Bioresource Technology 100 (2009) 5444–5453

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Bioresource Technology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/biortech

Composting of animal manures and chemical criteria for compost maturity

assessment. A review
M.P. Bernal a,*, J.A. Alburquerque a, R. Moral b
a
Department of Soil and Water Conservation and Organic Waste Management, Centro de Edafología y Biología Aplicada del Segura, CSIC, P.O. Box 164, 30100 Murcia, Spain
b
Department of Agrochemistry and Environment, Universidad Miguel Hernández de Elche, EPS-Orihuela, ctra, Beniel Km 3.2, 03312 Orihuela, Alicante, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: New livestock production systems, based on intensification in large farms, produce huge amount of man-
Received 10 June 2008 ures and slurries without enough agricultural land for their direct application as fertilisers. Composting is
Received in revised form 7 November 2008 increasingly considered a good way for recycling the surplus of manure as a stabilised and sanitised end-
Accepted 19 November 2008
product for agriculture, and much research work has been carried out in the last decade. However, high
Available online 31 December 2008
quality compost should be produced to overcome the cost of composting.
In order to provide and review the information found in the literature about manure composting, the
Keywords:
first part of this paper explains the basic concepts of the composting process and how manure character-
Animal manure
Composting
istics can influence its performance. Then, a summary of those factors such as nitrogen losses (which
Compost quality directly reduce the nutrient content), organic matter humification and compost maturity which affect
Maturity indices the quality of composts produced by manure composting is presented. Special attention has been paid
Microbial stability to the relevance of using an adequate bulking agent for reducing N-losses and the necessity of standar-
dising the maturity indices due to their great importance amongst compost quality criteria.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction ment strategies it is gaining interest as a suitable option for man-

Composting of organic wastes is a biooxidative process involv-
ing the mineralisation and partial humification of the organic mat-
ter, leading to a stabilised final product, free of phytotoxicity and
pathogens and with certain humic properties (Zucconi and de
Bertoldi, 1987). During the first phase of the process the simple
organic carbon compounds are easily mineralised and metabolised
by the microorganisms, producing CO2, NH3, H2O, organic acids
and heat. The accumulation of this heat raises the temperature of
the pile. Composting is a spontaneous biological decomposition
process of organic materials in a predominantly aerobic environment.
During the process bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms,
including microarthropods, break down organic materials to sta-
ble, usable organic substances called compost. The composting also
implies the volume reduction of the wastes, the destruction of
weed seeds and of pathogenic microorganisms.
The intensity and concentrated activity of the livestock industry
generate vast amounts of biodegradable wastes, which must be
managed under appropriate disposal practices to avoid a negative
impact on the environment (odour and gaseous emissions, soil and
water pollution, etc.; Burton and Turner, 2003). Composting cannot
be considered a new technology, but amongst the waste manage-
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 968 396200; fax: +34 968 396213.
E-mail address: pbernal@cebas.csic.es (M.P. Bernal).
ures with economic and environmental profits, since this process
eliminates or reduces the risk of spreading of pathogens, parasites
and weed seeds associated with direct land application of manure
and leads to a final stabilised product which can be used to im-
prove and maintain soil quality and fertility (Larney and Hao,
2007). Composting of animal manures has been traditionally car-
ried out by the farmers after manure collection for better handling,
transport and management. Frequently the wastes were heaped up
with little regard to control of the process conditions (aeration,
temperature, ammonia loss, etc.) and with rudimentary methodol-
ogy. However, as the fertiliser value of animal manures has been
always recognised, nowadays their composting is seen as an alter-
native way of recycling the manures in farms without enough agri-
cultural land for their direct use as a fertiliser. But, the cost of
composting of animal manures can be considerably higher than
the direct utilisation of raw manures. Therefore, composting is jus-
tified for manures that need to be partially sterilised (Parkinson
et al., 2004), and also when compost of high quality is produced,
to offset the production costs.
The present paper reviews the factors affecting the composting
of animal manures for production of high quality compost with
added agricultural value, focusing on the nutrient content, organic
matter (OM) humification and maturity degree. Complementary
information on safety and environmental aspects related to man-
ure composting is reviewed by Moral et al. (2009) in this OECD

