and relatively low cost. Adding a leadscrew for rotary- = = 18 mm
1,000
to-linear conversion keeps gearmotor output speed at around
where pmin = minimum leadscrew pitch, m.
For one typical product, the closest pitch in an 8-mm screw
diameter is 20.32 mm.
SIZING: JUST THE BEGINNING Step three: Calculate the peak shaft speed of the leadscrew
(in rad/sec) for a linear velocity of 0.3 m/sec:
THIS ARTICLE EXPLAINS how to size a motor for a relatively simple
v pk × 60
single-axis linear-motion application. What don’t we cover here? Peak leadscrew speed =
p
• Sizing motors for complex designs. The motor-sizing principles
0.3 m/sec × 60
we outline are applicable to X-Y tables and multiaxis pick-and- = = 886 rpm ≈ 900 rpm
place machines. However, every axis in these designs requires 0.02032 m
900 × 2π
independent analysis of load demands. ω pk =
• Choosing a safety factor so the machine lasts for its intended life.
60
= 94.2 rad/sec
A design’s number of useful cycles depends on motor size, as
well as the machine’s mechanical elements including the gearbox The leadscrew we select is TFE coated, 275-mm long, 8 mm
in diameter with a 20.32-mm pitch, and paired with a free-
• Accounting for positioning accuracy, resolution, repeatability, wheeling nut. Assume the leadscrew efficiency, ηs, is 86% and
maximum roll, pitch, and yaw. Only linear-motion systems that its inertia, Js, is 38.8 × 10-7 kg-m2.
account for these fully meet application requirements. Step four: Determine the total reflected inertia, JT, back
from the load to the leadscrew shaft:

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Sensing and Control Technology Guide

POWER CONVERSION
F×S
J s = 38.8 ×10−7 kg-m 2 = Watts out
t
2 Power supply Drive Gearmotor
⎛ p⎞
JL = m × ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2π ⎠
2 Load
⎛ 0.02032 m ⎞
= 9 kg × ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ 2π
= 9.42 ×10−5 kg-m 2 (Vin) (Iin) (Vin) (Iin) (Vin) (Iin)
Tω = Watts to
JT = J s + J L Watts in Watts in Watts in leadscrew
shaft
= 38.8 ×10−7 kg-m 2 + 9.42 ×10−5 kg-m 2
Electrical power converts to mechanical power. Equations describ-
= 9.81×10−5 kg-m 2
ing each conversion provide the framework for specifying each part.
where JL = reflected load inertia, kg-m2; m = mass, kg; and p = Begin at the load and work through the power-conversion elements
leadscrew pitch, m. back to the motor and then to the motor drive’s power supply.
Step five: Determine the shaft torque needed to accelerate
the load inertia Ta:
Ta = TJ +T f +Tg initial linear velocity, m/sec; tf = final time, sec; ti = initial time,
TJ = JT × a sec; and α = angular acceleration, rad/sec2.
cosΘmgµ × p 4. What is the RMS torque Trms required at the gearmotor
Tf = shaft (acting as the leadscrew input)?
2π × ηs
sinΘmg × p
Tg = t1T12 + t 2T22 + t3T32
2π × ηs Trms =
t1 + t 2 + t3 + tdwell
v f – vi
a= The 1/3-1/3-1/3 motion profile over 1 sec means that 0.3582 Nm is
t f –ti
applied for 0.333 sec, then 0.3309 Nm is applied for 0.333 sec,
0.3 m/sec – 0 m/sec
= = 0.901 m/sec 2 then –0.3582 Nm for the remaining 0.333 sec.
0.333 sec – 0 sec
a × 2π
α= 0.333× 0.35822 + 0.333× 0.33092 + 0.333× (–0.35822 )
p Trms =
0.333+ 0.333+ 0.333+ 0.5
0.901 m/sec 2 × 2π
= 0.1219
0.02032 m = = 0.2851
1.5
= 278.6 rad/sec 2
The RMS torque requirement predicts the gearmotor’s ther-
cosΘmgµ × p sinΘmg × p
Ta = JT × a + + mal rise. The motor is thermally overloaded if the RMS torque
2π × ηs 2π × ηs
falls outside the safe or continuous-operating area of the dc-
= 9.81×10−5 kg-m 2 × 278.6 rad/sec 2 motor curve.
cos90¡ × 9 kg × 9.8 m/sec 2 × 0.01× 0.02032 m
+
2π × 0.86 DEFINE TOTAL POWER
sin90¡ × 9 kg × 9.8 m/sec 2 × 0.02032 5. What are the first-approximation power requirements to
+
2π × 0.86 drive the leadscrew shaft?
= 0.0273+ 0 + 0.3309 = 0.3582 Nm
Ta = 0.3582 Nm Ppk = Ta × ω pk
Tf = 0 Nm = 0.3582 Nm × 94.2 rad/sec = 33.74 W
Tg = 0.3309 Nm m× g ×S
Td = –Ta = –0.3582 N Pavg = Ö ηs
t
9 kg × 9.8 m/sec 2 × 0.2 m
where TJ = torque required to overcome load inertia, Nm; = Ö 0.86 = 20.47 W
1.0 sec
Tf = torque required to overcome friction, Nm; Tg = torque
required to overcome gravity, Nm; a = linear acceleration, 6. What are the final load parameters at the leadscrew input
m/sec2; Θ = load orientation, with horizontal = 0° and vertical shaft (acting as the gearmotor output shaft)?
= 90°; m = mass, kg; g = gravitational constant = 9.8 m/sec2; Trms = 0.2851 Nm; Tg = 0.3309 Nm; Ta = 0.3582 Nm; ωpk =
p = leadscrew pitch, m; v f = final linear velocity, m/sec; vi = 900  rpm = 94.2 rad/sec; Ppk = 33.74 W; and Pavg = 20.47 W.

