Gas Engineering Planning Manual

General Gas Engineering

Edition 09.13
Contents Page
Overview sheet of the DVGW regulations to be complied with........................................ 4
Overview sheet of important DIN and VDE sheets........................................................... 5
European Directives........................................................................................................ 5
European Standards / Draft Standards ........................................................................... 6
International Standards / Draft Standards........................................................................ 6
American Standards........................................................................................................ 6
What are gas and characteristic gas values?................................................................... 7
What is pressure?.......................................................................................................... 14
What are volume, flow rate and flow velocity?...............................................................16
What is temperature?.................................................................................................... 18
What are mass, atomic mass and molecular mass?...................................................... 19
What are work, energy and quantity of heat?................................................................20
What are power, energy and heat flux?......................................................................... 21
What are density and relative density?........................................................................... 22
What are quantity of heat, calorific value, gross calorific value and Wobbe index?......... 23
Summary of electrical formulae..................................................................................... 24
Enclosure in accordance with DIN EN 60529 (IP)..........................................................30
Whitworth pipe threads for threaded pipes and fittings.................................................. 32
Flange dimensions in accordance with DIN...................................................................36
Flow velocities in pipes.................................................................................................. 38
Pressure loss in pipes.................................................................................................... 39
Volume of pipes.............................................................................................................40
Dimensions of pipes...................................................................................................... 41
Colour coding for pipes in accordance with DIN 2403................................................... 42
Greek letters.................................................................................................................. 42
Designation of decimal multiple units............................................................................. 42
Symbols used in formulae and units used for physical quantities................................... 43
Conversion of quantities for atmospheric pressure........................................................ 44
Weights, mass...............................................................................................................46
Temperature..................................................................................................................46
Density..........................................................................................................................46
Force units (force due to weight)...................................................................................46
Time units......................................................................................................................46
Length units.................................................................................................................. 47
Area units...................................................................................................................... 47
Volume, capacity units................................................................................................... 47
Power........................................................................................................................... 47
Specific heat................................................................................................................. 47
Work, energy, quantity of heat....................................................................................... 48
Resistance table............................................................................................................ 49

1
 Overview sheet of the DVGW regulations to be complied with
Code of Practice Title Available from
G 260/I Properties of Gas 1
G 260/II Supplementary Rules for Gases of Gas Group 2 1

G 262 Use of Landfill Gases, Sewage Gases and Biologically Produced Methanes 1

G 459/I Gas Branch Lines to Buildings for Operating Pressures up to 4 bar; Planning and Installation 1
G 459/II Gas Pressure Regulation with Inlet Pressures up to 4 bar for Gas Installations for Supply to Residential,
Office and Staff Buildings 1

G 461/I Installation of Gas Pipes up to 4 bar Operating Gauge Pressure, Comprising Pressure Pipes 1
and Shaped Fittings made of Ductile Cast Iron
G 461/II Installation of Gas Pipes with Operating Gauge Pressures Exceeding 4 bar to 16 bar 1
Comprising Pressure Pipes and Shaped Fittings made of Ductile Cast Iron

G 462/I Installation of Gas Pipes up to 4 bar Operating Gauge Pressure Comprising Steel Pipes 1

G 464 Calculation of Pressure Losses in Gas Distribution 1

G 465/I Inspecting Gas Pipe Networks with an Operating Pressure up to 4 bar 1
G 490/I Gas Pressure Regulation Systems for Inlet Pressures up to 4 bar; Planning, Manufacture, 1
Installation, Inspection and Commissioning
Supply to Trade and Industry in Addition to Public Gas Supply

G 491 Gas Pressure Regulation Systems for Inlet Pressures Exceeding 4 to 100 bar 1
Planning, Manufacture, Installation, Inspection and Commissioning

G 492/I Systems for Gas Metering with an Operating Pressure up to 4 bar 1

G 492/II Systems for Gas Metering with an Operating Pressure Exceeding 4 bar to 100 bar 1

G 493/I Qualification Criteria for Manufacturers of Gas Pressure Regulation and Gas Metering Systems 1
G 493/II Qualification Criteria for Companies for Maintaining Gas Pressure Regulation and Metering Systems 1

G 495 Gas Installations – Maintenance 1

G 496 Pipes in Gas Installations 1

G 600 Technical Regulations for Gas Installations DVGW-TRGI 1986/1996 1

G 600/II Technical Regulations for Gas Installations, Operation 1

G 620 Installation of Gas Compressors with an Operating Pressure up to 1 bar and an Output Power 1
up to 50 kW for Gas Appliances and Gas-Fired Systems

G 621 Gas Installations in Laboratories 1

G 631 Installation of Commercial Gas Appliances and Gas-Fired Systems 1

G 634 Installation of Gas Appliances in Commercial Kitchens in Buildings 1

VP 200 Governors for Gas and Gas Installation Safety Devices for Inlet Pressures up to 4 bar 1

VP 301 Thermally Tripping Shut-Off Elements in Gas Installations 1

TRF Technical Regulations for Liquefied Petroleum Gas, TRF 1996 4

TRD 412 Gas-Fired Systems on Steam Boilers 2

Regulations and Directives of the German Employers’ Liability Insurance Associations

VBG 1 General Regulations 2

VBG 4 Electrical Installations and Equipment 2

VBG 50 Work on Gas Pipes 2

VBG 52 Systems for Gases for Public Gas Supply 2

2
 Overview sheet of important DIN and VDE sheets
Code of Practice Title Available from
DIN 1340 Gaseous Fuels and Other Gases, Types, Constituents and Use 3

DIN 2470-1 Gas Pipes Comprising Steel Pipes with Admissible Operating Pressures up to 16 bar 3

DIN 3380 Gas Pressure Governors for Inlet Pressures up to 100 bar 3

DIN 3381 Safety Devices for Gas Supply Systems with Operating Pressures up to 100 bar; 3
Safety Relief and Safety Shut-Off Devices

DIN 3386 Filters in Inside Gas Pipes 3

DIN 3394-1 Automatic Actuators – Part 1: Actuators for Safeguarding, Relief and Regulation 3
for Pressures Exceeding 4 bar to 16 bar

DIN 3399 Gas Deficiency Cut-Outs 3

DIN 3537-3 Gas Shut-Off Valves up to PN4, Requirements and Approval Test for Laboratory Valves and Fittings 3
DIN 4756 Gas-Firing Systems in Heating Installations 3
(DIN 6280-21) VP 109 – Ready-To-Connect Combined Heating and Power Plants with Gas Motor-Driven Generator 3

DIN 8521-2 Safety Devices to Prevent Gas Return for Use of Gases in Public Gas Supply, Air and Oxygen up to 0.1 bar 3

DIN 33821 Filters in Gas Installations (Currently in Preparation) 3

DIN 33822 VP 200 – Gas Governors and Safety Devices for Gas Installations for Inlet Pressures up to 4 bar 3

DIN VDE 0100-540 Installation of Electrical Power Systems with Mains Voltages up to 1000 V; Selection and Installation 3
of Electrical Equipment; Earthing, PE Wires and Equipotential Bonding Conductors

DIN VDE 0105-1 Operation of Electrical Power Installations; General Stipulations (VDE Regulations) 3
DIN VDE 0106-1 Protection Against Electric Shock; Classification of Electrical and Electrical-Engineering Equipment 3
(VDE Regulations)

European Directives
Code of Practice Title Available from
90/396/EWG Gas Appliances Directive 5

73/23/EWG Low Voltage Directive 5

89/336/EWG EMC Directive 5

98/37/EG Machinery Directiv 5

97/23/EG Pressure Equipment Directive 5

3
 European Standards / Draft Standards
Code of Practice Title Available from
EN 88 Pressure governors for gas appliances for inlet pressures up to 200 mbar; 1996.08 3

EN 125 Flame supervision devices for gas burning appliances – Thermo-electric flame
supervision devices; 1996.08 3

EN 161 Automatic shut-off valves for gas burners and gas appliances; 2002.06 3

EN 298 Automatic gas burner control systems for gas burners and gas burning appliances
with or without fans; 1994.02 3

EN 331 Manually Operated Ball Valves and Taper Plug Valves with Closed Bottom for Domestic Gas Installations 3

EN 1854 Pressure Switches for Gas Burners and Gas Appliances 3

EN 746-1 Industrial thermoprocessing equipment – Part 1: Common safety requirements for

industrial thermoprocessing equipment; 1997.05 3

EN 746-2 Industrial thermoprocessing equipment – Part 2: Safety requirements for combustion

and fuel handling systems; 1997.05 3

prEN 50156 Electrical Equipment for Furnaces – Part 1: Requirements for Application Design
and Installation; 2000.04.10 3

EN 60204-1 Safety of machinery – Electrical equipment of machines – Part 1: General requirements

(IEC 44/224/CDV); 1998.11 3

EN 60439-1 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies – Part 1: Type-tested and

partially type-tested assemblies (IEC 60439-1:1999); 2000.08 3

EN 60529 Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP Code) (IEC 60529:1989 + A1:1999); 2000.09 3

International Standards / Draft Standards

Code of Practice Title Available from
IEC 61508-1 Functional safety of electrical/electronic/programmable electronic safety-related systems
– Part 1: General requirements; 1998.12 3

American Standards
Code of Practice Title Available from
NFPA 86 ”Standards for Ovens and Furnaces”, Edition 1999. 6