0960-8524/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2008.11.027
 M.P. Bernal et al. / Bioresource Technology 100 (2009) 5444–5453
special issue, including the suppressive effect against phytopatho-
gens of compost and recent techniques to determine the OM humi-
fication process during composting.
2. The basic concepts of the composting process
While composting occurs naturally, efficient composting re-
quires the control of several factors to avoid nuisance problems
such as odours and dust, and also for obtaining a quality agricul-
tural product. The controlled conditions are basic for a composting
procedure, distinguishing it from aerobic fermentation. Over the
last decades, research has been focused on the study of the com-
plex interaction amongst physical, chemical and biological factors
that occurs during composting. Therefore, the control of parame-
ters such as bulk density, porosity, particle size, nutrient content,
C/N ratio, temperature, pH, moisture and oxygen supply have dem-
onstrated to be key for composting optimisation since they deter-
mine the optimal conditions for microbial development and OM
degradation (Agnew and Leonard, 2003; Das and Keener, 1997;
de Bertoldi et al., 1983; Haug, 1993; Miller, 1992; Richard et al.,
2002). Composting optimisation involves the definition of ade-
quate initial substrate conditions that must be controlled and
maintained as composting progresses. Although it is difficult to
generalise for all type of substrates and management conditions,
the basic and applied aspects of composting have been summa-
rised in this section. For a particular composting formulation, spe-
cific references can be found.
The factors affecting the composting process can be divided into
two groups: those depending on the formulation of the composting
mix, such as nutrient balance, pH, particle size, porosity and mois-
ture; and those dependent on the process management, such as O2
concentration, temperature and water content. Nutritional balance
is mainly defined by the C/N ratio. Microorganisms require an en-
ergy source (degradable organic-C) and N for their development
and activity. The adequate C/N ratio for composting is in the range
25–35, because it is considered that the microorganisms require 30
parts of C per unit of N (Bishop and Godfrey, 1983). High C/N ratios
make the process very slow as there is an excess of degradable sub-
strate for the microorganisms. But with a low C/N ratio there is an
excess of N per degradable C and inorganic N is produced in excess
and can be lost by ammonia volatilisation or by leaching from the
composting mass. Then, low C/N ratios can be corrected by adding
a bulking agent to provide degradable organic-C.
pH: A pH of 6.7–9.0 supports good microbial activity during
composting. Optimum values are between 5.5 and 8.0 (de Bertoldi
et al., 1983; Miller, 1992). Usually pH is not a key factor for com-
posting since most materials are within this pH range. However,
this factor is very relevant for controlling N-losses by ammonia
volatilisation, which can be particularly high at pH >7.5. Elemental
sulphur (So) has been used as an amendment for avoiding exces-
sively high pH values during composting (Mari et al., 2005).
Microorganisms: OM decomposition is carried out by many dif-
ferent groups of microbial populations (Ryckeboer et al., 2003). The
microorganisms involved in composting develop according to the
temperature of the mass, which defines the different steps of the
process (Keener et al., 2000). Bacteria predominate early in com-
posting, fungi are present during all the process but predominate
at water levels below 35% and are not active at temperatures
>60 °C. Actinomycetes predominate during stabilisation and cur-
ing, and together with fungi are able to degrade resistant polymers.
Particle size and distribution are critical for balancing the sur-
face area for growth of microorganisms and the maintenance of
adequate porosity for aeration. The larger the particle size, the low-
er the surface area to mass ratio. So compost with large particles
does not decompose adequately because the interior of the parti-
5445
cles has difficult accessibility for the microorganisms, as during
decomposition particles may coat the surface with an impenetra-
ble humified layer (Bernal et al., 1993). However, particles which
are too small can compact the mass, reducing the porosity. These
factors are material specific: particle size and distribution, shape,
packing and moisture content control the porosity of the compost-
ing mass.
Porosity: Substrate porosity exerts a great influence on com-
posting performance since appropriate conditions of the physical
environment for air distribution must be maintained during the
process. Porosity greater than 50% causes the pile to remain at a
low temperature because energy lost exceeds heat produced. Too
little porosity leads to anaerobic conditions and odour generation.
The percentage air-filled pore space of composting piles should be
in the range of 35–50%.
Aeration: Aeration is a key factor for composting. Proper aera-
tion controls the temperature, removes excess moisture and CO2
and provides O2 for the biological processes. The optimum O2 con-
centration is between 15% and 20% (Miller, 1992). Controlled aer-
ation should maintain temperatures below 60–65 °C, which
ensures enough O2 is supplied (Finstein and Miller, 1985).
Moisture: The optimum water content for composting varies
with the waste to be composted, but generally the mixture should
be at 50–60% (Gajalakshmi and Abbasi, 2008). When the moisture
content exceeds 60% O2 movement is inhibited and the process
tends to become anaerobic (Das and Keener, 1997). During com-
posting a large quantity of water can evaporate, to control temper-
ature, and as water content diminishes the rate of decomposition
decreases, then rewetting should be required in order to maintain
the optimum moisture content for the microbial activity.
Temperature: The temperature pattern shows the microbial
activity and the occurrence of the composting process. The opti-
mum temperature range for composting is 40–65 °C (de Bertoldi
et al., 1983), temperatures above 55 °C are required to kill patho-
genic microorganisms. But if the temperature achieved exceeds
the tolerance range of the thermophilic decomposers, the effect
is damaging for composting. At temperatures above 63 °C, micro-
bial activity declines rapidly as the optimum for various thermo-
philes is surpassed, with activity approaching low values at
72 °C. The range of 52–60 °C is the most favourable for decomposi-
tion (Miller, 1992). The regulation of the temperature is required
for controlled composting. Excess heat removal can be achieved
through several strategies (Miller, 1992): control the size and
shape of the composting mass; improve cooling and favourable
temperature redistribution by turning operations, which means
heat removal through evaporation cooling; and achieve superior
temperature control in systems that actively remove heat through
temperature feedback-controlled ventilation (Rutgers strategy).
The development of the temperature profile indicates the differ-
ent phases of the process. In general, the composting process can
be divided into two main phases: the biooxidative phase and the
maturing phase also called the curing phase (Bernal et al., 1996;
Chen and Inbar, 1993). The biooxidative phase is developed in
three steps (Keener et al., 2000): (i) an initial mesophilic phase
lasting 1–3 days, where mesophilic bacteria and fungi degrade
simple compounds such as sugars, amino acids, proteins, etc.,
increasing quickly the temperature; (ii) thermophilic phase, where
thermophilic microorganisms degrade fats, cellulose, hemicellu-
lose and some lignin, during this phase the maximum degradation
of the OM occurs together with the destruction of pathogens; (iii)
cooling phase, characterised by a decrease of the temperature due
to the reduction of the microbial activity associated with the deple-
tion of degradable organic substrates, the composting mass is re-
colonised by mesophilic microorganisms which are able to degrade
the remaining sugars, cellulose and hemicellulose. During the dif-
ferent steps of the biodegradation phase, the organic compounds
5446 M.P. Bernal et al. / Bioresource Technology 100 (2009) 5444–5453