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 Sensing and Control Technology Guide

The gearmotor applies torque to the leadscrew Strengths Weaknesses

shaft. First it must transmit peak acceleration Open-loop positioning — no encoder No position correction if load exceeds output
required torque
torque to accelerate the mass against gravity —

Dc-stepper motor
Simple pulse-and-direction signal needed
and get the leadscrew to its steady-state speed of for rotation
886 rpm (rounded to 900 rpm.) The gearmotor High torque density at low speeds
must then supply enough steady-state torque to Motor can be in a stall position without
move the mass against gravity at constant veloc- overheating
ity. Finally, during deceleration the gearmotor Lowest-cost solution
must supply a negative torque to stop the load in Linear speed-torque curve (unlike
steppers)
Low power density — torque drops off dramatically
at higher speeds
Motor draws continuous current, even at standstill
Noticeable cogging at low speeds (can be
improved with a microstepping drive)
Ringing (resonance) at low speeds
Draws high current during overload (same as
brushless motors)

Dc-brush servomotor
a controlled manner. All this occurs in the 1.0 sec
Low-cost drive electronics (consisting of Encoder needed for closed-loop positioning (same
before the motor stops and dwells for 0.5 sec. four power-switching devices) as brushless motors)
After this dwell, the gearmotor reverses and Many different configurations available Limited in speed due to mechanical commutation
moves along the same motion profile to bring the Very smooth operation possible at low Brush wear
load back to the starting point. speeds
High power density — flatter torque at High thermal resistance (because copper is in the
higher speeds (compared with a stepper) armature circuit)
CHOOSE GEARS
Highest speeds possible (faster than Highest cost of the three motor technologies
7. What motor-gearbox combination (gearmo-
Dc-brushless servomotor

stepper and brush-dc motors)