Availability source 1 Wirtschafts- und Verlagsgesellschaft Gas und Wasser mbH

Josef-Wirmer-Straße 3, 53123 Bonn, Germany

Availability source 2 Carl Heymanns Verlag KG

Luxemburger Straße 449, 50939 Köln (Cologne), Germany

Availability source 3 Beuth-Verlag GmbH

Burggrafenstraße 6, 10787 Berlin, Germany

Availability source 4 Strobel-Verlag KG

Zur Feldmühle 11,
Postfach 65 54, 59806 Arnsberg, Germany

Availability source 5 Bundesanzeiger Verlag GmbH, Vertriebsabteilung

Amsterdamer Straße 192, D-50735 Köln

Availability source 5 National Fire Protection Assosiation, 1 Batterymarch Park,

PO Box 9101, Quincy, MA 02269-9101, USA

4
What are gas and characteristic gas values?
Miscellaneous / useful information from the gas sector
What is fuel gas?
What fuel gases are important?
What is natural gas?
How is natural gas produced?
Since when has natural gas been
known?
What does natural gas consist of?
What natural gas qualities are there
and what do they mean?
When and where was the first natural
gas field discovered?
… and in Germany?
5
A gas or gas mixture which is combustible
in a specific mixing ratio with oxygen (in ac-
cordance with DIN 1340).
Natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
and biologically produced methanes.
A natural product.
From animal and vegetable deposits on the
beds of the primeval oceans which have
been chemically converted to hydrocar-
bons under high pressure exerted by rock
and soil layers over millions of years.
It can be proven that Indo-Europeans in
the Caucasus referred to burning natu-
ral gas as “Eternal Fire” over 5,000 years
ago. Sumerian and Assyrian priests used
the gases streaming from the earth for their
prophecies.
Chiefly of the combustible hydrocarbon
compound methane (CH4).
We chiefly distinguish between the natural
gas qualities L and H.
“L” stands for low and means that this natu-
ral gas has a gross calorific value of approx.
9.77 kWh/m3. It is produced from German
and Dutch gas fields.
“H” stands for high and means that this
natural gas has a gross calorific value of
­approx. 11.5 kWh/m3. It is produced pri-
marily from the gas fields of the North Sea
and the former Soviet Union.
In 1815 in a salt mine in Charleston, West
Virginia.
In 1910 when drilling for water in Neu-
engamme near Hamburg.
When was natural gas used commer-
cially for the first time?
Why is natural gas stored?
How is natural gas stored?
What types of gas pipes are there and
at what pressures is the gas in them
transported?
How long has the first long-distance
gas pipe been in existence in
Germany?
What does the term “transfer station”
mean?
What does the abbreviation DVGW
mean?
6
In around 900 BC, the Chinese used natural
gas to dry salt for the first time, in accordance
with the reports of English chroniclers.
Since the daily natural gas consumption is
subject to major fluctuations depending on
season, it is necessary, for economic rea-
sons, to ensure provision of the required
quantity of gas in peak demand periods
by storing natural gas in times in which de-
mand is not so high.
In gaseous state.
Above-ground tanks are used to provide
small quantities of gas for daily use. Larger
quantities of gas are stored in porous un-
derground storage structures comprising
porous rock or cave stores (salt dome
stores).
Main transport pipes, also referred to as
long-distance gas pipes, are high-pressure
pipes operated at a maximum pressure of
80 bar.
Medium and low-pressure pipes of regional
and local gas supply utilities ensure that the
gas is forwarded to the consumers. A mini-
mum pressure of 20 mbar for natural gas is
used in such pipes.
At the instigation of August Thyssen, the
first German long-distance gas pipe was
laid in 1910 from Duisburg-Hamborn to
Wuppertal-Barmen. Germany connected
up to Holland’s natural gas network in 1964
and the pipeline connection to the Russian
natural gas deposits was linked up in 1974.
This has created the basis for a networked
European system.
The term “transfer station” means control
and metering stations whose task it is to
regulate the pressure at a level adapted to
the downstream gas pipes and, when do-
ing this, to meter the quantity of gas “hand-
ed over”.
DVGW is the German abbreviation for
“Deutscher Verein des Gas- und Was-
serfaches – Technisch-Wissenschaftliche
Vereinigung e.V.” (German Technical and
Scientific Association on Gas and Water)
with its headquarters in Eschborn near
Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
The DVGW is responsible for technical and
scientific questions in the gas and water
sector.
Gas group: Natural gases and heavy hydrocarbons (CnHm), depending on
petroleum gases the particular field or manner in which they
are produced.
(Code: N) They are heavier than town gas and pipe-
These are natural gases. They largely con- line-quality gas but still lighter than air.
sist of methane (CH4) and are mixed with Calorific value = 7.89 – 11.86 kWh/m3n
inert (non-combustible constituents) or = 6800 – 10200 kcal/m3n
Gas properties Symbol Unit Natural gas L* Natural gas H**
Molar mass M kg/mol 17.70024 18.85279
Molar volume Vm m3/kmol 22.35954 22.32178
Density ρ kg/m3 0.791845 0.851963
Relative density d – 0.612409 0.658904
Critical pressure, bar pk bar 45.84764 46.74398
Critical temperature Tk °C -84.6683 -64.4394
Real gas factor Z – 0.997604 0.995932
Critical real gas factor Zk – 0.2897 0.2888
Gross calorific value Ho, n kWh/m3 10.03431 12.24108
Gross calorific value Ho, n MJ/m3 36.12353 44.06794
Calorific value Hu, n kWh/m3 9.045801 11.07796
Calorific value Hu, n MJ/m3 32.56488 39.88065
Wobbe index Wo, n kWh/m3 12.82231 15.08025
Max. CO2 content CO2 max. % 11.85502 12.30119
Minimum air demand L, min. m3/m3 8.665676 10.57393
Minimum O2 demand O2, min. m3/m3 1.816995 2.217115
Cons. gas quant., dry Vtr m3/m3 7.856047 9.505480
Cons. gas quant., moist Vf m3/m3 9.561809 11.50986
* By way of example for a typical natural gas composition of family L.
** By way of example for a typical natural gas composition of family H.

7
Gas group: Town gases and air and are produced on the basis of the
pipeline-quality gases classic coking plant method or by crack-
ing from natural gas, refinery gas, liquefied
petroleum gas or light gasoline.
(Code: S) Calorific value = 4.42 – 4.86 kWh/m3n
These gases feature a high hydrogen = 3800 – 4200 kcal/m3n
content (H2), are appreciably lighter than
Gas properties Symbol Unit Town gas
Molar mass M kg/mol 13.40096
Molar volume Vm m3/kmol 22.39295
Density ρ kg/m3 0.599540
Relative density d – 0.463681
Critical pressure, bar pk bar 27.65390
Critical temperature Tk °C -168.922
Real gas factor Z – 0.999110
Critical real gas factor Zk – 0.2970
Gross calorific value Ho, n kWh/m3 5.058627
Gross calorific value Ho, n MJ/m3 18.21106
Calorific value Hu, n kWh/m3 4.539612
Calorific value Hu, n MJ/m3 16.34260
Wobbe index Wo, n kWh/m3 7.428871
Max. CO2 content CO2 max. % 13.08969
Minimum air demand L, min. m3/m3 3.895149
Minimum O2 demand O2, min. m3/m3 0.816721
Cons. gas quant., dry Vtr m3/m3 3.599347
Cons. gas quant., moist Vf m3/m3 4.494297

8
Gas group: Liquefied petroleum
gases
(Code: F)
These are produced as by-products from
the process of natural oil refining and con-
sist 95 % of propane or butane or mixtures
thereof. The rest consists of propylene,
ethane, ethylene and butylene. They are
far heavier than air (and this is why special
safety precautions are required!) and can
be liquefied under pressure.

Calorific value =  25.9 – 34.4 kWh/m3

Properties of liquefied petroleum gas:

Non-toxic, sulphur-free, burns with no
smoke or odour and no residue, non-wa-
ter-polluting (environment-friendly), gase-
ous at normal pressure and liquid at a slight
excess pressure.

Gas properties Symbol Unit Propane Butane

Molar mass M kg/mol 44.0960 58.1230
Molar volume Vm m3/kmol 21.9274 21.461
Density ρ kg/m3 2.0109 2.7080
Relative density d – 1.5550 2.0940
Critical pressure, bar pk bar 42.400 38.0
Critical temperature Tk °C 96.65 152.05
Real gas factor Z – 0.9783 0.9575
Critical real gas factor Zk – 0.2770 0.2740
Gross calorific value Ho, n kWh/m3 28.1228 37.2392
Gross calorific value Ho, n MJ/m3 101.2421 134.0611
Calorific value Hu, n kWh/m3 25.8931 34.3917
Calorific value Hu, n MJ/m3 93.2152 123.8101
Wobbe index Wo, n kWh/m3 22.5524 25.7343
Max. CO2 content CO2 max. % 13.7825 14.0857
Minimum air demand L, min. m3/m3 24.3515 32.3413
Minimum O2 demand O2, min. m3/m3 5.1060 6.7813
Cons. gas quant., dry Vtr m3/m3 22.2930 29.711
Cons. gas quant., moist Vf m3/m3 26.1411 34.6252

9
 Combustion of basic constituents of gases
Fuel Chemical symbol Combustion formula Unit of meas- C
alorific value per Flue gas composition Unit of heat Bulk density
Remarks urement unit of measurement io Fuel
kcal kWh CO2/% H2O/% N2/% kcal/m3 (n) kWh/m3 (n) kg/Nm3
Carbon C C + O2 = CO2 kg 7935 9.23 20.9 – 79.1 889 1.034 –
C + 0.5 O2 = CO kg 2300 2.67 34.6 (CO) – 65.4 426 0.495 –
Carbon monoxide CO CO + 0.5 O2 = CO2 Nm3 3020 3.51 34.6 – 65.4 1044 1.214 1.250
Hydrogen H2 H2 + 0.5 O2 = H2O Dampf kg 28700 33.37 – 34.6 65.4 889 1.034 0.0899
H2 + 0.5 O2 = H2O Dampf Nm3 2570 2.99 – 34.6 65.4 889 1.034 –

Methane CH4 CH4 + 2.0 O2 = CO2 + 2 H2O Nm3 8560 9.95 9.5 18.9 71.6 810 0.942 0.717
Ethane CH4 C2H6 + 3.5 O2 = 2 CO2 + 3 H2O Nm3 15370 17.87 11.0 16.4 72.6 841 0.978 1.356

10
Propane C3H8 C3H8 + 5.0 O2 = 3 CO2 + 4 H2O Nm3 22350 25.99 11.6 15.4 73.0 862 1.002 2.004
Butane C4H10 C4H10 + 6.5 O2 = 4 CO2 + 5 H2O Nm3 29280 34.05 11.9 14.9 73.2 870 1.012 2.703