are degraded to CO2 and NH3, with the consumption of O2. How- The addition of a bulking agent for manure composting opti-
ever, during the maturation phase stabilisation and humification mises substrate properties such as air space, moisture content, C/
of the OM occur, producing a mature compost with humic charac- N ratio, particle density, pH and mechanical structure, affecting
teristics in its OM. Thus, compost can be defined as the stabilised positively the decomposition rate. In this sense, lignocellulosic
and sanitised product of composting, which has undergone an ini- agricultural and forestry by-products are commonly used as bul-
tial, rapid stage of decomposition, is beneficial to plant growth and king agents in co-composting of nitrogen-rich wastes, such as ani-
has certain humic characteristics, making the composting of waste mal manures. The most generally used materials are cereal straw
a key issue for sustainable agriculture and resource management (Barrington et al., 2002; Bernal et al., 1993; Martins and Dewes,
(Gajalakshmi and Abbasi, 2008; Haug, 1993; Jakobsen, 1995; Zuc- 1992; Petric and Selimbasić, 2008; Wang et al., 2004), cotton waste
coni and de Bertoldi, 1987). (Paredes et al., 1996), hay (Barrington et al., 2002) and wood by-
products such as pine shavings, chestnut burr and leaves and saw-
3. Characteristics of the animal manures for composting dust (Ahn et al., 2007; Barrington et al., 2002; Guerra-Rodríguez
et al., 2001; Huang et al., 2004; Tiquia and Tam, 2002; Wang
Controlled composting allows the safe storage and transport of et al., 2004). All have low moisture and high organic-C contents
the final product, adds value to the product because compost is a and high C/N ratios (an average of 50 for cereal straw and >80
more concentrated and uniform product than the manure, permits for wood by-products), which can compensate for the low values
easy spreading and thus uniform distribution in the soil and results of the animal manures.
in an absence of pathogens and weed seeds. The compost also can
be used as a fertiliser for pots and as a basis for soil-less substrates.
4. Strategies for producing high quality compost: nutrient
The advantages of composting animal manures compared with di-
content and OM humification
rect application can be summarised in:
The effectiveness of compost with regard to beneficial effects on
– Elimination of pathogens and weeds.
soil physical, chemical and biological properties, as well as consti-
– Microbial stabilisation.
tuting a nutrient source, depends on the quality of the compost.
– Reduction of volume and moisture.
The quality criteria for compost are established in terms of: nutri-
– Removal and control of odours.
ent content, humified and stabilised OM, the maturity degree, the
– Ease of storage, transport and use.
hygienisation and the presence of certain toxic compounds such as
– Production of good quality fertiliser or substrate.
heavy metals, soluble salts and xenobiotics. The first three factors
are reviewed in the present paper, while those related to safety and
However the disadvantages are derived from:
environmental aspects are reviewed by Moral et al. (2009) in this
OECD special issue. The production of compost with a high nutrient
– Cost of installation and management.
content requires the control and reduction of nutrient losses dur-
– Requirement for a bulking agent.
ing the process, whilst to ensure a high degree of OM humification
– Requirement for large areas for storage and operation.
enough time should be allowed for the maturation phase. Finally, a
high degree of compost maturity requires the establishment of
Then, composting of animal manures should be seen as a tech-
adequate maturity indices.
nology which adds value, producing a high quality product for
multiple agricultural uses.
Certain chemical characteristics of the animal manures are not 4.1. Organic matter degradation and nitrogen losses
adequate for composting and could limit the efficiency of the pro-
cess: excess of moisture, low porosity, high N concentration for the During the active phase of the composting process the organic-
organic-C, which gives a low C/N ratio, and in some cases high pH C decreases in the material due to decomposition of the OM by the
values (Table 1). Thus, adequate composting management of the microorganisms. This loss of OM reduces the weight of the pile and
manure is required in order to obtain a quality compost. Therefore, decreases the C/N ratio. The degradation rate of the OM decreases
different aeration strategies, substrate conditioning-feedstock for- gradually as composting progresses because of the reduction in
mulation, bulking agents and process control options have been available carbon sources, and synthesis reactions of new complex
used in manure composting in order to reduce composting time and polymerised organic compounds (humification) prevail over
and costs and enhance the quality of the end-products (Lau et al., mineralisation during the maturation phase. This process leads to
1992; Michel et al., 2004; Solano et al., 2001). stabilised end-products which act as slow-release fertilisers for
agricultural purposes. However, the major concern of manure com-
posting is to control C and N-losses since they reduce the agro-
nomic value of compost and contribute to greenhouse gas
Table 1 emissions (Hao et al., 2004).
Average composition of animal slurry and manure (g/kg fresh weight; Amon et al.,
The degradation of the OM during composting can be estimated
2006; Bernal, 1990; Burton and Turner, 2003; Huang et al., 2004; Mathur et al., 1990;
Menoyo, 1995). as a dry matter loss (Garrison et al., 2001; Parkinson et al., 2004), as
an OM loss, or as an organic-C loss (Table 2). Whatever the param-
Dry matter Organic-C Total-N NH4-N pH
eter used, it should be calculated as a mass balance, taking into ac-
Liquid manure/slurry count the dry weight reduction of the pile, instead of only the
Cattle 15–123 3.8–36 2.0–7.0 1.0–4.9 7.1–8.4
difference in concentration of OM or organic-C in the composting
Pig 4.9–152 1.0–65 0.6–7.8 0.3–6.6 6.7–8.9
Poultry 10–367 11–112 2–21 1.9–9.4 7.9–8.8
mass.
Solid manure During the composting process, substrate transformation is
Cattle 140–300 65–126a 4.2–8.1 0.3–2.0 8.6b conditioned by the nature of the OM according to its degradability
Pig 150–330 42–132a 3.5–11 0.5–6.0 8.1b (Haug, 1993), this property affecting decomposition rate, gas emis-
Poultry 220–700 103–597a 10–58 2.4–18 7.6b
sions, duration and extent of the process and oxygen requirements.
a
Bernal, personal communication. Labile organic compounds, such as simple carbohydrates, fats and
b
Average values. amino acids, are degraded quickly in the first stage of composting;
 M.P. Bernal et al. / Bioresource Technology 100 (2009) 5444–5453 5447

Table 2
Organic matter and organic-C losses by mineralisation and N-losses during composting of animal manures.

Manure type Bulking agent Composting OM loss by mineralisation (% of N-loss (% of initial Reference
process initial OM) total-N)
Beef manure – Turned Organic-C: 45–62 19–43 Eghball et al.
windrow (1997)
Beef manure Fresh straw-bedded Turned Organic-C: 53 42 Hao et al. (2004)
Woodchip-bedded windrow Organic-C: 35 12
Beef manure – Turned Organic-C: 67 46 Larney et al.
windrow (2006)
Dairy manure Sawdust and wood shavings Turned OM: 67 Organic-C: 63a 5a Changa et al.
Wheat straw windrow OM: 67 Organic-C: 64ª Absenta (2003)
Dairy manure Hardwood sawdust Turned OM: 46–76 7–26 Michel et al.
Wheat straw windrow OM: 58–81 15–43 (2004)
Dairy manure Wheat straw additives: molasses, office paper, In-vessel OM: 29–55a 12–25 Liang et al. (2006)
and buffer solutions system
Poultry manure Cotton gin waste Rutgers static OM: 53 Organic-C: 52 26 Paredes et al.
pile (1996)
Poultry litter – Forced- OM: 9 58 Tiquia and Tam
ventilation (2002)
Pig slurry + Poultry Sweet sorghum bagasse Rutgers static OM: 62 <40 Bernal et al.
manure pile (1996)
Pig manure (partially decomposed with cornstalk) Turned Organic-C: 50–72 3–59 Tiquia et al.
windrow (2000)
Unturned Organic-C: 30–54 8–60
windrow
a
Pig manure Shredded wood pallets and sawdust Turned OM: 55 Organic-C: 52 43a Changa et al.
windrow (2003)
a
OM, organic-C and/or N-losses were calculated from initial (X1) and final (X2) ash contents according to the equations (Paredes et al., 1996): OM loss
(%) = 100  100[X1(100X2)]/[X2(100X1)] and organic-C or N-loss (%) = 100100[(X1Y2)/(X2Y1)], where Y1 and Y2 are the initial and the final total organic-C or total-N
concentrations, respectively.

