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    Escrito sobre desarrollo humano

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    8 views7 pages

    Human Development

    Uploaded by

    Edward HS
    Escrito sobre desarrollo humano

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    HUMAN DEVELOPMENT. Copyright © 1995, 1952, 1989, 1986, 1981, 1978 by McGraw oc All rights reserved. Printed i the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no pat of this publication may be reproduced or distibated in any form fr by any means, of stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the pei written permission of the publishes, Permissions Acknowledgments appear un pages 673-676 ana on this pg by reference This book is printed on acid-free pape 234567890 VNH VNH 9098765 ISBN 0.7-048760.x Library of Congress Catloging in Publication Date Papalia, Diane © Human development / Diane E, Papas; Sally Wendhos O's 6th ed Ancludes bibliographical references and indexes ISBN 0-07-08874-% 1. Developmental psychology 2. Developmental psychobiology. Oks Silly Weadkos. ML Tt BITIBPS5 1985 94-7636 135—dc20 | “sto sin Plt by Yok Gap Seis | Theta wor ane ue ames Bebe the desig eleanor, eae earaae The ao eer es ge Ra The pmo ers Detaa Mate ‘on otnone Pies pte and inde Photo of Diane £, Papas, © 1994, Erika Stone Photo of Sally Wendhos Olds, © 1994, Mark Olds CChapter-Opening Photo Credits Chapter 1 Scott Thode/ International Stuck; Chapter 2 ‘Taeke Henstra/Photo Researchers; Chuper 3 Lavra Dwight; Chapter 4 Sally Cassidy /The Pietare Cube { Chapter 5 Jean-Claude Lejeune: Chapter 6 Erika Stone; (Chapter 7 Jetfey W. Myers/The Stock Mathet; Cioyter & Richaed Hutchings/Photo Researchers; Cluptr 9 Mark Bolster International Stock Photo, Cpt 10 Wall ase Deni Melnyee/Photo Ressatchers, Chapter 1 Bob Daemnvich/Stock, Boston Chapter 12 Frank Niemeie/ The Atlanta Constitution; Ciupter 13 Spencer Grant/ ‘Stock, Boston Chap 1d Joneph Netis/ Photo Researchers; Chapter 15 Erika Stove; Caper 16 Dow Plaramer/Photo Researchers: Chapter 17 Junebug Clark/ Proto Researchers; Chapter 18 Dennis Stock/ Magnum 380 PART FOUR # ADOLESCENCE ASK YOURSEL I How do adolescents search for their identity? What sexual practices and attitudes are current among adolescents? I How inevitable is “adolescent rebellion,” and how are adolescents’ attitudes and behavior What are the causes and consequences of teenage pregnancy and juvenile delinquency? What are these years like for most adolescents? influenced by parents and peers? central question’ in the drama of ado- jescence is “Who am I?" The theme of AL these years—and a major theme for years to come—is the search for identity: what ‘makes each person an individual unlike any other who has ever lived or will ever live, The question, “Who am I?” begins to form in infancy, when ba: Dies first discover that they are separate from their mothers. Children begin to find answers as they learn the boundaries of self, shed much of their egocentric thinking, and size up their skills and values in the mirror of the peer group. ‘The question of selfhood crests in adolescence and is related to physical, cognitive, and social and ‘emotional development. At the age of 15, for ex- ample, Meredith has the body of a woman, Now ‘capable of adult sexual behavior and of advanced problem solving, she knows that she will soon be responsible for her own life. How will she choose to live it? What kind of work will she do? What decisions will she make about sexual relationships and other ties? What beliefs and values will she live by? ‘These choives are not easy, and they are often accompanied by emotional turmoil. Underlying, teenagers’ alternating high and low spirits are two major preoccupations—identity and intimacy. These years are nat easy for parents, cither. Acioles irying their wings are often as erratic and unpr dictable as birds taking their first flights from the nest. Chafing at the ties that bind them to an old mneration, they often see mothers and fathers as hibitinyg more than helpful, Yet while teenagers look to their peers as companions in the strugele for independence, they still turn to their parents for important yuicianee and emotional support. In this chapter, we examine some fundamental issues of personality development in adolescence from the perspectives of theory and research, We discuss relationships with peees andl parents and hhow adolescents come to terms with their sextial> nts. ity. Then we turn fo two serious problems, teenage pregnancy and juvenile delinquency. Finally, we look at positive aspects of adolescence—what itis like for most normal young people THE SEARCH FOR IDENTITY ‘The search for identity i a lifelong voyage, launched in childhood and propelled further in adolescence, As Enk Erikson (1950) emphasizes, this effort to make sense of the self and the world is not “a kind of maturational malaise.” Its, i stead, a healthy, vital process that contributes to the ego strength of the adult. We have already Tookett at some ofthe issues that contribute to an adolescent's sense of self, like moral reasoning, achievement in and out of schoo), and thinking bout Future careers, Now we explore some of the other conflicts in this struggle which spur personal growth and development IDENTITY VERSUS IDENTITY CONFUSION The chief task of this stage of life, says Erikson (1968), is to resolve the conflict