tor) meets the load parameters? Linear speed/torque curve (compared with Draws high current during overload (same as
Several gearmotor options will work. The best a stepper) brush motors)
choice depends on the design’s total footprint, Electronic commutation (no mechanical Encoder needed for closed-loop positioning (same
audible noise limits, and price, which we won’t brushes) as brush motors)
cover here. The maximum torque capabil- Low thermal resistance (copper is in the Higher drive complexity and cost — Six power-
stator circuit) switching devices
ity of the gearbox must exceed the peak torque
High power density — flatter torque at Rotor-position sensors required for electronic
required by the application; otherwise, the gear- higher speeds (compared with a stepper) commutation
box will be damaged.
RMS torque required at our design’s leadscrew Brush, brushless, and stepper motors come in many shapes and sizes. Design parameters
input shaft is 0.2851 Nm. Average and peak pow- dictate which motor is most suitable. Each requires design trade-offs.
ers required at the leadscrew shaft are 20.47 W
and 33.74 W. Here, a 21-W motor won’t meet the load require- tinuous torque IC = 2.36 A; continuous output power PC = 37
ments because it won’t have the extra power to overcome W; torque constant KT = 0.042 Nm/A; voltage constant KE =
system losses. (Remember that leadscrew shaft power comes 0.042 V/rad/sec; terminal resistance = 1.85 Ω; NL current I0 =
from the motor through a gearbox, so the motor must supply 0.180 A; NL speed n0 = 5,230 rpm; peak current Ipk = 13 A; peak
enough power to overcome gearbox efficiency losses.) The torque Tpk = 0.5422 Nm; and thermal resistance Rth = 11°C/W;
motor must also have extra power if the design needs a built- motor insulation = Class F (to withstand up to 155°C).
in safety factor. At first glance, this motor seems to meet our application load
A good first pick is a relatively small-diameter brush-type requirements while providing a bit of a safety factor: Its con-
dc motor with a rated (continuous) output power of 37 W. tinuous output power is 37 W using a reference voltage of 24 V.
Assume: Remember that our initial application parameters indicate
Winding voltage V = 24 V; continuous torque Tc = 0.0812 Nm; we have a 32-Vdc drive power supply available. Therefore,
speed at continuous torque nCT = 4,370 rpm; current at con- choosing a 24-Vdc motor winding makes for some voltage
“headroom” — about 33%. This allows the drive to sup-
EXAMPLE MOTION PROFILE ply an additional voltage "boost" during intermittent
Constant peak-power events. A lower-voltage motor winding
velocity
would also work, but would require more current from
te

De
ra

the drive for a given load. A 24-V motor winding allows

c
Velocity

le

el
ce

er
at

for higher speeds while minimizing load current.

Ac

Now use the motor data above and the load param-
t1 t2 t3 tdwell Time
eters at the leadscrew shaft to choose an appropri-
ate gearbox. For this application, an in-line planetary
1.0 sec 0.5 sec
gearmotor is most suitable. After confirming that such
1.5 sec
a planetary gearbox is compatible with the motor we

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MOTOR PERFORMANCE AT 24-V REFERENCE

eration, Nm; Trms = RMS torque required over the total duty
8 Continuous torque region — function of motor capability cycle, Nm; Trms(motor) = RMS torque required at the motor
7 Trms (motor) = 0.0634 Nm shaft, Nm; ωpk = Peak angular velocity, rad/sec.
Speed (rpm x 1,000)

6
Ta (motor) = 0.0796 Nm Our chosen 24-Vdc motor is rated for a continuous output
5
4 ωpeak = 471 rad/sec = 4,500 rpm torque of 0.0812 Nm and a continuous current of 2.36 A. The
3 RMS torque requirement of the application is 0.0634 Nm. As
24 Vdc
2 a first approximation, this motor-gearbox pairing safely meets
1 the RMS torque requirements. Note the continuous rated
0 power output of the motor is 37 W and the peak (intermit-
0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500 0.600
tent) power required for the motion profile is 37.5 W. But this
Torque (Nm)
motor is still sufficient because the application's RMS torque
The motor we picked performs under a 24-V reference voltage as requirement is still within the motor's safe operating limits.
shown. Within limits, voltage into the motor can be slightly increased
to ensure the peak velocity is maintained under load conditions. SPEC THE DRIVE
8. Can the drive and power supply meet the requirements
MOTOR PERFORMANCE AT 30-V REFERENCE of the load?
8 Continuous torque region — function of motor capability First, calculate the required peak current:
7 Trms (motor) = 0.0634 Nm
Ta (motor) = 0.0796 Nm Ta(motor)
Speed (rpm x 1,000)