other, more resistant organic substrates such as cellulose, hemicel-
lulose and lignin are partially degraded and transformed at a lower
rate. Therefore, composting involves a partial mineralisation of the
organic substrate, leading to carbon losses throughout the process;
this is compensated by the higher stabilisation degree of the
remaining organic compounds.
During composting of animal manures organic-C losses can
reach 67% in cattle manure, 52% in poultry manure and 72% in
pig manure (Table 2). The composting system and conditions, char-
acteristics of both the bedding material and the bulking agent
added for composting and even the environmental conditions of
the season (winter or summer; Parkinson et al., 2004) have a great
influence on the mineralisation of the OM during composting (Ta-
ble 2). For instance, the use of woodchips instead of cereal straw as
bedding material in beef manure reduced the organic-C loss during
composting (Hao et al., 2004) due to the combination of larger par-
ticle size, higher C/N ratio and the recalcitrant nature of the wood-
chips. Similar results were shown by Hansen et al. (1989) and
Michel et al. (2004) in composting of poultry manure and cow
manure, respectively; they obtained a lower decomposition of
the composting substrate when employing amendment materials
with recalcitrant OM such as lignin.
As a result of the dry weight loss of the material during com-
posting, the concentration of mineral elements increases, if leach-
ing does not occur or is controlled to a minimum. Generally the
total N concentration increases during composting due to the con-
centration effect (Bernal et al., 1996; Paredes et al., 1996). The evo-
lution of N forms shows the mineralisation of the organic
compounds during the active phase of composting with the forma-
tion of NH4-N. Thus, the highest NH4-N concentration occurs dur-
ing the thermophilic phase, but the concentration quickly declines
as the process progresses. In the thermophilic phase, OM degrada-
tion (NH4-N production) and aeration demand are at their maxima,
pH is usually >7.5 and nitrification hardly occurs because the high
temperatures inhibit the action of the microorganisms responsible
for the process (de Bertoldi et al., 1983; Tiquia, 2002). All these
conditions favour NH3-volatilisation (Tiquia, 2002; Witter and
López-Real, 1988). Nitrification, detected by the formation of
NO3-N, occurs when the temperature falls below thermophilic val-
ues (40 °C), the intensity of the process depending on the amount
of NH4-N available to the nitrifying bacteria (Tiquia, 2002). Most of
the nitrification occurs during maturation, leading to a low NH4-N/
NO3-N ratio in mature compost (Bernal et al., 1998a).
Nitrogen losses impact negatively on the manure composting
process, by decreasing nutrient concentration and hence compost
quality, and generate health and environmental problems. Nitro-
gen losses through composting can occur by NH3-volatilisation,
leaching and denitrification. Denitrification can occur as a result
of the development of anaerobic microsites within the material.
Thus, the aerobic conditions of the compost should be ensured
throughout the process. Parkinson et al. (2004) indicated that
emission rates of N2O–N were very much lower (about 10 times)
than those of NH3–N during composting of cattle manure with
wheat straw. Similar results were found by Martins and Dewes
(1992) during composting of animal slurries with straw in a com-
poster, with NOx <5%. Losses by leaching can be reduced easily by
controlling the moisture content of the pile and by an adequate
composting system, designing the installation with an adequate
cover from the rain and a system for leachate collection and recir-
culation within the same compost. The losses as NH4-N can be par-
ticularly relevant at the beginning of the process (Martins and
Dewes, 1992) and as NO3-N in the last phase of composting, when
the nitrification occurs (Parkinson et al., 2004), since nitrate is a
very mobile anion, highly soluble. The lack of leachate collection
can imply a risk of nitrate contamination of the groundwater.
Therefore, most N-losses during composting of animal manures
have been found to be due to ammonia volatilisation (Eghball et al.,
1997; Martins and Dewes, 1992; Paillat et al., 2005; Parkinson
et al., 2004). High N-losses occur in manure composting due to
the high initial NH4-N concentration and the presence of easily
mineralisable compounds, such as uric acid in poultry manure
and slurry. Martins and Dewes (1992) found that during compost-
ing of animal slurry with straw NH3-emissions decreased in the or-
der: poultry (77%) > pig (54%) > cattle (47%). As shown in Table 2,
5448 M.P. Bernal et al. / Bioresource Technology 100 (2009) 5444–5453
nitrogen losses can reach 60% of initial N for pig manure, up to 58%
for poultry manure and up to 46% for cattle manure.
The main factors conditioning NH3-volatilisation are those
implicated in the reactions involved in the following processes:
formation of NHþ 4 in the compost, its deprotonation for NH3 forma-
tion, conversion of ammonia in solution in the compost into
ammonia gas and transfer of ammonia in the gas phase of the com-
post to the atmosphere
NHþ4 ðcompostÞ $ NH3 ðcompostÞ þ Hþ $ NH3ðgasÞ $ NH3 ðatmosphereÞ
Therefore, the main factors controlling NH3-losses are the com-
position of the initial mixture, such as total-N, C/N ratio, degrad-
able organic-C and particle size, and the composting conditions,
such as temperature and turning frequency (composting system).
These are reviewed in the following paragraphs.
Eghball et al. (1997) associated most of the N-losses during cat-
tle manure composting with ammonia volatilisation (>92%), this
being conditioned by the C/N ratio, turning frequency and particle
size of the bulking agent. Also, Barrington et al. (2002) noted the
importance of particle size as a factor affecting carbon availability
and hence N immobilisation by microorganisms during compost-
ing. Martins and Dewes (1992) identified initial nitrogen content,
temperature, high pH (>8) and turning as the main factors which
affected gaseous emissions during composting of slurries. As the
oxygen supply into the composting mass controls important pro-
cesses such as biodegradation, ammonification and nitrification,