Ethylene C2H4 C2H4 + 3.0 O2 = 2 CO2 + 2 H2O Nm3 14320 16.55 13.0 13.0 74.0 931 1.083 1.261
Propylene C3H6 C3H6 + 4.5 O2 = 3 CO2 + 3 H2O Nm3 21070 24.50 13.0 13.0 74.0 914 1.063 1.915
Butylene C4H8 C4H8 + 6.0 O2 = 4 CO2 + 4 H2O Nm3 27190 31.62 13.0 13.0 74.0 885 1.029 –
Acetylene C2H2 C2H2 + 2.5 O2 = 2 CO2 + H2O Nm3 13600 15.81 16.1 8.0 75.9 1090 1.267 1.171
Benzole C6H6 C6H6 + 7.5 O2 = 6 CO2 + 3 H2O Nm3 33870 39.38 16.1 8.0 75.9 905 1.052 –
Heavy hydrocarbons in SKW + 3.76 O2 = 2.45 CO2 + 2.45 H2O ” 17000 19.77 13.0 13.0 74.0 905 1.052 1.53
Heavy hydrocarbons coke-oven gas SKW + 3.34 O2 = 2.17 CO2 + 2.34 H2O ” 15900 18.49 12.7 13.6 73.7 927 1.078 1.37
Sulphur S S + O2 = SO2 kg 2222 2.58 20.0 (SO2) – 79.1 665 0.773 –
Hydrogen sulphide H2S H2S + 1.5 O2 = H2O + SO2 kg 3630 4.22 14.0 (SO2) 14.0 72.0 717 0.834 1.539
Calorific value and air demand of industrial gases
Type of gas Calorific value Density Relative Theoretical Maximum
kg/m3 (n) density combustion CO2 content
Ho Hu referred air demand in %
to air = 1 Nm3/Nm3 gas (without
kcal/m3 (n) kWh/m3 (n) kcal/m3 (n) kWh/m3 (n) ρ dv L excess air)
Coal gas 5250 6.10 4680 5.44 0.557 0.43 4.85 10.5
Pipeline-quality gas 4600 5.35 4100 4.77 0.505 0.39 4.13 10.3
Town gas 4300 5.00 3870 4.50 0.61 0.50 3.85 12.0
Water gas 2700 3.14 2450 2.85 0.71 0.55 2.10 18.0
Generator gas from coke 1200 1.40 1150 1.34 1.16 0.90 0.95 20.0
Natural gas. dry 8300 9.65 8000 9.30 0.80 0.62 8.9 12.0
Petroleum gas 10300 11.98 9400 10.93 0.89 0.69 10.4 12.1
Sewage gas cleaned 8850 10.29 7960 9.26 0.75 0.58 8.87 12.0
Propane 24320 28.28 22350 25.99 1.95 1.56 25.9 13.1
Liquefied petroleum gas
Butane 31530 36.66 29550 34.36 2.66 2.09 33.4 14.8

Ignition temperatures of gaseous fuels

Spont. ignition
temp. °C mixed with
Gaseous fuel air O2
Carbon ~ 590 ~ 610
Hydrogen ~ 450 ~ 530
Methane ~ 645 ~ 645
Ethane ~ 500 ~ 530
Ethylene ~ 485 ~ 540
Propane ~ 490 ~ 510
Butane ~ 460 ~ 490
Acetylene – ~ 325
Town gas ~ 450 ~ 560
Blast-furnace gas – ~ 600

11
 What is pressure?

p V = constant
•
p = pressure, V = volume

Pressure always refers to absolute pressure,

Absolute pressure
i.e. the excess pressure or gauge pressure
= 1 bar + gauge pressure
in the pipe plus 1 bar atmospheric pressure.

Pressure units
Unit Name Statutory units
Pa bar mbar µbar N/mm2 N/m2
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 pascal *** 1 10-5 0.01 10 106 1
1 bar bar 105 1 1000 106 0.1 105
1 mbar millibar 100 0.001 1 1000 0.0001 100
1 µbar microbar 0.1 10-6 0.001 1 10-7 0.1
1 N/mm2 newton per mm2 106 10 10000 107 1 106
1 kp/mm2 kilopond per mm2 9.8 • 106 98.0665 98066.5 9.8 • 107 9.80665 9.8 • 106
1 at technical atmosphere = 1 kp/cm2 98066.5 0.98066 980.665 9.8 • 105 0.0981 98066.5
1 kp/m2 = 1 mm water column 9.80665 9.8 • 10-5 0.0981 98.0665 9.8 • 10-6 9.80665
1 Torr torr 133.322 0.00133 1.33322 1333.22 1.3 • 104 133.322
1 alm physical atmosphere *** 101325 1.01325 1013.25 1.01 • 106 0.10133 101325
1 lb/in2 pound-force per square inch (psi) * 6894.76 0.0689 68.948 68948 0.00689 6894.76
1 lb/ft2 pound-force per square foot (psf) * 47.8803 0.00048 0.4788 478.8 4.7 • 10-5 47.8803
1 ton/in2 (long) ton-force per square inch * 1.54 • 107 154.443 154443 1.54 • 106 15.4443 1.54 • 107
1 barye barye *** 0.1 10-6 0.001 1 10-7 0.1
1 pz pièce = 1 sn/m2 **) 1000 0.01 10 0.001 0.001 1000
1 dyn/m2 dyn = Unit of physics 0.1 10-6 0.001 1 10-7 0.1
*) Imperial unit, **) French unit, ***) Standard pressure

12
 ... it’s me that you have to calculate with
m3 (n) ... it’s me to which one refers
Hello! … it’s only me for which you have to pay
I am a standard p•v
= const. … you should never forget me
cubic metre. I T
know only one law.
kW/m3 (n)
I possess true p = pressure
energy. V = volume
T = temperature

This cube contains 1000 m3 of gas at nor-

mal atmospheric pressure, i.e. 1 bar abso-
lute.

Important
We shall now increase the pressure to
1 bar gauge pressure or 2 bar absolute.
The volume has been reduced by 50 %.

Here, the gauge pressure has risen to 2 bar.

The volume has shrunk to 1/3.

At 3 bar, the volume shrinks to only 1/4 of

the original volume.

We reach a figure of 1/5 or 20 % at 4 bar.

At 9 bar gauge pressure = 10 bar absolute,

only 1/10 of the original volume remains.

13
What are volume, flow rate and flow velocity?

p V = constant
•
p = pressure, V = volume

Volume is the contents of a hollow body, Using the diagram, it is possible to

e.g. tanks, pipes, chambers or even gas determine the flow velocity at a given flow
appliances. rate and pipe diameter.

You should not confuse volume with quan- Example:

tity. Flow rate = 100 m3/h
Pipe diameter = DN 40
If a specific quantity of gas (or air) flows Flow velocity read off:
through pipes or equipment, we speak of
m
v = 18 s
flow rate

Flow rate is volume per unit of time, e.g. The flow velocity is not dependent on the
m3/h or l/min.• density of the medium.
Flow rate = V 100 m3/h of natural gas at DN 40 = 18
m
s
volume m
•
or also V = 100 m3/h of water at DN 40 = 18 s
time

Flow rate = cross-sectional area of the pipe

x velocity

•
V =A•v

14
Conversion to other operating states
1) Conversion from instantaneous flow to 2) Conversion from standard flow rate to
standard flow rate instantaneous flow

.
V. N = Standard flow rate in m3(n)/h
VB = Instantaneous flow in m3/h
b = Air pressure in hPa
^ mbar, see table)
(=
^ mbar)
pe = Operating gauge pressure in hPa (=
TB = Operating temperature in °C
Height above sea level ^ mbar)
Air pressure hPa (=
0 m 1013
50 m 1007
100 m 1002
150 m 996
200 m 990
250 m 985
300 m 978
350 m 973
400 m 966
500 m 955
600 m 943
700 m 932
800 m 921
900 m 910
1000 m 899

15
What is temperature?
°C K °F °R
1 °C 1 273.16 33.8 493.48
1 K -273.16 1 -239.36 1.8
1 °F -17.22 255.93 1 460.67
1 °R -272.6 1.8 -458.67 1
°C = 5/9 (°F - 32) = K - 273.16
K = 273.16 + °C = 5/9 °R
°F = 1.8 °C • 32 = °R - 459.67
°R = 459.67 + °F = 1.8 K
Temperature is a measure of the zero and serves as the starting point for the
­energy state of a body. thermodynamic temperature scale at 0 K.
The Celsius temperature scale which is
Celsius temperature (t) normally used can also continue to be
used. Starting from the freezing point and
Thermodynamic temperature (T) boiling point of water, the scale is split into
Temperature difference (�T, �t) 100 equal parts. 0 °C is freezing point and
100 °C is boiling point.
The subdivision of the scale means that one
The basic unit used is Kelvin [K]. The defini- degree Celsius as a temperature difference
tion of Kelvin is based on the simultaneous is equal to 1 Kelvin temperature difference.
vaporous, liquid and solid state of water All materials whose temperature lies above
which is at around 0.01 °C (triple point). –273 °C contain energy which can be uti-
Starting from this point, the volume of a gas lised in certain areas.
is reduced by one 273.16th with a temper-
ature reduction of 1 K.
Consequently, the volume with a tempera-
ture reduction of 273.16 may become equal
to zero. This point was defined as absolute

200 °C 473 K

100 °C 373 K

0 °C 273 K
Freezing point, the
starting point for the
- Celsius scale

-100 °C 173 K

-162 °C At this temperature, natural gas

becomes liquid and is transported
or stored.
-200 °C 73 K

273 °C 0K

16
What are mass, atomic mass and molecular mass?
The mass of a body is indicated by its iner- Ar and Mr, as relative values, are non-­
tia which occurs in the case of a change of dimensional.
its state of motion or when it is attracted to M = Mass
other bodies. Ar = Relative atomic mass
The basic unit (1 kg) is the mass of one Mr = Relative molecular mass
cubic decimetre [dm3] of pure water at a Research conducted by Avogadro (1776
temperature of +0.01 °C. – 1856) indicated that identical parts by
The relative atomic mass is a ratio indi- volume contain the same number of mol-
cating how many times the mass is greater ecules at the same temperature and pres-
than that of a reference atom. Today, the sure.
carbon nuclide 12C, with a relative atomic Identical volume = identical pressure +
mass of 12.000 is used as the reference identical temperature = identical num-
atom. ber of molecules.
The relative molecular mass Mr is the If we remove from a gas as many grams as
sum of the relative atomic masses Ar. the number expressed by the relative mo-
lecular mass (e.g. H2 = 2 g), this quantity in
Example: normal state at 0 °C and at 1013.25 mbar
Determining the relative molecular mass of results in a volume of 22.4 litres.
methane CH4 This quantity – H2 = 2 g in this case as an
Mr = Sum of Ar example – is referred to as a “mol”, also
Mr = Ar C + Ar H4 written unshortened as “mol”. The volume
of 22.4 litres is referred to as molar volume,
Mr = 1 • 12 + 4 • 1
and it is the same for all gases.
Mr = 16 Quantity of substance [g] = mol
Ar C = 12 Molar volume [litres] = 22.4
Ar H4 = 1
Molecule Chemical name Mass
Hydrogen H2 2
Helium He 4
Methane CH4 16
Ammonia NH3 17
Water vapour H2O steam 18
Acetylene C2H2 26
Nitrogen N2 28
Carbon monoxide CO 28
Air Chiefly N2 and O2 29
Ethane C2H6 30
Oxygen O2 32
Hydrogen sulphide H2S 34
Carbon dioxide CO2 44
Propane C3H8 44