of identity versus identity confusion—to become a unique adult with an important role in life. To form an identity, the ego organizes a person's abilities, nevds, and desires and heips to adapt them to the demands of society Based om his own tife (see Chapter 1) and on his research with adolescents in various societies, Erikson concluded that a crucial aspect in the search for identity is deciding on a cares. In the previous stage, that of industry versus iyferority, 2 child acquires the skills needed for success in the cultuce. Now, adolescents nevd to find ways to use these skills. Ropul pliysical growth and new gene CHAPTER 11 # PERSONALITY AND SOK ital maturity alert young people to their impend. ing adulthood, and they begin to wonder about their roles in adult society. Erikson sees the prime danger of this stage as identity (or role) confusion, which can express it- selFin a young person's taking an excessively long. time to reach adulthood (after age 30). (He himself did_not resolve his own identity crisis until his mid-twenties.) A certain amount of identity con fusion is normal. It accounts for both the chaotic nature of much adolescent behavior and teenagers’ Painful self-consciousness about their looks. Cliguishness and intolerance of differences— both hallmarks of adolescence—are defenses against identity confusion, says Erikson. Adoles- ‘cents may also show confusion by regressing, into childishness to avoid resolving conflicts or by committing themselves impulsively to poorly thought-out courses of action. During the psycho- social moratoriun—the "time out” period that ado- lescence and youth provide—many people search for commitments to which they can be faithful. Naomi commits herself to working for racial har~ ‘mony in her community, Raul becomes a vegetar jan, Michelle diligently studies the violin. Very often these youthful commitments, which are both ideological and personal, will shape a person's life formany years to come. The extent to which young people can be true to them determines their abil- ity to resolve this crisis, The fundamental “virtue” that arises from this identity crisis is the virtue of fidelity ~sustained loy- alty, faith, or a sense of belonging to a loved one or to friends and companions. Fidelity also in- volves identifying with a set of values, an ideol- ‘ogy, a religion, a political movement, a creative pursuit, or an ethnic group. Self-identification emerges when young people choose values and people to be loyal to, rather than having accepted them whole-cloth from parents. Fidelity represents an extensively developed sense of trust. In infancy, it was important to trust in others, especially parents; now it is important to be trustworthy oneself. In addition, adolescents now transfer their trust ftom their parents to other people, like mentors or loved ones, who can help, guide them through life, Love is part of the avenue toward identity, says Erikson. By becoming inti- mate with another person and sharing thoughts and feelings, the adolescent offers up his or her own tentative identity, ses it reflected in the loved one, and is better able to clarify the sel. Adolescent intimacies differ from mature inti= macy, which will involve commitment, sacrifice, DEVELOWENT IN ADOLESCENCE 387 “who am PIs the major question of adolescence, as young people search for identity and ponder ther ite choies (Dori Pecla/nterational Stack Photo) and compromise. Mature intimacy cannot take place until after @ person has achieved a stable ‘identity, says Erikson. But this sequence describes, males’ development. Erikson’s theory considers women’s development as a deviation from a male norm. He said that women achieve identity and. intimacy at the same time: an adolescent girl puts her identity aside as she prepares to define herself through the man she will marry. This male orien- tation has brought important criticisms of Erik- son's theory. We will now look at one line of research that has explored differences between ‘males’ and fernales’ identity development. RESEARCH ON IDENTITY Kate, Mark, Nick, and Andrea are all about to graduate from high school. Kate has weighed her interests and talents and has settled on a career in music therapy. After carefully researching colleges, she has applied to three that offer good programs. Mark also knows exactly what he is going to do: his parents have always assumed that he will go into the family business, and he has never given 382. PART FOUR # ADOLESCENCE | TABLE 11-1 Criteria for Identity Statuses Position on Occupation and Ideology Crisis ‘Commitment (Period of (Adherence Considering toa Path Identity Status Alternatives) of Action) Idenuity Present Present ‘achievement Foreclosure Absent Present Identity difusion Present or Absent. absent Moratorium In crisis, Present but vague Ssausct: Adapted from Marcia, 1980 ‘much thought to doing anything else. Nick has no idea of what he wants to do, but he is not worried. He figures that he will go to college, have a good time, and see what happens. Andrea has not yet made a decision about her life goals and is ago- nizing over them. She thinks that she may be interested in something having to do with science, but she is torn between a premedical program and engineering, school. All four of these high school seniors are wrestling with issues of identity formation. What accounts for the differences in the way they are