then the aeration rate exerts an important influence on nitrogen
dynamics (Guardia et al., 2008).
The addition of carbon sources to wastes rich in inorganic-N can
result in its partial incorporation into the organic fractions or its
immobilisation to form such fractions. During composting of pig
slurry and wheat straw initial immobilisation of NH4-N was found
by Bernal et al. (1993). The impact of N immobilisation by the
microbial biomass on NH3-volatilisation was highlighted by Paillat
et al. (2005) in composting experiments with pig manure and slur-
ry. They noted that nitrogen immobilisation by the microbial bio-
mass depends on carbon biodegradability and hence factors such
as oxygen (free air space), moisture and C and N biodegradability
affect gaseous emissions. They concluded that reduced NH3 emis-
sion implies active immobilisation of the NH4-N by the microbial
biomass and that the presence of the less biodegradable organic-
C in sawdust increased NH3 emission, which was decreased by
increasing the ratio of wheat straw in manure composting. During
composting of dairy manure and wheat straw, the addition of a
readily available carbon source such as molasses greatly reduced
ammonia losses, while no significant reduction occurred when car-
bon was hardly degradable, for example when supplied as office
paper (Liang et al., 2006). Therefore, amending materials rich in
available carbon can reduce nitrogen losses during the composting
of organic wastes with a high nitrogen concentration. So, for effec-
tive composting to obtain a high quality compost, the selection of
the bulking agent is essential. Paredes et al. (1996) found that
changing the bulking agent from cotton waste to maize straw de-
creased OM degradation, organic-N mineralisation and therefore
NH3-losses in sewage sludge composting. Mahimairaja et al.
(1994) found a N-loss of only 11.2% during 12 weeks of composting
of poultry manure and maize straw, while the losses accounted for
25.5% of total-N in composting of poultry manure and cotton waste
(Paredes et al., 1996).
The loss of nitrogen from compost piles also depends on the dif-
fusion of NH3 through the pile into the atmosphere, and frequent
turning of the pile facilitates this NH3-volatilisation (de Bertoldi
et al., 1982). Solano et al. (2001) found that during composting of
sheep manure and barley straw, total-N losses were higher than
25% in a pile managed with turning in comparison with no losses
and losses of 4.5% with passive and forced aeration, respectively.
Parkinson et al. (2004) found that increasing the number of turns
from 1 to 3 increased the ammonia-N losses during composting
of cattle manure, these being 11% and 18% of initial total-N, respec-
tively. The system used for turning operations also had a high
influence on ammonia losses. Turning by a rear-discharge manure
spreader instead of with a front-end loader increased N-losses to
17% and 51% of initial total-N for the 1- and 3-turning-time treat-
ments, respectively. The Rutgers static pile composting system
maintains a temperature ceiling in the pile, providing a high
decomposition rate through the on-demand removal of heat by
ventilation, since high temperatures inhibit and slow down
decomposition due to a reduction of microbial activity (Finstein
et al., 1985). This system has been shown to be a good method
for lowering N-losses through NH3-volatilisation and hence for
producing a N-rich compost with high concentrations of NO3-N
and total-N (Sánchez-Monedero et al., 1996).
As composting progresses, stable N compounds are formed,
which are less susceptible to volatilisation, denitrification and
leaching. Therefore, stabilised materials such as composts seem
to constitute a better source of OM and nitrogen for the soil, from
an agricultural point of view (Pare et al., 1998).
When a comparison among manure management options is
established, composting leads to higher C and N-losses compared
to stockpiling or a direct application to soil (Larney et al., 2006).
However, composting also transforms the OM into a more stable,
sanitised and partially humified end-product compared to fresh
manure and compost will increase the soil OM to a greater extent
than untransformed wastes (Bernal et al., 1998b). Therefore, for C-
conservation, the losses occurring during composting and those
occurring after soil application should be considered. According
to the results of Bernal et al. (1998b) the addition of mature com-
post to soil is more favourable from the viewpoint of C-conserva-
tion in the system, reducing C-losses in comparison with the use
of fresh wastes. In addition, nutrients in composted materials are
less susceptible to losses by leaching and volatilisation, and com-
posting also avoids the spreading of pathogens.
4.2. Humification process
The humified fraction of the soil OM is the most important one
responsible for organic fertility functions in the soil as it is the frac-
tion most resistant to microbial degradation. So the evaluation of
the humification degree of the OM during composting is an agro-
nomic criterion for compost quality. The agricultural value of a
compost increases when the OM reaches a high level of humifica-
tion. The humification of the OM during composting is revealed by
the formation of humic acids with increasing molecular weight,
aromatic characteristics, oxygen and nitrogen concentrations and
functional groups, in agreement with the generally accepted humi-
fication theories of soil OM (Senesi, 1989). During composting, hu-
mic substances (alkali-extractable organic-C, CEX) are produced
and humic acid-like organic-C (CHA) increases, while fulvic acid-
like organic-C (CFA) and water-extractable organic-C decrease due
to microbial degradation. Some indices used for evaluation of the
humification level in the material during composting include
(Roletto et al., 1985; Senesi, 1989):
– Humification ratio (HR): CEX/Corg  100;
– Humification index (HI): CHA/Corg  100;
– Percent of humic acids (PHA): CHA/CEX  100;
– Polymerisation index (PI): CHA/CFA.
The increase of such parameters during composting is indica-
tive of the humification of the OM. Roletto et al. (1985) used these
parameters to establish the humification level of the OM of com-
 M.P. Bernal et al. / Bioresource Technology 100 (2009) 5444–5453 5449