17
What are work, energy and quantity of heat?
The term “work” means the change in the
energy state of a material.
This state may occur, for instance, in the
form of
- moving work W=F·s
- lifting work W= m·g·h
- work of friction WR = FR · s
- or spring rate W = c s2
2
etc.
The “Mechanical Heat Equivalent” of April
1926 provides a comparison of mechanical
work and quantity of heat.
For instance, the same amount of energy is
required to heat 1 g of water through 1°C
Conversion of units for work, energy and heat
SI unit “Joule” (J)
as is required to also lift 400 g mass 1 m
high.
In reverse, 400 g mass lowered 1 m pro-
duces the same amount of energy as is
required to heat 1 g of water through 1 °C.
Units of heat:
W, WR = Work, work of friction
F, FR = Force, frictional force
n = Mass
y = Acceleration due to gravity
h = Lift height
c = Spring constant
s = Spring travel, travel

J kJ kWh kcal kpm

1 J 1 0.001 2.78 10 2.39 . 10-4 0.10197
. -7

1 kJ 1000 1 2.78 . 10-4 0.239 101.97

1 kWh 3.6 . 106 3600 1 860 3.67 . 105
1 kcal 4186.8 4.1868 .
1.163 10-3 1 426.93
1 kpm 9.8067 9.8067 . 10-3 2.72 . 10-6 2.34 . 10-3 1
Foreign units:
1 BTU (British Thermal Unit) = 1055.06 J = 2.39 . 10-4 kWh = 0.252 kcal
1 Therm = 100,000 BTU = 1.055 . 108 J = 29.3 kWh = 25,200 kcal

15,5 °C

14,4 °C

1 kilogram of water

1 kilocalorie

18
What are power, energy and heat flux?

P=W
t
P = power, W = work, t = time

Power is work or energy referred to a If the time span is allowed for when doing
­specific time. work, exerting energy or supplying quanti-
ties of heat, we speak of power.
Conversion of units for power, energy and heat flux
SI unit “Watt” (W)

W kW kcal/h kpm/s PS
1 W 1 0.001 0.860 0.10197 1.36 . 10-3
1 kW 1000 1 860 101.97 1.36
1 kcal/h 1.163 1.163 . 10-3 1 0.1186 1.58 . 10-3
1 kpm/s 9.8067 9.8067 . 10-3 8.43 1 0.0133
1 PS 735.48 0.735 632.4 75.19 1

19
What are density and relative density?
The term density means the quotient of T 0 °C P 1,013 bar
the mass of a substance divided by the
volume.

In addition, the density of a substance can

be determined on the basis of its relative
molecular mass Mr and on the basis of mo-
lar volume of 22.4 m3. T 0 °C P 1,013 bar
Since the molar volume refers to the stand- T 0 °C P 1,013 bar
ard state, we thus obtain the molar den-
sity.

The term density ratio dv of a gas means Density ratio:

the ratio of its density to that of air in the dv <1 = lighter than air
same state conditions. dv >1 = heavier than air

density of the gas (in normal state)

density of the air 1.293 kg/m3 (in normal state)

ρ, ρ(n) = Density, normal density

M = Mass
V = Volume
dv = Density ratio
Mr = Molecular mass

20
What are quantity of heat, calorific value, gross calorific value and
Wobbe index?
Gross calorific value and calorific value of conventional gases
Town gas Natural gas L Natural gas H Propane Butane
Gross cal. val. Ho(n) kWh/m3 5.48 9.78 11.46 28.28 37.22
Cal. value Hu(n) kWh/m3 4.87 8.83 10.35 25.99 34.31
Ratio Ho(n)/Hu(n) 1.13 1.11 1.11 1.09 1.08
Hu(n) = Calorific value referred to normal state
Ho(n) = Gross calorific value referred to normal state

The calorific value Hu(n) of a gas is the
heat released in the case of complete com-
bustion of one cubic metre of gas in normal
state if the start and end products have a
temperature of 25 °C and the water vapour
in the waste gas remains in vaporous state.
The gross calorific value Ho(n) is defined
in the same way as the calorific value Hu(n)
but the water vapour produced is assumed
to be liquid. The gross calorific value thus
comprises the calorific value Hu(n) plus the
heat of condensation r of the water vapour
produced during combustion.
The Wobbe index is used to assess the
thermal load of burners since, besides the
calorific value, the density of the medium
also has a substantial influence on the en-
ergy throughput.
With constant Wobbe index, the thermal
load of a burner is virtually constant.
Wo = Wobbe index referred to gross
calorific value
Wu = Wobbe index referred to calorific
value
dv = Density ratio
Ho = Gross calorific value
Hu = Calorific value

21
Summary of electrical formulae
Ohm’s law Connecting resistors
Series connection

U=I.R I
R1 R2 R3

U
Rg = R1 + R2 + ... + Rn

I=U
R Parallel connection
The following applies to two resistors:
I1
R1

R=U
I2
R2

I Ig
U
U = Voltage (V)
I = Current (A)
R = Resistance (Ω)

Resistivity The following applies to three or more

resistors:
I1
R1
I2
R2
I3
R3
Ig

Copper: χ = 56 m/Ω mm2

1 = ρ = 0.0178 Ω mm2/m G = G1 + G2 + G3 + ...
χ

Aluminium: χ = 36 m/Ω mm2

1 = ρ = 0.0278 Ω mm2/m
χ

I = Length of the conductor (m)

χ = Conductivity (m/Ω mm2)
ρ = Resistivity (Ω mm2/m)
A = Cross-section of the conductor (mm2)
Calculating power in the case of DC
voltage

P=U.I

I=P
U

U=P
I
U = Voltage (V)
I = Current (A)
P = Power (VA) (Watt)

22
Summary of electrical formulae
Voltage drop Direct current

Alternating current

Three-phase current

Uv = Voltage drop (V)

U = Mains voltage (V)
A = Cross-section (mm2)
I = Total current (A)
P = Total power (W)
l = Length of the conductor (m)
χ = Conductivity (m/Ω mm2/m)
Resistances in the alternating current Inductive reactance
circuit
XI = ω . L ω=2.π.f

XL = Inductive reactance (Ω)

L = Inductance (H)
I = Current (A)
ω, f = Angular frequency, frequency (1/s)
Capacitive reactance

ω=2.π.f

XC = Capacitive reactance (Ω)

L = Capacitance (F)
I = Current (A)
ω, f = Angular frequency, frequency (1/s)

23
 Summary of electrical formulae
Various values of sinusoidal quantities

I = Is . sin ω t lar = 0.637 . ls

U, I
Us, Is
t

0° 180° 360°

U = Us . sin ω t rms

ω=2.πt rms

f=1
t I, U = Instantaneous values (A, V)
Is, Us = Peak values (A, V)
Irms, Urms = RMS values (A, V)
t = 1f Iar, Uar = Arithmetic mean values (A, V)
f = Frequency (1/s)
ω = Angular frequency (1/s)
t = Period
Uar = 0.637 . Us

Half-wave rectifier Three-phase rectifier

Uar = 0.318 . US Uar = 0.827 . Us Us

U U
Us

0° 180°
t
360° Urms = 0.5 . Us Urms = 0.841 . Us 0° 180°
t
360°

Full-wave rectifier

U
Uar = 0.637 . Us U Us+
Us
t2

0° 180° 360° t1
t Urms = 0.707 . Us rms
Us-

24
Summary of electrical formulae
Making and breaking operations
with inductance L T = Time constant (s)
T = t = Time (s)
R
e = Base of the natural logarithm
R u, i = Instantaneous values of current and
Current after voltage (V, A)
L making U, I = Initial or final values of current and
i = I . (1 - e - Tt ) voltage (V, A)

Current after
with capacitance
breaking
i = I . e - Tt )
R
C

T =R.C

Charging current
i=I.e-t T

Charging voltage
u = U . (1 - e - t ) T

Discharging
voltage
u = U . e - Tt

Calculating the power in the AC circuit S = Apparent power (VA)

P = Active power (W)
capacitive inductive P = S . cos ϕ Q = Reactive power (VA)
UXC Z = Impedance (Ω)
R = Active resistance (Ω)
X = Reactance (Ω)
U Q = S . sin ϕ
Uw, Ub = Active voltage, reactive
UR UR, UW
voltage (V)
ϕ lw, Ib = Active current, reactive
I I S = � P2 + Q2 current (A)
sin ϕ, cos ϕ = Power factors

QC Ql Uw = U . cos ϕ
S=U.I

Ub = U . sin ϕ
cos ϕ = R
S P P S
Z
ϕ ϕ

U = � U2 + U2b
sin ϕ = X
Z

IC Il, IB Iw = I . cos ϕ
Z = � R2 + X2

IR IR, IW
Ib = I . sin ϕ
I I
ϕ
I = � Iw2 + Ib2

25
Summary of electrical formulae
Electrical power (output) of motors

Direct current
Power generated Current consumption
P1 = U . I . η [W]

Single-phase alternating current

Power generated Current consumption
P1 = U . I cos ϕ . η [W]

Three-phase current
Power generated Current consumption

P1 = 1.73 . U . I cos ϕ . η [A]

P1 = Mechanical power generated at the shaft of the motor in accordance with the rating plate
P2 = Electrical power consumed

Three-phase current
Efficiency Current consumption

P = Active power (W)

U = Voltage (V)
I = Current (A)
cos ϕ = Power factor
η = Efficiency

Transformer
ü = Transformation ratio
U1 = Input voltage in V
U2 = Output voltage in V
I1 = Input current in A
I2 = Output current in A
N1 = Number of turns of the input winding
N2 = Number of turns of the output winding
Z1 = Input-circuit AC resistance or impe-
dance in Ω
Z2 = Output-circuit AC resistance or impe-
dance in Ω Transformer

Duty type:
Continuous duty or intermittent duty
In the case of the latter, the following ap-
plies:
Duty ratio
15 %, 20 %, 33 %, duty
(27 s, 36 s, 59 s in 3 min)

Duty ratio

or continuous duty.