6
Maximum torque (Power supply/drive limitation) I pk = + I 00
5 ωpeak = 471 rad/sec = 4,500 rpm
KT
4 0.0796 Nm
3 = + 0.180 A
2
30 Vdc 0.042 Nm/A
1 = 2.075 A
0 where Ipk = peak current, A, and KT = torque constant, Nm/A.
0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500 0.600 Then calculate the required RMS current:
Torque (Nm)
Trms(motor)
This is the same motor operated using a 30-V bus voltage. I rms = + I0
KT
picked, we use a few quick calculations to determine that a 0.0634 Nm
= + 0.180 A
5:1 reducer can safely output a maximum torque of 2.47 Nm. 0.042 Nm/A
That easily exceeds the application’s 0.3582-Nm peak-torque =1.690 A
requirements. where Irms = RMS current, A; then calculate the minimum bus
Assume our 5:1 planetary gearbox has a published effi- voltage required for Ppk:
ciency of 0.90. At the motor output shaft (reducer input) it VBus(min) = (I pk × Rm )+ (ω pk × K E )
requires:
= 2.075 A × 1.85 Ω + 471 rad/sec × 0.042 V/rad/sec
Tgearbox(output) = 3.839 + 19.782 V
Tgearbox (input) = Ö ηg
N = 23.621 V ≈ 24 V
Ppk(motor) = Ta(motor) × ω pk(motor)
where VBus = drive bus voltage (dc), V and Rm = motor termi-
Ta @gearbox output (leadscrew input) = 0.3582 Nm nal resistance, Ω. Based on these calculations, the drive and
→ Ta(motor) @ motor output (gearbox input) = 0.0796 Nm power supply should meet the dynamic load requirements of
the motion profile. Drive power-supply input is 32 V and
Trms @gearbox output (leadscrew input) = 0.2851 Nm maximum dc bus voltage is roughly 30 V, leaving plenty of
→ Trms(motor) @ motor output (gearbox input) = 0.0634 Nm margin above the minimum bus-voltage requirement of 24 V.
Maximum current of the drive and power supply also meet the
ω pk(motor) @ gearbox output (leadscrew input) = 900 rpm = 94.2 rad/sec application's RMS current and peak current demands.
→ ω pk(motor)@ motor output (gearbox input) = 4,500 rpm = 471 rad/sec A comparison of the performance plots at 24 and 30 V tells a
more complex story. Our application's load points are the same
Ppk(motor)@ motor output (gearbox input) = 37.5 W @ motor shaft
on both plots. However, a 24-V condition may or may not deliv-
where N = gear ratio; ηg = gearbox efficiency; Ppk = peak pow- er the required maximum velocity of 4,500 rpm — as points for
er, W; Ta(motor) = torque required at motor shaft during accel- both acceleration torque Ta(motor) and RMS torque Trms(motor)