posts from different origins, including farmyard manure. The limit
established were: HR P 7.0; HI P 3.5; PHA P 50; and PI P 1.0. A
new humification index was developed by Sequi et al. (1986) based
on the assumption that non-humic compounds can be co-extracted
with the humic substances during the alkaline extraction proce-
dure. Thus, the new humification index was defined as the ratio
of non-humic substances to humic substances: CNH/(CHA + CFA)
<1.0, for a good degree of humification.
The most appropriate and reliable approach to the evaluation of
the humic character and behaviour of the compost is based on the
identification of the chemical and structural composition and func-
tional properties, also in comparison with those of humic sub-
stances from native soil. Numerous chemical, physico-chemical
and spectroscopic methods have been used, such as (Senesi,
1989): elemental and functional group composition, ratio of absor-
bances measured at 465 and 665 nm (E4/E6), molecular weight dis-
tribution, electrophoresis and electrofocusing, pyrolysis-gas
chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), infrared and Fou-
rier transformed-infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, electron spin reso-
nance (ESR) spectroscopy and fluorescence spectroscopy (Moral
et al., 2009, in this special issue). Amongst these methods, ad-
vanced techniques such as NMR, FT-IR and pyrolysis have been
employed to achieve a better understanding of the structural
changes of the OM during composting and hence to evaluate com-
posting efficiency and compost maturity; this was reviewed thor-
oughly by Chen (2003). Functional group analysis is the most
sensitive method for studying the changes produced in the humic
acid structure, compared to other methods such as elemental anal-
ysis, gel permeation chromatography and infrared spectroscopy.
The composting process yields humic acids with chemical and
structural characteristics where similar to those of the more humi-
fied soil humic acids (Sánchez-Monedero et al., 2002).
5. Maturity assessment for quality compost
The principal requirement of a compost for it to be safely used
in soil is a high degree of stability or maturity, which implies a sta-
ble OM content and the absence of phytotoxic compounds and
plant or animal pathogens. Maturity is associated with plant-
growth potential or phytotoxicity (Iannotti et al., 1993), whereas
stability is often related to the compost’s microbial activity. How-
ever, both stability and maturity usually go hand in hand, since
phytotoxic compounds are produced by the microorganisms in
unstable composts (Zucconi et al., 1985).
Compost maturity and stability are often used interchangeably.
However, they each refer to specific properties of these materials.
Stability refers to a specific stage or decomposition or state of
OM during composting, which is related to the types of organic
compounds remaining and the resultant biological activity in the
material (California Compost Quality Council, 2001). Several defi-
nitions for compost stability have been used: Bernal et al.
(1998a) related stability to compost microbial activity; The UK
Composting Association (2001) defined stability as ‘the degree of
biological decomposition that composting feedstocks have
achieved’; Hue and Liu (1995) related stability to microbial activity
and hence the potential for unpleasant odour generation.
Maturity is the degree or level of completeness of composting
and implies improved qualities resulting from ‘ageing’ or ‘curing’
of a product. The California Compost Quality Council (CCQC,
2001) defined maturity as ‘the degree or level of completeness of
composting’, and the UK Composting Association (2001) defined
maturity simply as ‘the degree to which a compost has matured’,
and mature compost as ‘compost that does not have a negative af-
fect on seed germination or plant growth’. Bernal et al. (1998a) de-
scribed maturity as implying ‘a stable OM content and the absence
of phytotoxic compounds and plant or animal pathogens’. Similar
definitions were used by Chen and Inbar (1993), Iannotti et al.
(1993) and Hue and Liu (1995). Immature and poorly stabilised
composts may pose a number of problems during storage, market-
ing and use. During storage these materials may develop anaerobic
‘‘pockets” which can lead to odours and the development of toxic
compounds. Continued active decomposition when these materials
are added to soil or growth media may have negative impacts on
plant growth due to a decreased supply of oxygen and/or available
nitrogen or the presence of phytotoxic compounds.
Maturity is not described by a single property and therefore
maturity is best assessed by measuring two or more parameters
of compost. Maturity is, in part, affected by the relative stability
of the material but also describes the impact of other compost
chemical properties on plant development. Some immature com-
posts may contain high amounts of free ammonia, certain organic
acids or other water-soluble compounds which can limit seed ger-
mination and root development. All uses of compost require a ma-
ture product free of these potentially phytotoxic components. A
number of criteria and parameters have been proposed for testing
compost maturity, although most of them refer to composts made
from city refuse. Maturity parameters are based on different prop-
erties: physical, chemical and biological, including microbial activ-
ity (Table 3).
Physical characteristics such as colour, odour and temperature
give a general idea of the decomposition stage reached, but give lit-
tle information as regards the degree of maturation. Chemical