26
27
Enclosure in accordance with DIN EN 60529 (IP)

Enclosure DIN EN 60529 – IP 4 4

Designation

DIN number

Code letter

First code digit (see Table 1)

Second code digit (see Table 2)

Degrees of protection for shock-hazard protection and protection against

ingress of solid foreign bodies
Degrees of protection for the first code digit

First code digit Degree of protection (shock-hazard protection and protection against
ingress of solid foreign bodies)

0 No special protection

1 Protection against ingress of solid foreign bodies with a diameter

exceeding 50 mm (large foreign bodies) 1)
No protection against intentional access, e.g. by hand, but protection
against contact with large areas of the body

2 Protection against ingress of solid foreign bodies with a diameter

exceeding 12 mm (medium-sized foreign bodies) 1)
Protection against contact by fingers or similar objects

3 Protection against ingress of solid foreign bodies with a diameter

exceeding 2.5 mm (small foreign bodies) 1) 2)
Protection against contact with tools or wires, etc. with a thickness
exceeding 2.5 mm

4 Protection against ingress of solid foreign bodies with a diameter

exceeding 1 mm (granular foreign bodies) 1) 2)
Protection against contact with tools and wires, etc. with a thickness
exceeding 1 mm

5 Protection against harmful dust deposits. Ingress of dust is not entirely

prevented but the dust may not penetrate in such large quantities as to
impair the mode of operation of the equipment (dust-protected). 3)
Complete shock-hazard protection

6 Protection against ingress of dust (dust-tight)

Complete shock-hazard protection
1) In the case of equipment of degrees of protection 1 to 4, uniformly or non-uniformly shaped foreign bodies with three perpendicular
dimensions larger than the corresponding numerical diameter values are prevented from ingress.
2) For degrees of protection 3 and 4, application of this table to equipment with drainage holes or cooling openings is the responsibili-
ty of the relevant, responsible technical committee.
3) For degree of protection 5, application of this table to equipment with drainage holes is the responsibility of the relevant, responsi­
ble technical committee.

28
Enclosure in accordance with DIN EN 60529 (IP)
Degrees of protection for protection against ingress of water
Degrees of protection for the second code digit

Second code digit Degree of protection (protection against ingress of water)

0 No special protection

1 Protection against dripping water falling vertically.

It may not have a harmful effect (drip water).

2 Protection against dripping water falling perpendicularly.

It may not have a harmful effect in the case of equipment (housing)
inclined up to 15° with respect to its normal position (obliquely inci-
dent drip water).

3 Protection against water falling at any angle up to 60° with respect

to the vertical.
It may not have a harmful effect (spray water).

4 Protection against water splashing from all directions against the

equipment (housing).
It may not have a harmful effect (spray water).

5 Protection against a water jet from a nozzle aimed from all direc-
tions against the equipment (housing).
It may not have a harmful effect (hose water).

6 Protection against heavy seas or strong water jets.

Harmful quantities of water may not penetrate the equipment (hous-
ing) (conditions on ships’ decks).

7 Protection against water if the equipment (housing) is immersed in

water under pressure and time conditions.
Harmful quantities of water may not penetrate (immersion).

8 The equipment (housing) is suitable for continuous submersion in

water under conditions described by the manufacturer (submer-
sion). 1)
1)  his degree of protection normally means an air-tight sealed item of equipment. However, in the case of certain types of equipment,
T
water may penetrate if it does not have a harmful effect.

29
Whitworth pipe threads for threaded pipes and fittings
Parallel internal thread and tapered external thread, thread dimensions

1 Field of application If necessary, a suitable sealant may be

This Standard applies to connections of used in the thread in order to ensure a tight
parallel internal threads to valves, fittings connection.
and threaded flanges, etc. with tapered ex-
ternal threads. Dimensions in mm

2 Dimensions, designations
2.1 Parallel internal thread (abbreviated code Rp)
H
6

R
H1
H

R
27° 30'
H
6

D1

D2

D
The profile of the parallel internal thread complies
with that in accordance with DIN ISO 228, Part 1.
Designation of the parallel Whitworth pipe internal
H = 0.960 491 P
thread with abbreviated code Rp ½:
H1 = 0.640 327 P
R = 0.137 329 P Pipe thread ISO 7-1 – Rp ½

2.2 Tapered external thread (abbreviated code R) (taper 1 : 16)

d

a
Reference plane
l1 (Measuring orifice)
r
h1
h

27° 30'

P
d2

d1
d

Reference plane
(Measuring orifice)
°
90

Thread axis

h = 0.960 237 P Designations of a tapered Whitworth pipe

h1 = 0.640 327 P external thread with abbreviated code R ½:
r = 0.137 278 P Pipe thread ISO 7-1 – R ½

30
Nominal dimensions
Abbreviated code Nominal Distance Outer Flank Core Number of Thread Useful
diameter from refer- diameter diameter diameter Pitch threads per depth Rounding thread
of the pipe ence plane 25.4 mm length
External Internal
thread thread a d = D d2 = D2 d1 = D1 P Z h1 = H1 r = H I1
R 1/16 Rp 1/16 3 4.0 7.723 7.142 6.561 0.907 28 0.581 0.125 6.5
R 1/8 Rp 1/8 6 4.0 9.728 9.147 8.566 0.907 28 0.581 0.125 6.5
R 1/4 Rp 1/4 8 6.0 13.157 12.301 11.445 1.337 19 0.856 0.184 9.7
R 3/8 Rp 3/8 10 6.4 16.662 15.806 14.950 1.337 19 0.856 0.184 10.1
R 1/2 Rp 1/2 15 8.2 20.955 19.793 18.631 1.814 14 1.162 0.249 13.2
R /4
3 Rp 3/4 20 9.5 26.441 25.279 24.117 1.814 14 1.162 0.249 14.5
R 1 Rp 1 25 10.4 33.249 31.770 30.291 2.309 11 1.479 0.317 16.8
R 11/4 Rp 11/4 32 12.7 41.910 40.431 38.952 2.309 11 1.479 0.317 19.1
R 11/2 Rp 11/2 40 12.7 47.803 46.324 44.845 2.309 11 1.479 0.317 19.1
R 2 Rp 2 50 15.9 59.614 58.135 56.656 2.309 11 1.479 0.317 23.4
R 21/2 Rp 21/2 65 17.5 75.184 73.705 72.226 2.309 11 1.479 0.317 26.7
R 3 Rp 3 80 20.6 87.844 86.405 84.926 2.309 11 1.479 0.317 29.8
R 4 Rp 4 100 25.4 113.030 111.551 110.072 2.309 11 1.479 0.317 35.8
R 5 Rp 5 125 28.6 138.430 136.951 135.472 2.309 11 1.479 0.317 40.1
R 6 Rp 6 150 28.6 163.830 162.351 160.872 2.309 11 1.479 0.317 40.1

Maximum useful thread length,

but at least useful thread length l1

Reference plane 3) e Thread

(Measurement run-out
plane)
d

a c
a = Distance between reference plane and start of
b Increase in length thread
of thread engage- b = Mean thread engagement zone with tool
ment by tool c = Increase in length of thread engagement, caused
Length of thread engagement of tightening
internal thread, maximum dimension, by positive deviations of the internal thread
screwed on by hand l1 e = Incomplete thread length at the thread tip owing
to negative deviation of the semifinished product

1) A part with internal thread must allow a pipe to be screwed in to thread length l1 with maximum dimension of a.
2) In the case of unobstructed thread run-out, the useful thread length l2 of the internal thread may not be less than 80 % of l1 with
minimum dimension of a.
3) The dimensions in the reference plane (dimension plane) comply with the nominal dimensions in accordance with the Nominal
dimensions table.

31
 Permitted deviations for internal threads
ermitted deviations
P c
for thread, outer Permitted deviations
Abbreviated flank and core
code diameter 4) Turns
Rp 1/16 ± 0.071 ± 11/4 ± 1.1
Rp 1/
8 ± 0.071 ± 11/4 ± 1.1
Rp 1/
4 ± 0.104 ± 11/4 ± 1.7
Rp 3/
8 ± 0.104 ± 11/4 ± 1.7
Rp 1/
2 ± 0.142 ± 11/4 ± 2.3
Rp 3/
4 ± 0.142 ± 11/4 ± 2.3
Rp 1 ± 0.180 ± 11/4 ± 2.9
Rp 11/4 ± 0.180 ± 11/4 ± 2.9
Rp 11/2 ± 0.180 ± 11/4 ± 2.9
Rp 2 ± 0.180 ± 11/4 ± 2.9
Rp 21/2 ± 0.217 ± 11/2 ± 3.5
Rp 3 ± 0.217 ± 11/2 ± 3.5
Rp 4 ± 0.217 ± 11/2 ± 3.5
Rp 5 ± 0.217 ± 11/2 ± 3.5
Rp 6 ± 0.217 ± 11/2 ± 3.5

Permitted deviations, limits of size and thread engagement zones for external threads
a b l1
Permitted deviations Limits of size Threads With max. With min.
Abbreviated dimension dimension
code Turns Max. dim. Min. dim. ≈ of a of a
R 1/16 ± 0.9 4.9 3.1 23/4 2.5 7.4 5.6
R 1/8 ± 1 ± 0.9 4.9 3.1 23/4 2.5 7.4 5.6
R 1/4 ± 1 ± 1.3 7.3 4.7 23/4 3.7 11.0 8.4
R 3/
8 ± 1 ± 1.3 7.7 5.1 23/4 3.7 11.4 8.8
R 1/
2 ± 1 ± 1.8 10.0 6.4 23/4 5.0 15.0 11.4
R 3/
4 ± 1 ± 1.8 11.3 7.7 23/4 5.0 16.3 12.7
R 1 ± 1 ± 2.3 12.7 8.1 23/4 6.4 19.1 14.5
R 11/4 ± 1 ± 2.3 15.0 10.4 23/4 6.4 21.4 16.8
R 11/2 ± 1 ± 2.3 15.0 10.4 23/4 6.4 21.4 16.8
R 2 ± 1 ± 2.3 18.2 13.6 31/4 7.5 25.7 21.1
R 21/2 ± 11/2 ± 3.5 21.0 14.0 4 9.2 30.2 23.2
R 3 ± 11/2 ± 3.5 24.1 17.1 4 9.2 33.3 26.3
R 4 ± 11/2 ± 3.5 28.9 21.9 31/2 10.4 39.3 32.3
R 5 ± 11/2 ± 3.5 32.1 25.1 5 11.5 43.6 36.6
R 6 ± 11/2 ± 3.5 32.1 25.1 5 11.5 43.6 36.6