56 08.15.13 MACHINE DESIGN

Sensing and Control Technology Guide
fall close to the 24-V load line. In fact, our calculations indicate
we need a minimum bus voltage of 24 V to meet the applica-
tion's peak requirements. A 24-V bus voltage may initially
work, but there's no safety factor — so any mechanical wear in
the system over time could cause speed to fall below 4,500-rpm.
In contrast, 30-V bus voltage from the drive provides plenty of
safety margin to help deliver peak velocities of 4,500 rpm.
Consider the plot of the motor under a 30-V reference and
notice how Ta(motor) and Trms(motor) both lie within the shaded
region on the plot. Trms(motor) must remain below the continu-
ous torque rating of 0.0812 Nm. However, in many applications
Ta(motor) moves outside the continuous-torque region. This is
perfectly acceptable because acceleration torque is factored into
the RMS torque. Here it's just a coincidence that both Ta(motor)
and Trms(motor) fall within the plot's shaded area. The point to
remember is that it’s absolutely necessary for RMS torque to
fall within the shaded region of the curve: Otherwise, thermal
overloading results.
CHECK FOR HEAT
The prime mover — the dc gearmotor — must be sized to
meet dynamic load conditions encountered throughout the
motion profile. (This contrasts sharply with sizing a motor for
continuous operation at an unchanging load point.) What com-
plicates the issue are incremental positioning applications that
make frequent starts and stops with duty cycles that make the
motor work harder during periods of controlled acceleration
and deceleration. The main concern in these situations is that
the motor remains below the maximum temperature rating.
Calculations based on RMS torque and current estimate the
motor's overall temperature and temperature rise for a given
motion profile:
2
Rth × I rms × Rm
θr = 2 conditions. Steady-state temperature should be determined
1− (Rth × I rms × Rm × 0.00392 / ¡C)
θm = θ r + θ a
where Ѳm = motor temperature, °C; Ѳa = ambient tempera-
ture, °C; and Ѳr = temperature rise, °C.
9. What is the motor's (estimated) worst-case temperature
under load at an ambient temperature of 30°C?
2
Rth × I rms × Rm
θr = 2 fore, always contact the motor's manufacturer for advice and test
1–(Rth × I rms × Rm × 0.00392 / ¡C)
11¡C/W ×1.690 A 2 ×1.85 Ω
= Edited by Elisabeth Eitel, eeitel@penton.com
1–(11¡C/W ×1.690 A 2 ×1.85 Ω × 0.00392/¡C)
= 75.26¡C ≈ 76¡C
where Rm = motor terminal resistance, Ω and Rth = thermal
θ m = θ°C/W.
resistance, r + θ a With a 76°C rise based on the RMS load and
a worst-case
= 76¡Cambient temperature
+ 30¡C = 106¡C of 30°C, the motor stabiliz-
es at about 106°C. A Class-F rated (155°C) motor allows a
safety margin of 49°C. However, if any portion of the motion
58
MOTOR TYPE AND SIZE
NO MOTOR TYPE is best for all applications but there's usually one
particularly suitable motor for each design. For most incremental-
motion applications the choices are stepper, brush-dc, or brush-
less-dc motor. Some complex designs use linear motors to directly
drive the load and eliminate intermediate leadscrews, ball screws,
gearboxes, pulleys, and other mechanical power converters. These
direct-drive motors maximize accuracy, repeatability, and position-
ing resolution but are more costly and complex than designs based
on rotary motors. Plus, machines based on rotary motors satisfy
most linear-motion requirements.
All motors (ac and dc) use the interaction of magnetic fields to
generate output torque, but dc-stepper, brush, and brushless ser-
vomotors use a dc power supply. For linear-motion applications, a
fixed source of dc can’t be applied directly to the motor windings;
electronics must control the winding current (related to output
torque) and voltage (related to output speed).
After determining which motor type is best, choose a frame
size with enough torque, speed, and power to accelerate the load
quickly enough to satisfy design requirements. The motor must also
generate enough torque to overcome the effects of friction (in the
design’s mechanical transmission) plus gravity without overheating.
profile is altered — total move distance, acceleration and
deceleration rates, dwell time, and so on — the equivalent
motor load (both peak and RMS) also changes. Repeat the
analysis using the revised motion-profile parameters to verify
the motor remains within safe temperature limits.
DESIGN CAVEAT
Note that the approach outlined here is a first-approxima-
tion analysis. All systems should be tested using actual load
using thermocouples in several locations on the motor. Cur-
rent into the motor and voltage across the motor should also
be measured and recorded.
Motors operate differently under elevated temperature; motor
resistance, torque constant, and voltage constant all change under
actual operating conditions. This spurs corresponding changes in
peak current, RMS current, and bus voltage requirements. There-
all systems under real-life operating conditions.
RESOURCES:
Leadscrew calculations in this article are based on values from
a Kerk screw chart, www.haydonkerk.com
Motor calculations are based on values for a Pittman 9237
motor and G30A gearbox, www.pittman-motors.com
08.15.13 MACHINE DESIGN