Table 3
Current criteria evaluated in the literature to characterise compost quality.

Physical: Odour, colour, temperature, particle size and inert materials

Chemical: Carbon and nitrogen – C/N ratio in solid and water extract
analyses
Cation exchange – CEC, CEC/total organic-C ratio, etc.
capacity
Water-soluble extract – pH, EC, organic-C, ions, etc.
Mineral nitrogen – NH4-N content, NH4-N/NO3-N ratio
Pollutants – Heavy metals and organics.
Organic matter quality, – Organic composition: lignin, complex carbohydrates, lipids, sugars, etc.
humification – Humification indices and humic-like substances characterisation: elemental and functional group analyses, molecular
weight distribution, E4/E6 ratio, pyrolysis GC-MS, spectroscopic analyses (NMR and FTIR, Fluorescence, etc.), etc.
Biological: Microbial activity – Respiration (O2 uptake/consumption, CO2 production, self-heating test, biodegradable constituents)
indicators: – Enzyme activity (phosphatases, dehydrogenases, proteases, etc.)
– ATP content
– Nitrogen mineralisation–immobilisation potential, nitrification, etc.
– Microbial biomass
Phytotoxicity: – Germination and plant growth tests
Others: – Viable weed seed, pathogen and ecotoxicity tests
5450 M.P. Bernal et al. / Bioresource Technology 100 (2009) 5444–5453
methods are widely used, including measurement of the C/N ratio
in the solid phase (Bernal et al., 1998a; Iglesias-Jimenez and Perez-
Garcia, 1992) and in the water extract (Chanyasak and Kubota,
1981; Hue and Liu, 1995), water soluble organic-C (Bernal et al.,
1998a; Hue and Liu, 1995; Zmora-Nahum et al., 2005), the water
soluble organic-C/total organic-N ratio (Bernal et al., 1998a; Hue
and Liu, 1995), volatile organic acids (Iannotti et al., 1994; Manios
et al., 1989), nitrification (NH4-N concentration and NH4-N/NO3-N
ratio; Bernal et al., 1998a; Finstein and Miller, 1985; Zucconi and
de Bertoldi, 1987), cation exchange capacity (CEC) (Harada and
Inoko, 1980) and the degree of OM humification (de Nobili and Pet-
russi, 1988; Iglesias-Jimenez and Perez-Garcia, 1992). Also, the
presence of phytotoxic substances such as phenolic acids and vol-
atile fatty acids (Kirchmann and Widen, 1994) may indicate imma-
ture composts.
Composting is a biochemical transformation of OM by microor-
ganisms whose metabolism occurs in the water-soluble phase.
Therefore, a study of the changes occurring in the soluble OM
can be useful for assessing compost maturity. A water soluble or-
ganic-C/organic-N ratio of 5–6 was established by Chanyasak and
Kubota (1981) as an essential indicator of compost maturity (Table
4). However, this ratio is sometimes difficult to evaluate since the
concentration of organic-N in the water extract of mature samples
is usually very low. For this reason, Hue and Liu (1995) and Bernal
et al. (1998a) suggested using the water soluble organic-C/total or-
ganic-N ratio as a parameter for assessing compost maturity. Dis-
solved organic carbon is the most active fraction of carbon and is
indicative of compost stability (Wu et al., 2000). Bernal et al.
(1998a) established a limit of water-soluble organic-C <1.7% to de-
scribe mature composts produced from a wide range of wastes,
including animal manures, while 1.0 and 0.4% were set by Hue
and Liu (1995) and Zmora-Nahum et al. (2005), respectively.
Compost maturity can also be defined in terms of nitrification.
When the NH4-N concentration decreases and NO3-N appears in
the composting material it is considered ready to be used as a
compost (Finstein and Miller, 1985). A high level of NH4-N
indicates unstabilised material, leading Zucconi and de Bertoldi
(1987) to establish a limit of 0.04% for mature city refuse compost.
An NH4-N/NO3-N ratio lower than 0.16 was established by
Bernal et al. (1998a) as a maturity index for composts of all origins
(Table 4).
Since maturation also implies the formation of some humic-like
substances, the degree of OM humification is generally accepted as
a criterion of maturity. Studies in this respect refer to the humifi-
Table 4
Maturity indices established for composts of different sources.
Parameter
Water soluble (C/N)
Germination index
NH4-N
C/N
CO2 production rate
Water soluble organic-C
Water soluble (C/N)
Water soluble organic-C/Total organic-N
CEX
CFA
CEX/Water soluble organic-C
C/N
Water soluble organic-C
Water soluble organic-C/Total organic-N
NH4-N/NO3-N
NH4-N
Mineralisable-C in 70 days
NO3-N/CO2–C ratio (per day)
Water soluble organic-C
cation ratio, humification index, percent of humic acid, humic acid
to fulvic acid ratio and the chemical, physico-chemical and spec-
troscopic characterisation of humic-like substances. Iglesias-Jime-
nez and Perez-Garcia (1992) established maturity indices based
on the humification level of the OM for city refuse compost. Hue
and Liu (1995) proposed a CFA content of 612.5 g/kg, a
CEX 660 g/kg and a CEX/water-soluble organic-C ratio P6.0, for ma-
ture composts of different origin (Table 4). However, these humifi-
cation parameters are not useful for indicating maturity in all kinds
of compost (Bernal et al., 1998a; Paredes et al., 2000), since the fi-
nal values of the humic acid content, humic to fulvic acid ratio and
humification index depend on the origin of the waste used for
composting. Their evolution during composting reveals the humi-
fication process of the OM but a limit value cannot be fixed for
expressing compost maturity. The humification process produces
functional groups, and so increased oxidation of the OM leads to
a rise in CEC, for which reason this parameter has been used to
evaluate the maturity of city refuse compost (>60 meq/100 g, Hara-
da and Inoko, 1980; 67 meq/100 g, Iglesias-Jimenez and Perez-Gar-
cia, 1992). However, these values cannot be used in compost from
wastes such as animal manures, since the limit can be reached in
the wastes before composting (Bernal et al., 1996; Bernal et al.,
1998a; Paredes et al., 2000).
The maturity of a compost can be assessed by its microbial sta-
bility, by determining microbial activity factors such as the micro-
bial biomass count and its metabolic activity, and by the
concentration of easily biodegradable constituents. The aerobic
respiration rate was previously selected as the most suitable
parameter to assess aerobic biological activity and hence stability.
In aerobic conditions, one carbon atom derived from catabolism is
attached to two oxygen atoms to form carbon dioxide, releasing
energy, including heat, in the process. Therefore, respiration can
be measured in several ways: carbon dioxide evolution, oxygen
consumption and self-heating, which are indicative of the amount
of degradable OM still present and which are related inversely to
stabilisation (Zucconi and de Bertoldi, 1987). Self-heating uses
the Dewar flask method and actually measures temperature rises
due to all exothermic biological and chemical activity, so it is not
strictly a true measure of respiration, because many biological
and chemical reactions not connected to respiration are exother-
mic. An insufficiently mature compost has a strong demand for
O2 and high CO2 production rates, due to intense development of
microorganisms as a consequence of the abundance of easily bio-
degradable compounds in the raw material. For this reason, O2
Value Reference
5–6 Chanyasak and Kubota (1981)
>50% Zucconi et al. (1981)
<0.4 g/kg Zucconi and de Bertoldi (1987)
<20, preferable <10 Mathur et al. (1993)
6120 mg CO2/kg/h Hue and Liu (1995)
610 g/kg
616
60.70
660 g/kg
612.5 g/kg
P6.0
<12 Bernal et al. (1998a)
<17 g/kg
<0.55
<0.16
<0.4 g/kg
<30%
>8 Cooperband et al. (2003)
64 g/kg Zmora-Nahum et al. (2005)
 M.P. Bernal et al. / Bioresource Technology 100 (2009) 5444–5453 5451