32
33
Flange dimensions in accordance with DIN
DN Dimen- PN 10 PN 16 PN 25 PN 40 PN 64 PN 100
sions EN 1092 EN 1092 EN 1092 EN 1092 EN 1092 EN 1092
D 115 115 115 115 140 140
K 85 85 85 85 100 100

25 n 4 4 4 4 4 4
Thread M 12 M 12 M 12 M 12 M 16 M 16
d2 14 14 14 14 18 18
d4 68 68 68 68 68 68
D 140 140 140 140 – –
K 100 100 100 100 – –

32 n 4 4 4 4 – –
Thread M 16 M 16 M 16 M 16 – –
d2 18 18 18 18 – –
d4 78 78 78 78 – –
D 150 150 150 150 170 170
K 110 110 110 110 125 125

40 n 4 4 4 4 4 4
Thread M 16 M 16 M 16 M 16 M 20 M 20
d2 18 18 18 18 22 22
d4 88 88 88 88 88 88
D 165 165 165 165 185 195
K 125 125 125 125 135 145

50 n 4 4 4 4 4 4
Thread M 16 M 16 M 16 M 16 M 20 M 24
d2 18 18 18 18 22 26
d4 102 102 102 102 102 102
D 185 185 185 185 205 220
K 145 145 145 145 150 170

65 n 4 4 4 4 8 8
Thread M 16 M 16 M 16 M 16 M 20 M 24
d2 18 18 18 18 22 26
d4 122 122 122 122 122 122
D 200 200 200 200 215 230
K 160 160 160 160 170 180

80 n 8 8 8 8 8 8
Thread M 16 M 16 M 16 M 16 M 20 M 24
d2 18 18 18 18 22 26
d4 138 138 138 138 138 138

Number n

d2 DN Thread

d4
Øk
ØD

34
Flange dimensions in accordance with DIN
DN Dimen- PN 10 PN 16 PN 25 PN 40 PN 64 PN 100
sions EN 1092 EN 1092 EN 1092 EN 1092 EN 1092 EN 1092
D 220 220 235 235 250 265
K 180 180 190 190 200 210

100 n 8 8 8 8 8 8
Thread M 16 M 16 M 20 M 20 M 24 M 27
d2 18 18 22 22 26 30
d4 158 158 162 162 162 162
D 250 250 270 270 295 315
K 210 210 220 220 240 250

125 n 8 8 8 8 8 8
Thread M 16 M 16 M 24 M 24 M 27 M 30
d2 18 18 26 26 30 33
d4 188 188 188 188 188 188
D 285 285 300 300 345 355
K 240 240 250 250 280 290

150 n 8 8 8 8 8 12
Thread M 20 M 20 M 24 M 24 M 30 M 30
d2 22 22 26 26 33 33
d4 212 212 218 218 218 218
D 340 340 360 375 415 430
K 295 295 310 320 345 360

200 n 8 12 12 12 12 12
Thread M 20 M 20 M 24 M 27 M 33 M 33
d2 22 22 26 30 36 36
d4 268 268 278 285 285 285
D 395 405 425 450 470 505
K 350 355 370 385 400 430

250 n 12 12 12 12 12 12
Thread M 20 M 20 M 27 M 30 M 33 M 36
d2 22 26 30 33 36 39
d4 320 320 335 345 345 345
D 445 460 485 515 530 585
K 400 410 430 450 460 500

300 n 12 12 16 16 16 16
Thread M 20 M 24 M 27 M 30 M 33 M 29
d2 22 26 30 33 36 42
d4 370 378 395 410 410 410

Pressure levels in accordance with DIN

1 1.6 2.5 4 6 10 16 25 40 63 100 160 250 400

The values entered in the table represent DIN 2401, Sheet 2, the permitted operating
the PN graduation and refer to an operat- pressure may also be applied up to 120 °C.
ing state at 20 °C. In the case of ferrous
materials in accordance with the table in

35
Flow velocities in pipes

(1 )
)

3)

)
12 07,1

,7

,3
9,
31

07
6)

3)

3)

5)

(4 )
1)

5)

80 ,3)
5)
40 7,2

5
Pipe inside diameter Ø [mm]
3,

7,

2,

8,

3,

4,

2,

DN 0 (1
0

(1

(2
)
,9

(1

(1

(2

(2

DN (3

(5

DN (7
(8
)

0
(7

(9

10
10

15

20

25

32

50

65

15

20

)
6

,4
Nominal diameter DN

DN
DN

DN

DN

DN

DN

DN

DN

DN

DN

DN

DN

09 60
(2
100

)
,7
0
30 25
80

(3
DN DN
0
60
50

40

30

20
Flow velocity v in m/s

10

6
5

1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 8001000 2000 3000 6000 10000

Flow rate V' [m3/h (n)]

Note: The inside diameter figures correspond to the most popular dimensions for gas pipes stipulated in Stand-
ards DIN 2440 and DIN 2450. In the case of other cross-sections, the flow velocities will differ accordingly.

36
Pressure loss in pipes

10
15

5
DN

20

25
DN

DN

32

2
40
DN

50
DN

1
65
DN
Pressure loss Δp [mbar/m]

80
DN

0
10
DN

5
0,5
12
DN

0
15
DN

0
DN

20
0,2
DN
0,1

0,05
0,04
0,03

0,02

0,01
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 8001000 2000 3000 6000 10000
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 8001000 2000 3000 6000 10000
3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 80 100 2000 3000 6000
4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 8001000 2000 3000 6000

 = Natural gas  = Town gas  = LPG  = Air Flow rate V' [m3/h (n)]
Note: The upper end points of the curves correspond to a flow velocity of 30 m/s.

37
Volume of pipes
DN Pipe Pipe Volume of the pipes in litres
outside inside
Ø Ø Pipe length in m
mm mm mm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
15 21.25 15.75 0.19 0.39 0.59 0.78 0.98 1.17 1.37 1.65 1.76 1.95
20 26.75 21.25 0.36 0.72 1.08 1.44 1.80 2.16 2.52 2.88 3.24 3.60
25 33.50 27.00 0.57 1.44 1.71 2.28 2.85 3.42 3.99 4.56 5.13 5.70
32 42.25 35.75 1.00 2.00 3.01 4.01 5.02 6.02 7.02 8.03 9.04 10.04
40 48.25 41.25 1.34 2.68 4.02 5.36 6.70 8.04 9.38 10.72 12.06 13.40
40 50.00 42.50 2.17 4.34 6.51 8.68 10.85 13.02 15.19 17.36 19.53 21.70
50 60.30 53.00 2.33 4.67 7.00 9.33 11.67 14.00 16.33 18.66 21.00 23.33
65 76.10 70.30 3.88 7.76 11.64 15.53 19.41 23.30 27.17 31.10 35.00 38.80
80 88.90 82.50 5.35 10.70 16.10 21.45 26.75 32.10 37.45 42.80 48.15 53.50
100 101.60 94.40 7.00 14.00 21.00 28.00 35.00 42.00 49.00 58.00 63.00 70.00
100 114.30 107.10 9.01 18.02 27.03 36.04 45.05 54.06 63.07 72.08 81.09 90.10
125 139.70 131.70 13.62 27.24 40.86 54.48 68.10 81.75 95.34 108.96 122.58 136.20
150 168.30 159.30 19.93 39.86 59.76 79.72 99.65 119.58 139.51 159.44 179.37 199.30
175 193.70 182.90 26.27 52.54 78.81 105.08 131.35 157.62 183.89 210.16 236.43 262.70
200 219.10 207.30 33.75 67.50 101.25 135.00 168.75 202.50 236.25 270.00 303.75 337.50
225 244.50 231.90 42.24 84.48 126.72 168.96 211.20 253.44 295.68 337.92 380.16 422.40
250 273.00 250.40 53.26 106.52 159.78 213.04 266.30 319.56 372.82 426.08 479.34 532.60
300 323.90 309.70 75.33 150.66 226.00 301.32 376.65 451.96 527.31 602.64 677.97 753.30
325 355.60 339.60 90.58 181.18 271.74 362.32 452.90 543.48 634.06 724.64 815.22 905.80

38
Dimensions of pipes
Pipe table
Medium-duty threaded pipes made of steel in accordance with DIN 2440

Nominal Outside Wall Inside Unobstruc- Volume Surface Weight

iameter diameter thickness diameter ted cross-
d area of the
section smooth
pipe
Inch mm da ≈ mm s mm di ≈ mm AF ≈ cm2 V ≈ l/m Ao ≈ m2/m ≈ kg/m
/8�
1 6 10.20 2.00 6.20 0.30 0.030 0.032 0.407
1/4� 8 13.50 2.35 8.80 0.61 0.061 0.042 0.650
3/8� 10 17.20 2.35 12.50 1.23 0.123 0.054 0.853
1/2� 15 21.25 2.65 15.75 2.02 0.202 0.067 1.22
3/4� 20 26.75 2.65 21.25 3.66 0.366 0.084 1.58
1� 25 33.50 3.25 27.00 5.80 0.580 0.106 2.44
11/4� 32 42.25 3.25 35.75 10.12 1.012 0.133 3.14
11/2� 40 48.25 3.25 41.25 13.72 1.372 0.152 3.61
2� 50 60.30 3.65 53.00 22.06 2.206 0.189 5.10

Pipe table
Precision steel pipes in accordance with DIN 2391 (ERMETO pipes)
Outside Wall Inside Unobstruc- Volume Surface Weight
iameter
d thickness diameter ted cross- area per 100 m
section length
da mm s mm di mm AF ≈ cm2 V ≈ l/m Ao ≈ m2/m ≈ kg
4 0.5 3 0.07 0.007 0.012 4
6 1.0 4 0.13 0.013 0.019 12
8 1.5 5 0.20 0.020 0.025 24
10 1.5 7 0.39 0.04 0.031 31
12 1.5 9 0.64 0.06 0.038 39
15 1.5 12 1.13 0.11 0.047 50
18 1.5 15 1.77 0.18 0.057 61
22 2.0 18 2.55 0.26 0.069 99
28 2.0 24 4.52 0.45 0.088 128
35 2.0 31 7.55 0.76 0.11 163