go- ing about it—and in the eventual results? Identity Statuses: Crisis and Commitment ‘The psychologist James E. Marcia has expanded and clarified Erikson’s theory by identifying, sev- eral identity statuses and correlating these statuses with other aspects of personality. Marcia defines identity as “an intemal, self-constructed, dynamic organization of drives, abilities, beliefs, and indi vidual history” (1980, p. 159), He identified four different statuses according to the presence ot ab- sence of crisis and commitment, the two elements, that Erikson maintained were crucial to forming identity (see Table 11-1). He then related these identity statuses to various personality character- istics, including anxiety, self-esteem, moral. rea- soning, and patterns of behavior. The categories are not permanent; they change as people continue to develop (Marcia, 1979). Marcia defines crisis as a period of conscious decision making, and commitment as a personal investment in an occupation or a system of beliefs (ideology). To evaluate identity status, Marcia (1966) developed a 30-minute semistructured in- terview (see Table 11-2), i TABLE 11-2 dentity-Status Interview eee eC SSeS TE ‘Sample Questions ‘Typical Answers for the Four Statuses oe ‘About occupational “How willing do you think you'd be to give up going into if that.” ‘identity achievement, “Weil, I might, but | doubt it. | can't see what ‘something commitment better’ would be for me.” Foreclosure. *Not very willing. I's what I've always wanted to do. The folks are happy with it and so am I." Identity difusion. “Oh sure. f something better came along, I'd change just like something better ‘Moratorium. "I guess that if | knew for sure, | could answer that better. It would ‘came along?” have to be something in the general area—something related...” ‘About ideological Identity achievement. "Yes, | even started wondering whether there is a god. Ive ‘commitment: pretty much resolved that now, though, The way it seems to me is.” “Have you ever foreclosure. *No, not really; our family is pretty much in agreement on these hhad any doubts things.” ‘about your Identity difusion, “Oh, | don’t know. | guess so. Everyone goes through some sort religious beliefs?" of stage like that. But it really doesn’t bother me much. I figure that one rel gion is about as good as another!” ‘Moratorium. “Yes, I guess 'm going through that now. | just don’t see how there ‘can be 3 god and stil so much evil in the world or," ounce: Adapted from Marca, 1956, (CHAPTER 11 # PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL, DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE 383 (On the basis of their answers, peopie are classi fied into one of the following four categori 1 Identity achievement (crisis lending to commit- ‘mend: Kate is in this category. She has devoted much thought to important issues in her life (the crisis period), she has made choices, and she now expresses strong, commitment to those choices. 2. Foreclosure (commitntent with no crisish: Marks in foreclosure, He has mace commitments, but instead of questioning them and exploring other possible choices (going through the crisis period), he has accepted other people's plans for his life. 3° Identity diffusion (no conmitment, crisis uncer- tin): In a carefree way, Nick has considered various options but so far has actively avoided ‘commitment. 4 Moratorium (crisis, no commitment): Andrea, still in crisis, is struggling with a decision, seems to be heading for a commitment, and will probably achieve identity. Gender Differences in Identity Formation Sigmund Freud’s infamous statement “Biology is destiny” implies that the different patterns of de- velopment seen in males and females in almost all cultures are an inevitable result oftheir anatomical differences. Today, however, psychologists are more likely to believe that “socialization is des- tiny.” The prevailing modem belief is that most differences between males and females arise from societal attitudes and practices, although some research suggests differing rates of maturation between the sexes (see Box 11-1). Whatever the reasons, the sexes differ in the struggle to define identity. Only in recent years have researchers ex- plored the female quest for identity. Research on Female Identity Formation Carol Gilligan (1982, 1987;L. M. Brown & Gilligan, 1990) has studied girls and women in several con- texts. She has concluded that the female definition of self is less concerned with achioving a separate identity than with relationships with other people. Girls and women judge themselves on their re Popular wisdom holds that boys and girls develop differently, that gis mature earlier and are more empathic, and that boys are more aggressive. But in 80 years of re- search about development, this belief has rarely been investigated scientifically. A statistical analysis of 65 studies of personality growth, involving about 9000 subjects, hos found gender differences (Cohn, 1991), Adolescent girls apparently | do mature earlier in some ways. worried about This difference is small in general, most notable in junior high and high school; it dectines markedly ‘among college-age adults and dis- ‘appears entirely among older men and women. This lessening of gen- der differences may be the result ‘of maturation, The analysis used research con-

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