consumption and CO2 production are indicative of compost stabil-
ity and maturity (Hue and Liu, 1995). Oxygen uptake and CO2 evo-
lution are more direct and have been described as being opposite
sides of the same equation under aerobic conditions (Barrena-
Gómez et al., 2006; Iannotti et al., 1993, 1994).
CO2 evolution correlates directly with aerobic respiration and,
of the three techniques considered, is the truest measure of respi-
ration and hence aerobic biological activity (CCQC, 2001; Hue and
Liu, 1995). Hue and Liu (1995) set the limit of the CO2 production
rate for compost maturity at 6120 mg CO2 kg1 h1 (Table 4).
Wang et al. (2004) used a respiration rate of <1 mg CO2–C g1
dw d-1 to define a highly stabilised compost from cattle and pig
manures. Cooperband et al. (2003) suggested a NO3-N/CO2–C ra-
tio > 8 per day as an index of compost maturity (Table 4). Respiro-
metric studies have been carried out in soils amended with
compost, in a proportion compatible with agricultural use; these
indicate the mineralisation of the compost’s OM (Bernal et al.,
1998b; Morel et al., 1979). Mature compost was defined as having
mineralisable-C <30% of total organic-C in 70 days, with a rapidly
mineralisable-C <7.2% of total organic-C and a slow mineralisation
rate <0.35% of total organic-C d1 (Bernal et al., 1998a).
Biological methods for estimating the degree of maturity are
also based on tests for phytotoxicity. Plant tests used in research
and in quality standards can be divided into four broad categories:
germination tests (including root assessments) (Zucconi et al.,
1981 and Zucconi et al., 1985), growth tests (assessment of top-
growth and sometimes root mass), combinations of germination
and growth, and other biological methods such as enzyme activi-
ties (Herrmann and Shann, 1993). According to Zucconi et al.
(1981) a germination index below 50% characterises an immature
compost (Table 4). Zucconi and de Bertoldi (1987) discussed the
differences between germination and growth tests. Germination
tests provide an instant picture of phytotoxicity, whereas growing
tests will be affected by continuing changes in the stability or
maturity of the compost tested: there may be damaging effects
on growth in the earlier stages, but beneficial effects later on, with
different conclusions depending on the time of assessment. García-
Gómez et al. (2001) also looked at both germination index and pot
trials, the yield of ryegrass showing phytotoxic effects from imma-
ture compost even when the germination index was above 87%.
The relationship between the CO2 respiration and phytotoxicity
of immature compost was studied by García-Gómez et al. (2003),
using the CO2–C production by OM mineralisation, N-mineralisa-
tion and plant growth. The CO2–C evolved correlated with plant
growth, and immature compost caused N-immobilisation in the
soil, leading to plant N-deficiency.
Those chemical and biological parameters already discussed
have been used to evaluate maturity in manure compost
(Gómez-Brandón et al., 2008; Goyal et al., 2005; Huang et al.,
2006; Solano et al., 2001; Tiquia and Tam, 1998). These authors
identified decreases in water-soluble organic-C, NH4-N, phytotoxic
effects and microbial activity and increases in the humification of
the OM as indicators of the progressive stabilisation of the com-
posting materials, leading to an acceptable degree of maturity
based on the established indices in the literature for composts of
different origin. Also, Michel et al. (2004) and Wang et al. (2004)
used the criterion of CO2 evolution rate <0.5 mg CO2–C g1 OM
d1 or <1 mg CO2–C g1 dw d1, respectively, to consider composts
derived from manure as stable materials. Changa et al. (2003) con-
cluded that CO2 and the NH3 SolvitaÒ test can be employed to char-
acterise the maturity/stability stage for quality control of
composted manures. Mathur et al. (1990), Guerra-Rodríguez
et al. (2001, 2003) assessed phytotoxicity in germination tests, as
an indicator of the maturity of manure compost. Tiquia (2005) pro-
posed that values <35 lg TPF (triphenyl formazan) g1 for dehy-
drogenase activity can be used as a maturity indicator for
manures. Ko et al. (2008) proposed the following maturity indices
for manure and sawdust compost: NH4/NO3 <1.0, NH3-emission
<20 ppm, CHA/CFA >2.5 and germination index >110.
The relevance of maturity and stability parameters to assess
compost quality is widely recognised by researchers. But integra-
tion of the most reliable indices seems to be the sole option for
evaluation of the maturity/stability stage of composted materials
(Eggen and Vethe, 2001; Mathur et al., 1993; Riffaldi et al.,
1986). A clear example of this is the CCQC maturity assessment
process (CCQC, 2001; TMECC, 2002), which considered first that a
compost with a C/N ratio >25 is immature. When the C/N is 625,
at least one test of group A (stability) and another of group B
(maturity) must be determined (Table 5). Then, the maturity
assessment matrix is applied to classify the material as very ma-
ture, mature or immature. According to the maturity classification
of the compost, the CCQC gives general guidelines for compost best
uses: ‘‘very mature” can be used for soil and peat-based container
plant mixes, alternative topsoil blends and turf top-dressing;
‘‘mature” compost for general field use (pastures), vineyards, row
crops and as a substitute for low analysis organic fertilisers in some

Table 5
Maturity assessment according to CCQC maturity index (TMECC, 2002).

C/N ratio 625

Stability Thresholds (group A)
Method Units Very stable Stable Unstable
Specific oxygen uptake rate mg O2/g OM/d <3 3–10 >10
CO2 evolution rate mg CO2–C/g OM/d <2 2–4 >4
Dewar self-heating test Dewar index V V <V
Headspace CO2 (SolvitaÒ) Colour code 7–8 5–6 1–4
Biologically available C mg CO2–C/g C/d <2 2–4 >4
Maturity Thresholds (group B)
Method units Very mature Mature Immature
NH4-N mg/kg dw <75 75–500 >500
NH4-N/NO3-N – <0.5 0.5–3.0 >3.0
Seedling emergence % of control >90 80–90 < 80
Seedling vigour % of control >95 85–95 <85
In-vitro germination index % of control >90 80–90 <80
Earthworm bioassay % Weight gain <20 20–40 >40
NH3 (SolvitaÒ) Colour code 5 4 3–1
Volatile fatty acids mmol/g dw <200 200–1000 >1000
5452 M.P. Bernal et al. / Bioresource Technology 100 (2009) 5444–5453
cases; ‘‘immature” compost should be used for land application to
fallow soil and as a feedstock for compost. However, other quality
criteria apart from maturity determine the compost quality, such
as the nutrient content, ammonia, pH and soluble salts, and they
should be also taken into account to define the compost use.
Therefore, the development of a market for compost materials
which supports or promotes a waste composting strategy greatly
depends on the definition and adoption of quality standards (Brin-
ton, 2000; Hogg et al., 2002). However, there are several compost
quality standards proposed by official and private organisations
(BOE, 2005; BSI, 2005; European Commission, 2001; Ge et al.,
2006; TMECC, 2002), which take into account compost properties
such as foreign matter (inert contamination), potentially toxic ele-
ments (organic contaminants and heavy metals), sanitisation
(pathogens and phytopathogens), maturity and stability, weed
seeds, water, OM and nutrient content. Currently, there is a need
for harmonisation of such criteria at the international level.
6. Conclusions
The composting of animal manures has been demonstrated to
be an effective method for producing end-products which are sta-
bilised and sanitised, ensuring their maximum benefit for agricul-
ture. However, the compost should be of high quality in order to
guarantee its marketability.
Amongst the controllable factors which influence manure com-
posting, the selection of appropriate bulking agents plays an essen-
tial role in controlling the decomposition rate and favouring N
retention within the compost. In this sense, strategies such as addi-
tion of a bulking agent with degradable organic-C, to enhance ini-
tial N immobilisation, and process control (moisture, temperature,
aeration/turning and particle size) have been shown to reduce
ammonia volatilisation and hence nitrogen losses, these being a
major concern in manure composting from an environmental point
of view.
The agricultural value of a compost increases when the OM
reaches a high level of stability and maturity, which cannot be
established by a single parameter. Several indices based on chem-
ical and stability parameters have been used for manure compost
by different authors. However, it is necessary to standardise the
criteria used by official institutions from different countries.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development, Co-operative Research Programme: Biological
Resource Management for Sustainable Agricultural Systems, for
inviting Dr. Bernal to participate in the workshop ‘‘Livestock Waste
Treatment Systems of the Future: a challenge to environmental
quality, food safety, and sustainability”, where this paper was
presented.
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