39
 Colour coding for pipes in accordance with DIN 2403
low medium
F Group Colour marks in accord- Closest
ance with DIN 6164, Part 1 colour specimen
RAL colour chart
RAL 840 HR
Water 1 Green RAL 6018
Water vapour/steam 2 Red RAL 3000
Air 3 Grey RAL 7001
Yellow RAL 1021
Flammable gases 4 or yellow RAL 1021
with additional colour red RAL 3000
Yellow RAL 1021
Non-flammable gases 5 with additional colour black RAL 9005
or black RAL 9005
Acids 6 Orange RAL 2003
Chemicals 7 Violet RAL 4001
Brown RAL 8001
Flammable liquids 8 or brown RAL 8001
with additional colour red RAL 3000
Brown RAL 8001
Non-flammable liquids 9 with additional colour black RAL 9005
or black RAL 9005
Oxygen 0 Blue RAL 5015

Greek letters
α β γ δ ε ζ η ϑ θ ι χ λ µ
Alpha Beta Gamma Delta Epsilon Zeta Eta Theta Jota Kappa Lambda My

ν ξ ο π ρ σ ς τ υ ϕ χ ψ ω
Ny Xi Omikron Pi Rho Sigma Tau Ypsilon Phi Chi Psi Omega

Α Β Γ ∆ Ε Ζ Η Θ Ι Κ Λ Μ
Alpha Beta Gamma Delta Epsilon Zeta Eta Theta Jota Kappa Lambda My

Ν Ξ Ο Π Ρ Σ Τ Υ Φ Χ Ψ Ω
Ny Xi Omikron Pi Rho Sigma Tau Ypsilon Phi Chi Psi Omega

Designation of decimal multiple units

Prefix Abbreviated Multiple Power Name Prefix Abbreviated Power Fraction Name
symbol symbol
Deca da 10 101 Ten Deci d 10-1 0.1 Tenth
Hecto h 100 102 Hundred Centi c 10-2 0.01 Hundredth
Kilo k 1,000 103 Thousand Milli m 10-3 0.001 Thousandth
Mega M 1,000,000 106 Million Micro µ 10-6 0.000 001 Millionth
Giga G 1,000,000,000 109 Billion 1) Nano n 10-9 0.000 000 001 Billionth 1)
Tera T 1,000,000,000,000 1012 Trillion 1) Pico p 10-12 0.000 000 000 001 Trillionth 1)
1) There is a difference in usage between British and American English: a billion is one million million in British English, whereas it is one thousand million in American English; in the US, a trillion is
1,000,000,000,000, whereas it is 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 in Britain.

40
 Symbols used in formulae and units used for physical quantities
A Ampere J Joule
at Technical atmosphere lb Pound
atm Physical atmosphere m Metre
BTU British Thermal Unit mile Mile
bar Bar mol Gram-molecule
C Coulomb N Newton
cal Calorie <N <Norm
cu Cubic p Pond
dyn Dyn <P <Poise
erg Erg pound Pound
F Farad psi Pound per square inch
ft Foot psf Pound per square foot
g Gram s Second
grd Degree Celsius sq. Square
h Hour V Volt
hr Hour W Watt
Hg Mercury column WS Water column
Hz Hertz Ω Ohm
in Inch K Kelvin
inch of mercury Inch mercury column

Quantity Symbol used MKS system Unit in CGS system

in formulae technical (absolute system One MKS unit is:
system of units of units) technical unit CGS unit
Length I, L m m cm 1 102
Area F (A) m2 m2 cm2 1 104
Volume V m3 m3 cm3 1 106
Time t, z s s s 1 1
Velocity v, u, w m/s m/s cm/s 1 102
Angular velocity ω 1/s2 1/s2 1/s2 1 1
Acceleration b m/s2 m/s2 cm/s2 1 102
Angular accel. ω 1/s2 1/s2 1/s2 1 1
Mass m kg kp s2/m g 0.10197 103
Density ρ kg/m3 kp s2/m4 g/cm3 0.10197 10-3
Weight, force G, P kg m/s2 = N kp g cm/cm2 = dyn 0.10197 105
Specific weight γ kg m/s2 = N/m3 kp/m3 g/cm2 s2 0.10197 10-1
Pressure p kg m/s2 = N/m2 kp/m2 g/cm2 = dyn cm2 0.10197 10
Work, energy A, W, Q kg m/s2 = Nm kp m g cm2/s2 = erg 0.10197 1017
Quantity of heat = Ws = J
Power N, P kg m2/s3 = Nm/s kp m/s g cm2/s3 = erg/s 0.10197
= W = J/s 107
Moment of inertia Ο, J kg m2 kp m2 g cm2 0.10197 107
Moment M kg m2/s2 = Nm kp m g cm2/s2 0.10197 107
Compressibility χ m s2/kg m2/kp cm s2/g 9.80665 10-1
Surface tension σ kg/s2 kp/m g/s2 0.10197 103
Dynamic viscosity η kg/m s kp s/m2 g/cm s = P 0.10197 10
Kinematic viscosity ν m2/s m2/s cm2/s = St 1 104
Example for conversion: 1 kg/m3 = 0.10197 kp s2/m4 = 10-3 g/cm3 – CGS = cm-g-s system, MKS = m-kp-s system

41
Conversion of quantities for atmospheric pressure
Height above sea level Pressure
torr mbar = hPa
m
0 760 1013

200 742 989

400 724 966
600 707 943
800 690 921
1000 673 899

1200 657 876

1400 641 854
1600 626 835
1800 611 851
2000 596 795

2200 581 775

2400 567 756
2600 553 737
2800 539 719
3000 525 701

3200 512 684

3400 499 665
3600 487 650
3800 475 632
4000 463 616

5000 405 540

10,000 198 264
20,000 41 55

42
 Pressure units
Unit symbol Name of unit Pa = N/m2 hPa = mbar bar kp/m2 ^
= mm wc m wc kp/cm2 = at p/cm2
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 Pascal 1 0.01 0.00001 0.10197 0.0001 0.00001 0.0102
1 mbar Millibar 100 1 0.001 10.2 0.0102 0.001 1.02
1 bar Bar 100 000 1000
10.1972 1.01972 1019.721 10197.2
1 kp/m2 ^
= 1 mm wc Millimetre water column
9.80665 – – 1 0.001 0.0001 0.1
1 m wc Metre water column 9806.65 98.07 0.09807 1000 1 0.1 100
1 kp/m2 = 1 at Technical atmosphere 98066.5 980.67 0.098067 10 000 10 1 1000
1 atm Physical atmosphere 101325 1013.25 1.01325 10332.3 10.3323 1.03323 1033.23
1 torr = 1 mm Hg Millimetre
mercury column 133.322 1.33 0.00133 13.5951 0.013595 0.00136 1.35951
1 lb/in2 (psi) Pound-force
per square inch 6894.76 69.95 0.06895 703.07 0.70307 0.07031 70.307
1 lb/ft2 (psf) Pound-force
per square foot 47.8803 0.48 0.00048 4.88234 0.00488 0.00048 0.48824
1 in Hg Inch mercury column
3386.39 33.86 0.03368 345.316 0.34532 0.03453 34.5316

43
Pressure units (continued)
Unit symbol Name of unit atm torr = mm Hg lb/in2 (psi) lb/ft2 (psf) in Hg
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 Pascal – 0.0075 0.00014 0.02089 0.000295
1 bar Bar 0.98692 750.062 14.5037 2088.54 29.53
1 kp/m2 =
^ 1 mm wc Millimetre water column – 0.07356 0.00142 0,20482 0.0029
1 m wc Metre water column 0.09678 73.5559 1.42233 204.816 2.8959
1 kp/m2 = 1 at Technical atmosphere 0.96784 735.559 14.2233 2048.16 28.959
1 atm Physical atmosphere 1 760 14.696 2116.22 29.9213
1 torr = 1 mm Hg Millimetre
mercury column 0.00132 1 0.01934 2.78449 0.03937
1 lbf/in2 (psi) Pound-force
per square inch 0.06805 51.7149 1 144 2.03602
1 lbf/ft2 (psf) Pound-force
per square foot 0.00047 0.35913 0.00694 1 0.01414
1 in Hg Inch mercury column 0.03342 25.4 0.49115 70.7262 1
 Conversion factors
Temperature

Temperature ϑ °Celsius T Kelvin t °Fahrenheit r °Rankine

Degree Celsius °C ϑ T - 273.15 5 (t - 32) 5 (r - 491.67)
9 9
Degree Kelvin K ϑ + 273.15 T 5 (t - 455.67) 5.r
9 9
Degree Fahrenheit °F 9
5 ϑ + 32
9 T - 459.67
5 t r - 459.67

Degree Rankine °R 9 5 ϑ + 491.67

9 T
5 t + 459.67 r

Density
Density g/cm3 lb/cu. inch lb/cu. foot cwt/cu. yard
1 g/cm3 1 0,03613 62.428 15.0496
1 pound/cu. inch 27.68 1 1728 416.57
1 pound/cu. foot 0.01602 5.79 . 10-4 1 0.2411
1 cwt/cu. yard 0.06645 2.4 . 10-3 4.148 1

Time units
s ns 1 µs ms min
1 s 1 109 106 103 16.66 . 10-3
1 ns 10-9 1 10-3 10-6 16.66 . 10-12
1 µs 10-6 103 1 10-3 16.66 . 10-9
1 ms 10-3 106 103 1 16.66 . 10-6
1 min 60 60 . 109 6 . 106 6 . 103 1

Force units (force due to weight)

N2) kN MM [kp] [dyn]
1 N 1 10-3 10-6 0.102 105
1 kN 103 1 10-3 0.102 . 103 108
1 MM 106 103 1 0.102 . 106 1011
[1 kp] 9.81 9.81 . 10-3 9.81 . 10-6 1 9.81 . 105
[1 dyn] 10-5 10-8 10-11 0.102 . 10-5 1
2) 1 N = 1 kg m/s2 = 1 Newton

Weights, mass
Unit Name of unit g kg t oz lb sh cwt cwt sh tn Lg tn
symbol
1 g Gram 1 0.001 – 0.03527 0.0022 0.00002 – – –
1 kg Kilogram 1000 1 0.001 35.274 2.20462 0.022 0.01968 0.0011 0.00098
1 t Metric ton – 1000 1 35274 2204.62 22.0462 19.6841 1.10231 0.9842
1 oz Ounce 28.3495 0.02835 – 1 0.0625 0.00062 0.00056 – 0.00003
1 lb Pound 453.592 0.045359 0.00045 16 1 0.03704 0.00893 0.0005 0.00045
1 sh cwt Short hundredweight (US) 45359.2 45.3592 0.04536 1600 100 0.01 0.89286 0.05 0.04464
1 cwt (long) Hundredweight (UK) 50802.2 50.8023 0.05802 1792 112 1.12 1 0.056 0.05
1 sh tn Short ton (US) 907185 907.185 0.90719 3200 2000 20 17.8572 1 0.89285
1 Lg tn (long) Ton (UK) – 1016.05 1.01605 35840 2240 22.4 20 1.12 1

44
Length units
Unit Name of unit mm cm m km in ft yd (UK) mile sm
symbol
1 mm Millimetre 1 0.1 0.001 – 0.03937 0.00328 – – –
1 cm Centimetre 10 1 0.01 – 0.3937 0.03281 – – –
1 m Metre 1000 100 1 0.001 39.37 3.28084 1.09362 – –
1 km Kilometre – 10 000 1000 1 39370 3280.84 1093.62 0.62137 0.53996
1 in Inch 25.4 2.54 0.0254 – 1 0.08333 0.0277778 0.07778 –
1 ft Foot 304.8 30.48 0.3048 – 12 1 0.33333 – –
1 yd (UK) Yard (UK) 914.398 91.4398 0.914398 – 36 3 1 – –
1 mile Statute mile – – 1609.34 1.609 63360 5280 1760 1 0.86898
1 sm Nautical mile – – 18.52 1.852 72913 6076.12 2025.38 1.15078 1

Area units
Unit Name of unit mm2 cm2 m2 a ha km2 in2 ft2 yd2 (UK) sq. mile
symbol
1 mm2 Square millimetre 1 0.01 1 . 10-6 – – – 1.55 . 10-3 1.08 . 10-5 1.2 . 10-6 –
1 cm2 Square centimetre 10 1 0.001 – – – 0.155 0.00108 0.00012 –
1 m2 Square metre 1 . 106 10 000 1 0.01 0.0001 – 1550 10.7639 1.19599 –
1 a Ar – – 100 1 0.01 0.0001 0.001 – 1076.39 119.599
1 ha Hectare – – 10000 100 1 0.01 – 107639 11959.9 0.00386
1 km2 Square kilometre – – – 10 00 100 1 – – – 0.3861
1 in2 Square inch 6.45 . 102 6.4516 – – – – 1 0.00694 0.00077 –
1 ft2 Square foot 9.29 . 104 929.03 0.0929 0.00093 – – 144 1 0.11111 –
1 yd2 (UK) Square yard (UK) 8.36 . 105 8361.24 0.83612 0.00836 0.00008 – 1296 9 1 –
1 sq. mile Square mile – – 25899.9 258.999 2.58999 – – – 1 1

Volume, capacity units

Unit Name of unit cm3 dm3 = 1 l m3 in3 ft3 yd3 (UK) fl. oz. (UK) fl. oz. (US) gal (UK) gal (US
symbol
1 cm3 Cubic centimetre 1 0.001 10-6 0.061102
– – 0.0352 0.03381
0.00022
0.00026
1 dm3 = 1 l Cu. decim. = Litre 1000 1 10-3 61.0237 0.03531 0.00131 35.1952 33.8138 0.21997 0.26417
1 m3 Cubic litre 106 1000 1 61023.7 35.31 1.31 35195.2 33813.8 219.97 264.17
1 in3 Cubic inch 16.3871 0.01639 16.39 . 10-6 1 0.00058 – 0.57675 0.55411 0.0036 0.00433
1 ft3 Cubic foot 28316.8 28.3186 0.02832 17.28 1 0.03704 996.614 957.499 6.22882 7.48047
1 yd3 (UK) Cubic yard (UK) 764551 764.551 0.76455 46655.7 27 1 26908.5 25852.4 168.187 201.972
1 fl. oz. (UK) Fluid ounce (UK) 28.413 0.0284 28.413 . 10-6
1.73388 0.001 0.00004 1 0.96075 0.00625 0.00751
1 fl. oz. (US) Fluid ounce (US) 29.5737 0.0296 29.573 . 10-6
1.8047 0.00104 0.00004 1.04085 1 0.00651 0.00781
1 gal (UK) Gallon (UK) 4546.09 4.54609 4.564 . 10-3 277.42 0.16054 0.00595 160 153.721 1 1.20094
1 gal (US) Gallon (US) 3785.43 3.78543 3.785 . 10-3 231 0.13368 0.00495 133.223 128 0.83268 1

Power
J/s = 1 W kpm/s PS kW kcal/h ft-lb/s HP BTU/s
1 J/s = 1 W 1 0.10197 1.36 . 10-3 0.001 0.860 0.738 0.00134 0.948 . 10-3
1 kpm/s 9.8067 1 . .
0.0133 9.81 10 2.34 10 7.23
-3 -3 0.0131 9.20 . 10-3
1 PS 735.48 75 1 0.735 0.176 542.47 0.986 0.697
1 kW 1000 102 1.359 1 860 737.54 1.34 0.948
1 kcal/h 1.163 0.1186 1.58 . 10-3 1.163 . 10-3 1 0.86 1.56 . 10-3 1.10 . 10-3
1 ft-lb/s 1.36 0.138 1.84 . 10-3 1.36 . 10-3 1.163 1 1.821 . 10-3 1.29 . 10-3
1 HP 746 76.1 1.014 0.746 0.178 550 1 0.707
1 BTU/s 1060 108 1.43 1.06 0.252 779.59 1.42 1

Specific heat
J/kg deg. kcal/kg deg. kWh/kg deg. BTU/lb deg.*
1 J/kg deg. 1 2.38844 . 10-4 2.77778 . 10-7 2.38844 . 10-4
1 kcal/kg deg. 4186.8 1 1.16300 . 10-3 1
1 kWh/kg deg. 3.6 . 106 859.845 1 859.845
1 BTU/lb deg.* 4186.8 1 1.16300 . 10-3 1
* degree = degree Fahrenheit

45
 Work, energy, quantity of heat
Unit Name of unit J = Nm kpm PSh kWs kWh kcal R . deg. lb . ft ft3 . lb/in2 BTU hph
symbol
1 J = Nm Joule = Newton-metre 1 0.10197 3.7768 . 10-7 0.001 2.7778 . 10-7 2.3885 . 10-4 0.12028 0.73765 0.00512 0.00095 3.7251 . 10-7
1 kpm Kilopond-metre 9.80665 1 3.7037 . 10-6 0.00981 2.7241 . 10-6 0.002342 1.17949 7.233 0.05023 0.00929 3.653 . 10-6
1 PSh Horsepower-hour 2 647 790 270 000 1 2647.79 0.735499 632.415 318 464 1 952 907 13561.9 2508.33 0.98632
1 kWs Kilowatt-second 1000 101.972 3.7768 . 10-4 1 2.7778 . 10-4 0.238846 120.276 737.561 5.12196 0.94733 3.7251 . 10-4
1 kWh Kilowatt-hour 3 000 000 367 098 1.359648 3600 1 859.845 432 991 2 655 220 18 439.1 3412.14 1.341021
1 kcalIT Intern. table kilocalorie
4186.8 426.935 0.0011581 4.1868 0.001163 1 503.575 3088 21.4446 3.96381 0.00156
1 R . deg. Gas constant 8.3142 0.84782 3.14 . 10-6 0.00831 2.3095 . 10-4 0.001986 1 6.13223 0.04259 0.00788 3.0971 . 10-6
1 lb . ft Pound-force-foot 1.35582 0.13826 5.1206 . 10-7 0.00136 3.7662 . 10-7 3.2383 . 10-4 0.16307 1 0.00695 0.00128 5.0505 . 10-7
1 ft3 . lb/in2 Cubic foot pound- 195.238 19.9087 7.3736 . 10-5 0.19524 5.4233 . 10-5 0.046632 23.4822 144 1 0.18495 7.2727 . 10-5
force per square inch
1 BTU British Thermal Unit 1055.06 107.585 3.9848 . 10-4
1.05506 0.000293 0.251995 126.963 778.171 5.40398 1 0.000393
1 hph Horsepower-hour 2 684 520 273 745 1.013869 2684.52 0.7457 641.1863 332 881 1 980 000 13 750 2543.12 1

46
Resistance table

Flow medium Formula Housing materials Seal

Aluminium Bronze Stainless Grey Steel Perbunan Fluoroelastomer
steel cast iron NBR Viton
Main constituents with concentration < 100 %-by-volume
Ethane C2H6 1 1 2 2 2 1 1
Butane (i-, n-) C4H10 2 1 2 2 2 2 1
Carbon dioxide CO2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1
Carbon monoxide CO – 1 – – – 1 1
Methane CH4 1 1 2 2 2 1 1
Propane C3H8 1 1 2 2 2 1 1
Propylene, propene C3H6 – 1 2 2 2 4 –
Nitrogen N2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Hydrogen H2 1 2 1 2 2 1 1
Constituents with concentration < 3 %-by-volume
O2 content in landfill gas up to 15 % possible
Benzole C6H6 2 2 2 2 2 4 2
Pentane (i-, n-) C5H12 1 1 1 2 2 1 1
Oxygen O2 4 1 1 2 2 4 4
Minor constituents with concentration < 4 g/m3
Acetaldehyde C6H6 2 2 1 3 3 4 3
Acetone C2H6CO 1 1 1 1 1 4 4
Ethylene, ethene C2H4 – 1 1 2 2 1 1
Ethanethiol C2H5SH – 4 – – – 4 –
Ammonia NH3 2 4 1 2 1 2 4
Argon Ar 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Hydrogen cyanide, hydrocyanic acid
HCN 1 4 1 3 3 2 –
Halogen compounds Mixture – – – – – – –
Heptane (n-) C7H16 1 1 1 2 2 1 1
Hexane C6H14 1 2 2 2 2 1 1
Naphthalene C10H8 2 2 2 2 2 1 1
Nonane C9H20 – – – – – – –
Octane CH8H18 – – – – – – –
Sulphur S 1 4 2 3 3 4 1
Sulphur compounds Mixture – – – – – – –
Hydrogen sulphide H2S 2 4 1 2 3 2 1
Nitrogen monoxide
NO – – – – – – –
1 = suitable
2 = generally suitable
3 = probably unsuitable
4 = not yet determined

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